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Volume 9, Issue 1, January 2019
Journal of Applied Environmental
and Biological Sciences (JAEBS)
An International Peer-reviewed journal
Number of issues per year: 12
ISSN (Print): 2090-4274
ISSN (Online): 2090-4215
Copyright © 2019, TEXTROAD Publishing Corporation
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., Vol.9 No. 1: pp. 1-13, Year 2019
Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences (JAEBS)
Monthly Publication
Scope
Number of issues per year: 12 ISSN: 2090-4274 (Print) ISSN: 2090-4215 (Online)
Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences (JAEBS) is a peer
reviewed, open access international scientific journal dedicated for rapid publication of high quality original research articles as well as review articles in the all areas of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences. Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences (JAEBS) is devoted
to the monthly publication of research papers of outstanding significance in the all fields of environmental sciences, environmental engineering, environmental Pollution, green chemistry, environmentally friendly synthetic pathways, alternatively fuels, environmental analytical chemistry, biomolecular tools and tracers, water and soil, environmental [management, economics, humanities], Mathematics, multidisciplinary aspects such as Business Management, Organizational Behavior, all areas of biological sciences, including cell biology, developmental biology, structural biology, microbiology, molecular biology & genetics, biochemistry, biotechnology, biodiversity, ecology, marine biology, plant biology, bioinformatics, toxicology, developmental biology, structural biology, microbiology, molecular biology & genetics, biotechnology, biodiversity and related fields. The journal presents the latest developments in the fields of environmental social marketing, environmental journalism, environmental education, sustainability education, environmental interpretation, and environmental health communication.
Editorial Board
Editor -in–Chief William Ebomoyi Ph.D., Professor, Department of Health Studies, College of Health Sciences, Chicago State University, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Associate Editors
Prof. Dr. Sanaa T. El-Sayed Ex Head of Biochemistry Department, Professor of Biochemistry, Genetic Engineering &Biotechnology Division, National Research
Centre, Egypt
Saeid Chekani Azar PhD of Veterinary Physiology; Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Physiology, Ataturk University, Erzurum 25010, Turkey.
Prof. Dr. Sarwoko Mangkoedihardjo Professor, Professional Engineer of Indonesian Society of Sanitary and Environmental Engineers, Indonesia
Prof. Dr. Ashraf Latif Tadross
Head of Astronomy Department, Professor of Star Clusters and Galactic Structure, National Research Institute of Astronomy & Geophysics (NRIAG), 11421 Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.
Dr. Chandrasekar Raman Research Associate, Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biophysics, Biotechnology Core Facility, 238, Burt Hall, Kansas State
University, Manhattan 66506, KS, USA.
Dr. YUBAO CUI Associate Professor, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yancheng Health Vocational & Technical College, Jiangsu Province,
P. R. China
Dr. Muhammad Altaf Khan Department of Mathematics, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan Pakistan
Dr. Fahrettin Tilki Assoc. Professor, Artvin Coruh University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Science, Artvin, TURKEY.
Dr. Ibtisam abd el ghany hammad Associate Professor of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Helwan University. Egypt.
Dr. Charalambos Tsekeris Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Athens, Greece.
Dr. Elsayed E. Hafez Associate Professor, Molecular Biology, Plant Molecular Pathology & Arid Lands Institute, Egypt.
Dr. Naushad Mamode Khan University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius.
Mirza Hasanuzzaman Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh.
Dr. Hala Ahmed Hafez Kandil Professor Researcher, National Research Centre, Plant Nutrition Dept. El-Bhouth St. Dokki, Giza, Egypt.
Dr. Yule Yue Wang Biotechnology and Medicinal Biochemistry, Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, China
Dr. Aziza Sharaby Professor of Entomology. Plant Protection Department, National Research Center. Cairo, Egypt.
Dr. Sulaiman Assistant Professor, Department of Biochemistry, Abdul wali Khan University Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Editors
Maulin P Shah PhD-Microbiology, Chief Scientist & Head Industrial Waste Water Research Laboratory, Division of Applied &
Environmental Microbiology, Enviro Technology Limited, Ankleshwar-393002, Gujarat, India
Dr. Josphert N. Kimatu Department of Biological Sciences. South Eastern University College, Kenya.
Dr. Mukesh Kumar Meena
Assistant Professor (Crop Physiology), Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur-584104, Karnataka , India
Jehngir Khan Lecturer in Zoology Department, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan (AWKUM), Buner Campus, Buner, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Syed Muhammad Nurulain Medical Research Specialist, FMHS, UAE University, Emirates
Dr. Ayman Batisha Environment and Climate Research Institute, National Water Research Center, Cairo, Egypt.
Dr. Hakeem Ullah Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan Pakistan.
DR. DATTA ASARAM DHALE Assistant Professor, Post Graduate Department of Botany, Ghogrey Science College, Dhule, Maharashtra State, India.
Dr. Muhammad Ismail Mohmand Tutor/Administrator in the Excellence Training Den College in Newcastle, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Valdenir José Belinelo Department of Health Sciences and Postgraduate Program in Tropical Agriculture, Federal University of Espirito Santo (UFES),
São Mateus, ES, Brazil.
Siva Sankar. R Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, India.
Table of Contents, January 2019 Abdul Mageed Omer Adam Hamid, Dr. Mohammed Bedawi Husein, Dr. Shadia Al Amien Abbas, Dr. Omeima Bashir Khalid Elbashir
The Role of Extension in Increasing Production and Productivity of Millet Crop in El Geneina Locality
West Darfur State Sudan
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2019 9(1): 1-6. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML]
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Hidayatul Mustafidah, Nieke Karnaningroem
Study of Identification Water Losses in Water Supply Company of Mojokerto City
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2019 9(1): 7-9. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML]
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Andreas Berny Yulianto, Dian Ayu Kartika Sari, Widya Paramita Lokapirnasari, Era Hari Mudji
Determination of Persian Cats Health Status (Felis Silvestris) of Eritrocytes, Hemoglobin and
Leucocytes after Domestic Cat Blood Transfusion (Felis Domestica)
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2019 9(1): 10-13. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML]
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J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 9(1)1-6, 2019
© 2019, TextRoad Publication
ISSN: 2090-4274
Journal of Applied Environmental
and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
*Corresponding Author: Abdul Mageed Omer Adam Hamid, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture studies, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development
The Role of Extension in Increasing Production and Productivity of Millet
Crop in El Geneina Locality West Darfur State Sudan
*Abdul Mageed Omer Adam Hamid1, Dr. Mohammed Bedawi Husein2,
Dr. Shadia Al Amien Abbas3, Dr. Omeima Bashir Khalid Elbashir 3
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Studies, Department of Agricultural Extension
and Rural Development, Shambat, Khartoum North, Sudan Received: August 10, 2018
Accepted: October 25, 2018
ABSTRACT
This Study was conducted in the area of El Geneina, west Darfur State, in 2017 with the aim of identifying the role
of extension in increasing production and productivity of millet crop in El Geneina Locality West Darfur State. In
this study, the researcher used the case study method and the stratified random sample was selected of (201) farmers, the questionnaire, interviews and direct observation were also used as tools for gathering descriptive data
related to the subject, The researcher used percentage and frequency tables to analyze and interpret date .
The study found that the extension role in increasing production and productivity of millet crop in the region as an
increase in production compared to previous years and attributed to several reasons:
- Stability of society in the region
- Expansion of agricultural land
- Provide improved seed
- Application agricultural technologies
- Continuous agricultural extension from the competent authorities
- Farmers follow modern agricultural methods in their agriculture
This indicates the adoption of modern agricultural technologies by frames, which was reflected in the increase
productivity in the unit area with the increase in production in general, this is due to the complementary role of the
organizations working in the field of agriculture, represented by FAO and the ministry of agricultural represented by the department of agricultural extension and the Geneina agricultural research station for their active role in
developing and rehabilitating the capacities of producers in the agricultural sector.
KEY WORDS: West Darfur, increasing production, millet, sextension, El Geneina.
INTRODUCTION
Millet (bulrush millet pear millet)
Lateen Name: penniset typhoid's (burm.f.) stapf.f.ex Hubbard
Millet is one of the main grain crops in Sudan, India and some African countries, it is also important in the
agricultural cycle and cropping system, it is one of the summer feed crops due to its rapid growth, drought resistance
and rapid maturity . Therefore, it is sometimes grown as an emergency crop for some previous crop failures; millet
is considered one of the most important crops in western Sudan because it is the only good yield crop for sandy land.
The western states produce 95% of their total production in Sudan, millet is fed on millet grains and is a staple food in India and Africa where grains are cooked as rice or grinded like wheat, poultry and animals feed on cereals and
vegetative plants are used as animal feed (Al-khader, 2008)
Millet is a food crop because it contains starch, protein, vitamins fatty acids, fatty acids, essential and non-essential
amino acids, it also contains protein in high amounts and fiber. Millet also contains vitamins such as vitamin (B)
niacet, riboflavin and thiamine, as well as carbohydrates and a number of minerals such as calcium, potassium,
sodium, zinc, copper, phosphorus, boron, iron and magnesium.( Aldabi, 2008)
Study area :
Geneina is located in west Darfur state between the latitudes in 45 – 13 north and longitudes 43-22 east and has an
area of about 3,000 square kilometers and has a population of about 530864 people, it is bordered to the north-east
krink locality, from the north sirba locality, south-west beida locality, south habila locality, west by the state of Chad
.it is the capital of west Darfur state, the capital Khartoum is (1200) kilometers away and (27) ) kilometers from the
borders of Chad. The municipality has five administrative units: El Geneina, ardamata, tandalty, aish burra, most of
the local population practices 79% trades of agriculture and grazing. 21% they practice trade, free employment and
the employment sector.
The most important crops produced in the state are millet, which is the main food in addition to corn, peanuts, sesame and vegetables such as okra, watermelon and horticultural crops produced by the gardener sector of mango,
orange, guava and banana. The kaja valley and rata valley pass from the south, and the western asanga valley,
1
Citation: Abdul Mageed Omer Adam Hamid, Dr. Mohammed Bedawi Husein, Dr. Shadia Al Amien Abbas, Dr. Omima Basher Khalid; 2019, The
Role of Extension in Increasing Production and Productivity of Millet Crop in El Geneina Locality West Darfur State Sudan; Journal of
Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 9(1)1-6, 2019.
average local rainfall is between (180-800) mm, the region is characterized by the poor savanna climate in the north
of the rich savannah region in the south. The local area is also characterized by a livestock wealth of (1.745.066) heads; the region is famous for handicrafts such as the shoe Industry( ministry of agriculture, 2017).
Research community:
Local farmers who were trained and qualified to increase the production and productivity of the millet, which was
selected sample of the extent of the agricultural land of (950) farmers.
The study sample:
The random sample was selected to collect the data of (201) respondents from among the respondents who were
trained to increase the production and productivity of millet.
Research methodology:
The researcher tackled the descriptive approach and the methodology of social survey where the current situation
of the methods used to increase the production and productivity of the millet in the region and then studied in an
analytical study.
Methods of data collection :The researcher relied on two sources:
1. Primary sources the following tools have used
Questionnaire
Interviews
Note as tools for quantitative data collection
2. Secondary sources are the following :
Books and reports
Data analysis:
The data was analyzed by computer used program the statistical analysis program for social sciences (SPSS)
The table shows the socio-economic characteristic of the respondents in the study area: Observed N Expected N Repetition Category
Gender
-3.5- 100.5 97 Men
3.5 100.5 104 Female
age
-23.2- 50.2 27 15-25
18.8 50.2 69 26-35
22.8 50.2 73 36-45
-18.2- 50.2 32 More than 45
education level
11.5 33.5 45 Uneducated
13.5 33.5 47 Religious education
-14.5- 33.5 19 Primary
-.5- 33.5 33 Secondary
6.5 33.5 40 Graduate
-16.5- 33.5 17 Postgraduate
Social status
92.8 40.2 133 Married
-8.2- 40.2 32 Single
-29.2- 40.2 11 Absolute
-20.2- 40.2 20 Window
-35.2- 40.2 5 Case of abandonment
The basic profession of the head of the family
105.8 40.2 146 Farmer
-24.2- 40.2 16 Dealer
-13.2- 40.2 27 Employee
-32.2- 40.2 8 Worker
-36.2- 40.2 4 Other
Agricultural methods used
36.5 100.5 137 Modern methods
-36.5- 100.5 64 Traditional methods
Provide sufficient quantities of improved millet seed locally
16.0 67.0 83 Available in sufficient quantities
44.0 67.0 111 Not available in sufficient quantities
-60.0- 67.0 7 Sometimes sufficient quantities are available
Local agricultural extension services are available
52.5 100.5 153 There are local extension services
-52.5- 100.5 48 There are not local extension services
Technical packages for millet
46.5 100.5 147 Technical packages were introduced
-46.5- 100.5 54 Technical packages are not provided
The role of agricultural extension in the production and productivity of millet
85.0 67.0 152 Extension has a role in increasing production and productivity
-42.0- 67.0 25 Extension has not role in increasing production and productivity
-43.0- 67.0 24 Extension has a role in increasing production and productivity sometimes
Field study (2017
2
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 9(1)1-6, 2019
LITERATURE REVIEW
Millet crop in the world:
Millet is a staple food in some areas of Africa and Asia. It is highly nutritious, millet is found in Sudan and Ethiopia.
In India millet occupies about 22 million hectares and in Egypt there is very little.
Millet crop in the Sudan:
Millet is the preferred food for most of the population of western Sudan, where its cultivation extends mainly in the sandy lands that occupy the northern parts of these states. Rain rates are mostly less than 400 mm in the world ,
making millet the main crop that cannot compete with other grain crops such as sorghum in dry environments ,
millet comes after sorghum directly in terms of area and production. The area cultivated annually is about 5 million
feddans.95% of this area is cultivated in the western states of Sudan, while the rest of the regions include Damazin,
Qudarif, Sinar, White Nile and Toker.97% of the area is cultivated in the traditional rain sector. In recent years,
millet cultivated areas have increased in some seasons to more than 7 million feddans, but the productivity has
remained at an average of more than 100 kg per feddan.
Millet crop in west Darfur state:
Millet is one of the most important food security crops in the state of west Darfur, where more than 75% of the
state's population depend on them for their staple food and sorghums. It is cultivated in sandy lands that occupy large parts of the state, with precipitation rates of less than 400 mm per year, making this land marginal, unsuitable
for the production of other cereal crops other than millet. The research program of the agricultural research authority
aims to raise the productivity of the millet crop and improved its quality by raising improved varieties, which are
characterized by rapid ripening and carrying drought with high productivity and resistance to the diseases and
diseases prevalent in the production areas and better ways to combat it. In addition to the availability of quality
characteristics required and the development of improved agricultural methods of production to reduce its cost (Al-
khader, 2009).
Recommended Items:
Ashana and Ugandan variety of northern state environments because of the low rainfall rates and these varieties
characterized by early maturity and high productivity , the variety was resistant to white fluffy disease, Dembi, Kano
and May are planted in the south of the state where rainfall is high , the varieties are highly productive but mature. Preparation of the land:
The most important land for the production of millet is the sand dunes. In order to preserve this land from erosion
and deterioration, the following must be observed:-
Avoid vegetation removal ( trees)
Keep large trees on the farm as windbreaks
Do not use heavy plows and light plows can use by the animal
Dates of growing:
The optimal date for growing millet is when the rainfall is sufficient and the presence of moisture allows the bulbs to
precipitate more than 100 mm.
Also , millet is grown by remeel and is intended to grow the crop before precipitation ( dry agriculture) and the probability of success of this method is about 67% and more likely to succeed if it is done in the last two weeks of
June and the first week of July .
Farming method:
Agriculture is preferred to drill after plowing the soil with distance of 75 cm between the rows and 50cm between
the plants on the row.
Treatment and seed rate:-
Seeds are treated with seed probes such as Thiram, Raxil and Alqawsho at arte of 3 grams per kilogram seed and
consider mixing well.
Seed rate: 3-4 kilo per feddan and the appropriate number of grains 7-8 tablets per hole and cut seedlings in to three in one hole
after 2-3 weeks of planting.
Weed Control:
Use of herbicides such as 2,4D at a rate of 0.32 liters per feddan after 3-4 weeks of germination , or syrup peroxide
with a rate of 1.2 liters per feddan before germination or other recommended pesticides and preferably manual
hygiene when required.
3
Citation: Abdul Mageed Omer Adam Hamid, Dr. Mohammed Bedawi Husein, Dr. Shadia Al Amien Abbas, Dr. Omima Basher Khalid; 2019, The
Role of Extension in Increasing Production and Productivity of Millet Crop in El Geneina Locality West Darfur State Sudan; Journal of
Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 9(1)1-6, 2019.
Some pests have control:
1. Fluffy whiteness: In case of this disease the spike becomes completely or partially black.
Control:
- Destruction of crop residues
- The dimensions of the pathogenesis and its delivery as soon as they appear.
-follow the agricultural cycle contains a crop immune to the disease.
-use millet sample to be resistant
- use seed sterilizers
2. Boda:
The Boda parasite is one of the greatest threats to millet yield and the incidence of landfall is very high in the state
due to the lack of use of agricultural cycle. The danger of boda lies in its complete intrusion into the plant in its diet and when the infection occurs, the entire
crop is destroyed.
Control:
Boda fights in the following ways:
- Cleaning the field of boda plant before the formation of flowers and seeds of boda plant
- Follow the appropriate agricultural cycle in which non-boda crops are grown , such as legumes .
- Use herbicides such as azazine and propazine.
- Use of municipal or industrial fertilizers.
Harvest:
Harvesting is less expensive than manual harvesting because it takes less time and thus reduces the loss of yield.
Harvesting occurs when the crop reaches the physiological maturation stage, this stage can defined as follows:
- The presence of a black dot on the side of the seed attached to the gall bladder (glumes).
After harvesting the crop must be left in the ground long enough to ensure dry until 10% temperature and then pool
in one place to be taught automatically or manually
Take into account the absence of the crop before drying to avoid the incidence of fungal diseases such as wool, mold
and spiders.
Table (1) shows the frequency and percentage of sample member by availability of local extension services Observed N Expected N Percentage
%
Residual Category
52.5 100.5 76.1 153 Yes
-52.5- 100.5 23.9 48 No
0.0 100% 201 Total
A field study 2017
Table (1) shows that 76.1% of the respondents confirmed the existence of the extension services in the local area,
while 23.9% of the respondents did not have the extension services. The researcher believes that the availability of
agricultural extension services in the municipality is attributed to the complementary role between the organizations
working in the field of agriculture and the ministry of agriculture represented in the transfer of technology and
extension and the research station Geneina agricultural for their effective role in providing extension services and rehabilitation of the capacity of producers in the state to increase production and productivity.
Table (2) shows the frequency and percentage of sample member by according to
the technical packages of the millet crop Residual Expected N Percentage % Observed N Category
46.5 100.5 73.1 147 Technical packages were introduced
-46.5- 100.5 26.9 54 Technical packages are not provided
0.0 100% 201 Total
A field study 2017
It is noted from table (2) that 73.1 % of the respondents were provided with technical packages for the millet crop in
the local through the extension department and the state agricultural researcher station. While 26.9% of the
respondents did not provide technical packages for millet, which requires the extension department to provide more
services.
4
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 9(1)1-6, 2019
Table (3) shows the frequency and percentage of sample member by the role of agricultural extension in
increasing production and productivity of millet Residual Expected N Percentage % Observed N Category
85.0 67.0 75.6 152 Extension has a role in increasing production and productivity
-42.0- 67.0 12.4 25 Extension is not a role in increasing production and productivity
-43.0- 67.0 11.9 24 Extension sometimes has a role in increasing production and
productivity
0.0 100% 201 Total
A field study 2017
From table (3) it is clear that 75.6 % of the respondents confirmed that extension has a significant role in increasing
the production and productivity of millet, while 12.4% of respondents said that extension dose not play a role in
increasing production and productivity. The researcher believes that extension has a role in increasing the production and productivity of millet in the local area relative to the volume of production during the last years
compared to production in previous years. This is attributed to the stability of communities and the expansion of the
agricultural area with the availability of improved seeds and the application of modern technologies extension from
the competent authorities, according to reports of the Ministry of Agriculture West Darfur 2017
Results:-
The results of the study showed the following:
1. 51.7 % of the respondents are women, indicating that women play an important role in agricultural work in
Darfur
2. 70.6% of respondents are between the ages (26 -45) years.
3. 66.2% of respondents are married and this indicates family and social stability. 4. 72.6% of respondents consider agriculture the basic profession.
5. 68.2% of respondents follow the modern agricultural methods and this indicates the adoption of modern
agricultural technologies by farmers.
6. 55.2% of the respondents did not have sufficient quantities of improved seeds in the local area.
7. 76.1 of respondents confirmed the existence of agricultural extension services in the local.
8. 73.1 of the respondents provided them with technical packages for millet in the local area.
9. 75.6 of the respondents confirmed that the guidance plays a role in increasing the production and productivity
of millet in the local area.
10. 51.7% of the respondents indicated that there was a significant increase in the volume of millet production
compared to previous years; this is attributed to the respondent's assessment of the stability of the communities
and the expansion of the agricultural area with the use of improved seeds and the application of modern
technologies.
Recommendations:
Through the results, the study reached several recommendations, the most important:
1. Produce and distribute sufficient quantities of improved millet seeds of good quality from high – yielding and
resistant varieties that adopt to the state climate,
2. Provide extension services to all farmers from training and rehabilitation on the use of modern agricultural
techniques and convince them to use municipal fertilizers to reduce the cost of production.
3. Transfer of problems faced by farmers to the competent authorities
4. Raising awareness for farmers on how to deal with and benefit from existing local banking institution to
provide financing with the facilitation of procedures and guarantees required in proportion to their abilities and
their cognitive and physical capacities. 5. Fogging the seeds before carrying out multiplication in order to avoid the infection of pests and diseases that
affect the seed before germination.
6. The need for coordination between the extension system and agricultural extension agents to increase
production and productivity of millet because it represents a major crop in the region.
REFERENCES
1. Cereal crops and legume (Dr. Mahzar Mohamed Ghazi / Dr. Mohamed Sabry Abdel Raouf) professor of
crops , Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University , First edition 1993 . Egypt
2. Al-khader. Ali Osman (2008) Production of cereal crops in Sudan. Khartoum .Sudan
3. Al-khader. Ali Osman (2009), seeds and seed technology with the regulation accompanying the seed law in
Sudan. Khartoum. Sudan 4. Field crops production (prof. Salah al-Din Abdel –Razzaq Chagash / Prof. Abdul Hamid Al Sayed Aldabi.
Faculty of Agriculture. Bimoushtahar. Banana, First edition 2008, Arab though House, Cairo, Egypt.
5. Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (2007), A study on the coordination of seed and seed
trade for major food crops in Arab countries. Khartoum .Sudan.
5
Citation: Abdul Mageed Omer Adam Hamid, Dr. Mohammed Bedawi Husein, Dr. Shadia Al Amien Abbas, Dr. Omima Basher Khalid; 2019, The
Role of Extension in Increasing Production and Productivity of Millet Crop in El Geneina Locality West Darfur State Sudan; Journal of
Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 9(1)1-6, 2019.
6. Arab Organization for Agricultural Development January (1993), preliminary study of the possibility of
improved production of grain crops in the Arab countries. Khartoum .Sudan.
Reports:
1. Reports of the ministry of agriculture and natural resources, west Darfur 2017. Sudan.
2. Reports of the Central statistical organization of west Darfur state 2017. Sudan
3. Reports of the ministry of animal resources and fisheries, west Darfur state 2017, Sudan.
Releases:
1. Ministry of agriculture and natural resources, department of technology transfer and extension, guideline
for millet yield west Darfur 2017. Sudan
2. Agricultural research authority in collaboration with the association of agricultural research technology in
East and Central Africa. guide No(1) farmer guide for millet production
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J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 9(1)7-9, 2019
© 2019, TextRoad Publication
ISSN: 2090-4274
Journal of Applied Environmental
and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
*Corresponding Author: Hidayatul Mustafidah, Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil, Environmental, and Geo Engineering Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia.
E-mail: [email protected]
Study of Identification Water Losses in Water Supply Company of
Mojokerto City
Hidayatul Mustafidah*, Nieke Karnaningroem
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil, Environmental, and Geo Engineering
Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia
Received: September 6, 2018
Accepted: November 30, 2018
ABSTRACT
Water supply system becomes particular concern to every urban area in Indonesia including Mojokerto City. In
water distribution system, water losses is one of serious problem to be overcome. The first step in reducing water
losses is by developing an understanding of the big concept about water system including the preparation of a
water balance. This process helps to understand the quantity, source and charge of water losses. The water balance
calculation in this study uses the WB-EasyCalc program version 4.05. Based on the analysis, the percentage of
water losses is 47 % with the composition of real losses 44,6 % and apparent losses of 2,4 %. Distribution data
components of water losses used in determining the disadvantages in water supply company of Mojokerto City.
The results of this water balance analysis are used to analyze disadvantages of water losses.
KEYWORDS: Water Losses, WB-EasyCalc version 4.05, Water Supply Company
1. INTRODUCTION
Drinking water is a basic need that can’t be separated from human life. Drinking water services are a
very important component of public services. The provision of drinking water is of particular concern to every
urban area in Indonesia is no exception in Mojokerto City. The population of Mojokerto is 112.547 people with
an area of 1.646,5 hectares. The need for the clear water is an important effort for the development of the city, so
that the readiness of the clear water facilities is very supportive for business development in the center of the
city[1]. The service of Mojokerto Drinking Water Regional Companies (PDAM) have not met the needs of clear
water throughout Mojokerto so that some people use well bore water (Underground Water). The water loss rate
of PDAM Mojokerto up to September 2017 amounted to 53.73% with the price of the water is Rp 3,168.20, that
caused the PDAM Mojokerto to suffer a lot of losses. In water distribution system, water losses is one of serious
problem to be overcome. This results is significant losses for company income [2]. Non revenue water is the difference between the amount of water supplied with the water consumed [3]. In fact, the water losses in a
drinking water distribution system will always be present. This water loss can be technical, such as water losses
on the pipe itself, while non-technical for example illegal consumer [4]. The results obtained from the water
balance in this study were 47% water loss. The percentage of water loss volume is dominated by 44.6% of physical
water loss of 68756 m3, and 2.4% of non-physical water loss of 3723 m3 [5]. Ministry of public work has set
maximum limits of water losses as 20%, water supply company of Mojokerto City not meet the standards [6]. To
reduce water losses in distribution system is must be aware the cause of the water losses, one of them by using
the water balance. International Water Association (IWA) has developed a structure and standard terminology for
international water balance which has been adopted by national associations in many countries [7]. Water balance
calculation in this study using the program WB-EasyCalc version 4.05. This software is very helpful in preparing
the water balance and can show the level of accuracy of non revenue water calculation. Water balance is very
important to know components of water losses in order to analyze disadvantages in water supply company of Mojokerto City.
2. METHODS
The location of this research is urban water distribution network in water supply company of Mojokerto
City. In this research, research methods will be done by quantitative research method through survey and
interview. Technical analysis in this study using descriptive analysis techniques to identify the distribution of the
causes of water losses in water supply company of Mojokerto City. Required data to identify the components of
the cause of water losses is annual system input volume, billed meteres consumption, billed unmetered
consumption, unbilled metered consumption, unbilled unmetered consumption, unauthorised consumption,
costumer meter inaccuracies and data handling errors, length of distribution and transmission pipe, service pipe,
7
Citation: Hidayatul Mustafidah, Nieke Karnaningroem; 2019, Study of Identification Water Losses in Water Supply Company of Mojokerto
City; Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 9(1)7-9, 2019.
average pressure, intermittent supply data and financial data. The data is inputted to the WB-EasyCalc version
4.05 program and analyzed the component of the cause of water losses in the water distribution system of water
supply company of Mojokerto City [7]. After that determined to analyze disadvantages water losses based on the
water balance.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
On January until June 2018 water supply company of Mojokerto City has distributed water as 153,980
m3/month, with water losses in distribution system as 72,479 m3 or 47 %. With the composition of real losses
68,756 m3 and apparent losses of 3,723 m3. Water balance calculation results in urban areas water supply company
of Mojokerto City are shown in figure 1.
Water balance in water supply company of Mojokerto City can be described as:
1. Non revenue water as annual system input volume which is reduced by revenue water. So the calculation for
non revenue water on January until June 2018 is 153,980 – 80,991 = 72,989 m3/month.
2. Unbilled unmetered consumption is all official consumption which is not billed or not metered. This component
is generally used for water supply company operations such as washing pipe, pipe test, road cleaning, etc.
Calculation of unbilled unmetered consumption in 2018 as 510 m3/month. 3. Unauthorized consumption is an illegal water use, caused by illegal connection, bypass on the meter,
unauthorized use of hydrants, etc. Unauthorized consumption in 2018 water supply company of Mojokerto City
is 402 m3/month.
Figure 1. Water Balance Water Supply Company of Mojokerto City
4. Customer metering inaccuracies and data handling errors is an apparent losses effect of costumer metering
innacuracies and error in meter reading. In 2018 its value is 3,321 m3/month
5. Commersial losses as unauthorised consumption plus costumer meter inaccuracies and data handling errors. So
the calculation for commercial losses in 2018 as 402 + 3,321 = 3,723 m3/month. When changed in percentage is
2.4 %.
6. Physical losses is the volume of water losses through all types of leakage, pipeline explosion, overflow on
pipes, reservoir, etc. So in 2018, the calculation for physical losses water supply company of Mojokerto City as 68,756 m3/month or 44.6 %.
Based on data from the water balance analysis, percentage of water losses is 47 % with the composition of real
losses 44.6 % and apparent losses of 2.4 %. The results of this water balance analysis are used to know the
advantages of water losses.
The high of water losses can cause the advantages in Water Supply Company of Mojokerto City.
Broadly speaking, the disadvantages of water losses can be grouped into 4, namely as follows:
8
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 9(1)7-9, 2019
1. Losses in terms of quantity (debit)
Water losses, the amount of water that can be used by customers is reduced. Because there are water that should
flow to customers wasted due to the pipe leak during the distribution, and the presence of illegal connections, will
cause the water that should be fully distributed to official customers to be divided and reduced.
2. Losses in terms of pressure Water losses (especially due to leakage in distribution pipes and the existence of illegal connections) can reduce
the pressure of water during distribution to consumers.
3. Losses in terms of water quality
If there is a water leak, when the pipe is not filled with water or there is negative pressure there is a possibility
that dirt from outside the pipe will enter the pipe, so the water in the pipe is contaminated with dirt from outside
the pipe.
4. Financial (Economic) losses
The result of water losses are financial losses for the Water Supply Company. Water losses production cost per
cubic meter of water will increase and the income from the sale of water will decrease, so overall profits obtained
by the Drinking Water Company will decrease.
4. CONCLUSION
High water losses rate 47 % is above the water losses level set by the government is 20%. This resulted
in significant losses of water supply company income. From water balance calculations, composition of real losses
as 44.6 % and apparent losses of 2.4 %. The disadvantages of water losses are quantity, pressure, water quality,
and financial (economic).
REFERENCES
[1] Badan Pusat Statistik Kota Mojokerto (BPSKM). 2017. Kota Mojokerto Dalam Angka Tahun 2017. Kota
Mojokerto.
[2] Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 122 Tahun 2015 Tentang Sistem Penyediaan Air Minum.
[3] Frauendorfer, R., & Liemberger, R. 2010. The Issues and Challenges of Reducing Non-Revenue Water.
Philippines. Asian Development Bank.
[4] Thornton, J., Sturm, R., Kunkel, G. 2008. Water Loss Control 2nd Edition. United States of America. McGraw-
Hill Companies.
[5] Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum (PDAM). 2018. Laporan Evaluasi Kinerja Triwulan Perusahaan Daerah Air
Minum Kota Mojokerto. Jawa Timur.
[6] Ditjen Cipta Karya. 2009. Pedoman Pengelolaan Program Pamsimas. Jakarta: Departemen PU.
[7] International Water Association (IWA). 2012. Water Audit Method. American Water Works Assosiation.
America.
9
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 9(1)10-13, 2019
© 2019, TextRoad Publication
ISSN: 2090-4274
Journal of Applied Environmental
and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
*Corresponding Author: Widya Paramita Lokapirnasari, Department of Animal Husbandry Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Mulyorejo Street, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia.
E-mail: [email protected]
Determination of Persian Cats Health Status (Felis Silvestris) of Eritrocytes,
Hemoglobin and Leucocytes after Domestic Cat Blood Transfusion
(Felis Domestica)
Andreas Berny Yulianto 1, Dian Ayu Kartika Sari 2, Widya Paramita Lokapirnasari3*, Era Hari Mudji4
1 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wijaya Kusuma Surabaya University 2 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wijaya Kusuma Surabaya University
3Department of Animal Husbandry Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Mulyorejo Street,
Surabaya 60115, Indonesia 4 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wijaya Kusuma Surabaya University
Received: September 12, 2018
Accepted: December 3, 2018
ABSTRACT
Broken bones, torn wounds, uterine surgery, physiological disorders that lead to clinical symptoms of anemia can be
performed medical treatment for blood transfusion. Animals used in this study, domestic cats (Felis domestica) as
many as 5 heads with blood type A, 5 blood type B and Persian cats (Felis silvestris) as many as 5 blood types A, 5 blood type B, healthy condition and aged between 1 and 2 years. The sex used by female cats. The transfusion process
begins with taking local cat blood (Felis domestica) as a donor, in the femoral vein as much as 2% of body weight,
blood collected by using a 1 cc syringe and a collector tube containing EDTA. Then the blood collected from the
donor collection was transferred to the Persian race cat (Felis silvestris) as recipients as much as 2% of body weight, through the femoral vein with 1 cc syringe. After 24 hours of the transfusion process, blood samples were taken to
check for recusions, erythrocyte levels, level hemoglobin and leukocyte levels. The results obtained the health status
of a domestic cat (Felis domestica) before being transfused with an interval, erythrocyte ((106 /µL) 10.40-11, Hemoglobin (Hb) 9.12 - 11.3 g / dl, leukocytes (103 /µL) 11.08-16.56. After transfusion to Persian cats (Felis silvestris) was obtained, erythrocytes ((106 /µL) 10.48-13.99, Hemoglobin (Hb) 11.4-17.9 g / dl, Leukocytes (103µl) 12.8 - 17.6,
Rhesus negative (Rh-), the process of blood transfusion does not cause allergic reactions and hypotension.
KEY WORDS: Persian cats, domestic cats, blood type and blood transfusion
INTRODUCTION
Naturally, cats have alloantibodies in the plasma, so the donor and recipient blood groups must be identified and cross
matched before the first transfusion is performed. Unsuitable transfusions will be life threatening due to hemolytic
transfusion reactions. Transfusion reactions can be minimized by performing blood typing and compatibility testing
between donor and recipient, infectious disease screening of donors, and by instituting appropriate blood collection, processing, storage, and administration techniques [1]. The aims transfusion to replace the missing component of blood
(leukocytes, red blood cells, platelets, and proteins plasma including clotting factors) and in the case of several diseases
like haemorrhage, anaemia, ineffective erythropoiesis or haemolysis and to increase oxygen carrying capacity [2], feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) infection and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) [3]. Feline blood groups are described by
the AB system and include blood types A, B and AB; cats without A or B antigens have not been identified. Type A is the most common domestic cat blood type with a frequency of 73.3–100% which varies with geographical location
[4,5,6,7]. Transfusion medicine in small animal practice has become more feasible with improved access to blood products through either on-site donors, external donor in this programs, the purchase of blood bank products, blood
transfusion or the availability of blood component, blood substitutes, and adverse reactions [8].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animals used in this study, domestic cats (Felis domestica) as many as 5 heads with blood type A, 5 blood type B and
Persian cats (Felis silvestris) as many as 5 blood types A, 5 blood type B, healthy condition and aged between 1 and 2 years. The sex used by female cats. The transfusion process begins with taking local cat blood (Felis domestica) as
10
Citation: Andreas Berny Yulianto, Dian Ayu Kartika Sari, Widya Paramita Lokapirnasari, Era Hari Mudji; 2019, Determination of Persian Cats
Health Status (Felis Silvestris) of Eritrocytes, Hemoglobin and Leucocytes after Domestic Cat Blood Transfusion (Felis Domestica);
Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 9(1)10-13, 2019.
a donor, in the femoral vein as much as 2% of body weight, blood collected by using a 1 cc syringe and a collector
tube containing EDTA. Then the blood from the donor collection was transfused in Persian race cat (Felis silvestris)
as recipient as much as 2% of body weight, through the femoral vein drop by drop according to the pulsus frequency. After 24 hours of the transfusion process, blood samples were taken to check for levels erythrocytes, hemoglobin
levels and leukocyte levels.
Data Analysis Analysis of data: the data obtained is processed descriptively
RESULTS
Results of Eritrocytes, Hemoglobin (Hb) and Leukocytes Examination of Domestic Cats (Donors)
The results of assay the levels of Erythrocytes, Hemoglobin (Hb) and Leukocytes are listed in table 1
Table 1. Results of Erythrocytes, Hemoglobin (Hb) and Leukocytes Examination of Local Cats (Donors)
Table 2. Erythrocytes, Hemoglobin (Hb) and Leukocytes Examination of Persian Cats
(After Blood Transfusion) NO CATS QUANTITIES
Blood Types Erythrocytes
(106 /µL)
Hb (g/dl) Leukocytes
(103 /µL)
1 Persian Cat 1 A 13.49 16.8 g/dl 17.6
2 Persian Cat 2 A 10.48 11.4 g/dl 12.8
3 Persian Cat 3 A 11.74 14.4 g/dl 16.00
4 Persian Cat 4 A 13.55 17.9 g/dl 16.9
5 Persian Cat 5 A 12.72 14.8 g/dl 17.5
6 Persian Cat 6 B 13.99 16.1 g/dl 15.40
7 Persian Cat 7 B 13.77 16.5 g/dl 14.8
8 Persian Cat 8 B 13.84 17.7 g/dl 15.3
9 Persian Cat 9 B 12.89 14.5 g/dl 14.89
10 Persian Cat 10 B 12.67 14.0 g/dl 14.09
DISCUSSION
Anemia in the case of hemorrhage occurs because large amounts of blood loss can cause the number of erythrocytes to decrease drastically. Erythrocytes possess glycoproteins or glycolipids as particular antigens on the surface of their
cell membranes that allow their classification into groups of blood [8]. Erythrocyte levels in male cats are higher than
female cats [9].
Based on the results of this study, it was shown that erythrocyte levels in Persian cats before transfusion ranged from 10.40 - 11.62 (106 / µL), and after the transfusion process showed levels of 10.48 - 13.99 (106 / µL). The
transfusion process from a local cat to Persian cats shows a relatively stable erythrocyte level. The normal erythrocyte
level in domestic feline is 5.0-10.0 (106 / µL) [10]. Hemoglobin (g / dl) levels in Persian cats before transfusions range
from 9.12 to 11.3, and after the transfusion process shows levels of 14.0-17.9. The transfusion process from a local cat to Persian cats shows a relatively higher Hemoglobin level. Normal Hemoglobin (g / dl) level in domestic feline
is 8-15. The normal erythrocyte level in domestic feline is 5.0-10.0 (106 / µL). Leukocytes (10 3 µL) in Persian cats
before transfusion ranged from 11.08 -16.56, and after the transfusion process showed levels of 12.8 -17.6. The
NO CATS QUANTITIES
Blood Types Erythrocytes
(106 /µL)
Hb (g/dl) Leukocytes
(103 /µL)
1 Domestic Cat 1 A 10.40 9.89 16.56
2 Domestic Cat 2 A 10.58 10.04 11.08
3 Domestic Cat 3 A 11.04 10.32 15.20
4 Domestic Cat 4 A 10.55 10.9 13.78
5 Domestic Cat 5 A 11.32 11.3 12.66
6 Domestic Cat 6 B 10.90 11.1 15.52
7 Domestic Cat 7 B 11.07 10.5 14.72
8 Domestic Cat 8 B 11.22 10.2 12.03
9 Domestic Cat 9 B 10.59 10.33 11.98
10 Domestic Cat 10 B 11.62 9.12 12.79
11
Yulianto et al., 2019
transfusion process from a local cat to Persian cats shows relatively stable levels of Leukocytes. Leukocytes (10 3 µL)
range of domestic normal feline levels are 5.5-19.2 [10]. According to [11] Leukocytosis produced by the existence of a psychological and / or physical activity is
called physiological leukocytosis. This situation often occurs in conditions of physical (emotional) stress, emotional
or disease, and is usually temporary. Blood transfusion is one way to increase blood cells due to anemia. But there are many potential risks and possible complications with transfusion, which can outweigh the benefits. Red blood cell (erythrocyte) transfusions in
veterinary medicine are increasingly being used and are an important part of dealing with critical illness. In general,
transfusion is used as a medical measure due to anemia due to acute bleeding or blood loss during surgery, hemolysis
of drugs or toxins, immune-mediated diseases, severe non-regenerative conditions, and neonatal isoeritrolysis. Various types of blood are present in pets, and new antigens are found [12].
According to [13] IgE-mediated allergen reactions caused by soluble substances in donor plasma that bind
to preformed IgE antibodies on mast cells in the recipient, resulting in activation and release of histamine. Complement fixation with IgG causes the release of anaphyloxoxin. Clinical symptoms of itching in transfusion can interfere with
the transfusion process and can be continued when the clinic symptoms disappear, as well as symptoms of hypoxia,
gastrointestinal symptoms or hypotensive patients, transfusion should be stopped.
CONCLUSION
After the blood transfusion process of domestic cat (Felis domestica) as donor to Persian race cat (Felis silvestris) as recipient, status was obtained with erythrocyte levels 11.74-13.99 106 µl, Hemoglobin (Hb) 11.4-17.9 g / dl,
Leukocytes 12.8 - 17.5 103µl, Rhesus negative (Rh-), this condition is still in the normal interval for the health of
Persian race cats (Felis silvestris) and there are no allergic or hypotensive reactions.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Rector, Research and Public services and Directorate
General of Higher Education, Indonesian Ministry of Research and Technology (Kemenristek Dikti), for funding a
research college cooperation (PEKERTI) 2018.
REFERENCES
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with hemolysis caused by inappropriate storage of canine red blood cell products. Journal of veterinary
internal medicine, 25(4):927-933.
2. Kisielewicz, C. and Self, I.A., 2014. Canine and feline blood transfusions: controversies and recent advances
in administration practices. Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia, 41(3):233-242.
3. Juvet, F., Brennan, S. and Mooney, C.T., 2011. Assessment of feline blood for transfusion purposes in the
Dublin area of Ireland. Veterinary Record, 168(13):352-352.
4. Giger, U., Griot-Wenk, M., Bucheler, J., Smith, S., Diserens, D., Hale, A. and Patterson, D., 1991.
Geographical variation of the feline blood type frequencies in the United States. Feline practice (USA).
5. Griot-Wenk, M.E., Callan, M.B., Casal, M.L., Chisholm-Chait, A., Spitalnik, S.L., Patterson, D.F. and Giger,
U., 1996. Blood type AB in the feline AB blood group system. American journal of veterinary
research, 57(10):1438-1442.
6. Juvet, F., Brennan, S. and Mooney, C.T., 2011. Assessment of feline blood for transfusion purposes in the
Dublin area of Ireland. Veterinary Record, 168(13):352-352.
7. Proverbio, D., Spada, E., Baggiani, L., Perego, R., Milici, A. and Ferro, E., 2011. Comparison of gel column
agglutination with monoclonal antibodies and card agglutination methods for assessing the feline AB group
system and a frequency study of feline blood types in northern Italy. Veterinary clinical pathology, 40(1):32-
39.
8. Lanevschi, A. and Wardrop, K.J., 2001. Principles of transfusion medicine in small animals. The Canadian
Veterinary Journal, 42(6):447.
9. Schalm’s., 2010. Veterinary Hematology. Ed ke-6. Wiley-Blackwell : Weiss & Wardrop.
12
Citation: Andreas Berny Yulianto, Dian Ayu Kartika Sari, Widya Paramita Lokapirnasari, Era Hari Mudji; 2019, Determination of Persian Cats
Health Status (Felis Silvestris) of Eritrocytes, Hemoglobin and Leucocytes after Domestic Cat Blood Transfusion (Felis Domestica);
Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 9(1)10-13, 2019.
10. Jessup, D.A., Pettan, K.C., Lowenstine, L.J. and Pedersen, N.C., 1993. Feline leukemia virus infection and
renal spirochetosis in a free-ranging cougar (Felis concolor). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 73-79.
11. Meyer, D.J. and J. Harvey, 2003. Interpretation and Diagnosis. Second ED. WB, Saunders. Philadelpia
12. Colville T, Bassert JM. 2002. Clinical Anatomy and Physiology for Veterinary Technicians. Philadelphia:
Mosby.
13. Callan MB, Patel RT, Rux AH et al. (2013) Transfusion of 28-day-old leucoreduced or non- leucoreduced
stored red blood cells induces an inflammatory response in healthy dogs. Vox Sang 105, 319–327.
13
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