Jade Forms From Ancient China

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JADE FORMS FROMANCIENT CHINAB y velyn Tucker

T he at tract ion of jade is two-fo ld: thenature of th e material and ihe w ay i t isused. The color, texture, and feel of jrrdeare easi ly appreciated, but the sym bolismof the mo ti fs in wh ich i t is carved is anenigma to ma ny of th e s tone s admirers.This art icle brief ly examine s some of thesym bols used in jade carved in Chin a,including an introduct ion to the religionson which mu ch of this sym bolism isbased. By mastering ihese basic symb olsand the phi losophy be hind the m,collector a nd seller alilze can gain greaterrrnderstanding of [ he cultur al andphilosophical me an ing of th e rrrt inv olv edi n I particrilar piece.

ABOUT THE AUTHORMs. Tucker is a gemologist and course editorwith the Home Study Department, GemologicalInstitute ol America, Santa Monica, CA.Acknowledgments: The author wishes to thankMr. Edward Dominik for his advice, and Mr.Don Kay lor information on the jade-carvingindustry. Thanks also to Michael Ross lor hissupport and guidance. The photographsprovided by Harold and Erica Van Pelt-Photographers Los Angeles, CA) and TinoHammid, of GIA Gem Media, are especiallyappreciated, as is the cooperation of the AsianArt Museum of San Francisco and the LosAngeles County Museum of Natural History.7 98 Gemological Institute of America

de has del ighted th e senses s ince i t was f i rs t discov-ered. Lilze th e early ad m ire rs of jade, tod ay s colle ctoris init ially attracte d to th e appearance and feel of th es tone; he is drawn to i t s color and texture, i t s smoothn essand soft appearance. Soon, however, this attra ction broad-ens into an interes t in the m ater ial i tsel f, in i t s his toryand uses.Anthropologists and historians hypothesize that earlypeople valued jade because they could, though slowly andlabor ious ly, shape i t into implem ents th at were s t rongerand more durable than an ything ma n had before he learnedto forge metals (Hansford, 1968 . Of all the stones thatcan be worlzed t o suit the need s of man, jade is the m ostint ractable. The same toughness that made jade imple-me nts so durable also made them diff icult to fashion. Asa result , early people simp ly ground their jade i nt o con-venient shapes. Later art isans maintained this traditionby following the contours of jade pebbles and boulderseven wh en carv ing articles of great intricacy and sop his-tication (figure 1 .Although i t i s by n o mean s comm on, jade is found ina num ber of areas of th e world (m ost notably N ort h andSou th America and Asia), and has been used and valuedby a num ber of civil izations. The C hinese, however, per-fected jade carving to a level unm atched by any other cu l-ture. Jade has played an integral role in their traditionssince the b eginning of recorded history (W htlo clz andEhrmann, 1949 .N o othe r gemstone is as closely t ied toa major cul ture, as int r icately interwoven with an aes-thet ic t radi t ion. Al though many people have wonderedwh y jade so capt ivated the Chinese, no one has ever con-clusively resolved th is question. Perhaps part of t he an -swer is tha t jade is wel l sui ted to the phi losophies a ndreligions of China; i t seems t o f i t the C hinese cul turaltemperament .

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THE PHILOSOPHICAL ANDRELIGIOUS FOUNDATIONSOF CHINESE ARTChinese philosophy, religion, and art are so closelyinterwoven that an appreciation of Chinese artrequires at least a cursory examination of the phi-losophy and religions of this nation.This survey covers only the three major reli-gious and philosophical movements of ancientChina. It is understood that any attempt to con-dense the art of a culture as ancient and sophis-ticated as that of China in a short essay only il-lustrates Western man s ethnocentricity. Thisoverview, however, provides a few brush strokesof background for the discussion of motifs usedin jade carvings from China.The World iew of Eastern Thought. Compari-

Figure I In planning a nd execut ingthis piece, the artist used the outerrind and original contou rs of thewate t-wo rn pebble to prodrlce a worko f subt l ety an d sophist ication. Jadess e l do m h a ve d a t e s o n t h em , b u t t h i sone has a n inscript ion credi t ing it w i t hhaving spent a thousand autu mn s inth e Khotan river, wh ich is followedb y t h e d a t e 1785 A.D., the imper ia lsignature, and on e of Emperor Ch ien -lung's seals (d'Argence, 1972 .Nephri te, Ch' ing d yna sty (18th centuryA.D.), C hien-lun g period, H . 5 in .Courtes y of t he Asian Art Muse uin ofSan Francisco, T he Av ery BrrjndageCollect ion.

sons reveal that art from the Eastern hemispherediffers greatly from art of the Western hemi-sphere. Differences in religion and symbolismcome to mind, yet there is a more subtle and per-vasive difference frequently overloolzed or unap-preciated by the Western intellect: in the culture,art, and philosophy of the West, man is at the cen-ter; in the East, man is one small part of a muchgreater whole.

Early Western man viewed the world from hisperspective only: the earth was flat and the centerof the universe. He even modeled his gods afterhimself. In his self-importance, he saw nature ashis adversary and constantly sought to conquer itthrough brute force and strength of will.

The oriental approach is exactly the opposite.Especially in China, with its long history of Taoistteachings (asdiscussed below), man sought to em-

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ulate nature by observing its ways and followingits example. As a result, no other culture is as suc-cessful in capturing the spirit of nature i n its art(figure 2 .

And what was man's place in the orientalscheme of things? Richard Gump 1962)suggeststhat you can answer this question by lookingclosely at a Chinese painting: Where is man?There, that tiny figure sitting on that small bridge,in the midst of that vast landscape which repre-sents the universe. This world view is incorpo-rated in some way into all three of the majorreligions of China: Taoism, Buddhism, andConfucianism.Taoism. Taoism (pronounced dow-ism )s theoldest extant religion in China. It is an ancientform of nature worship. Tao in Chinese meansthe way, the road. Taoism is a way of in tu-ition, of creativity, of searching for harmony withthe forces of nature. Its most famous teacher, LaoTzu, is thought to have lived about 500 years be-fore Christ. The Tao te Ching, a book of enig-matic poetry still studied by Taoist scholars to-day, is attributed to him.

With time, Taoism developed in a new direc-tion. The older nature deities were overshadowedby a host of new divinities-spirits, ghosts, de-mons, and immortals-some of them borrowedfrom the new faith, Buddhism. All were eventu-ally incorporated into a kind of folk religion tingedwith magic.

Taoism was a primary force in the develop-ment of art in China. On one level, craftsmen andartists, using materials provided by nature, wereoften more successful working through intuitionand experience rather than through rational anal-ysis. On another level, scholars found their deep-est insights in Taoist perceptions of nature andthe nature of creativity. The search for an under-standing of nature, and for a way of becoming partof the greater whole, a way of uniting with Tao,is the foundation of the Chinese artistic tradition.Buddhism. Buddhism came to C hna from Indiaat about the t ime of Christ. Initially it had litt leimpact on Chinese culture, but by the second orthird century A.D., it had reached its first peak ofpopularity. Buddhism has been a significant forcein Chnese culture ever since (Willetts, 1958).

The historical Buddha was born in the sixthcentury B.C., probably in the region of India that

is now Nepal. He was an Indian prince who lefta life of wealth and ease to travel, meditate, andsearch for the causes of suffering. He taught whathas come to be known as the middle way-nei-ther the pursuit of desires and pleasure, nor thepursuit of pain and hardship. Gradually Buddhismevolved into a religion based on the premise thatlife is suffering which ends only in death, and thatall life is caught up in an endless chain of rein-carnation, traveling from birth through life, death,rebirth, and so on. This cycle continues unt il onereaches Nirvana, which has been described var-iously as the extinction of all desires, the la ow l-edge of supreme reality, the state of perfectblessedness.

Over time Buddhism was adopted and adaptedby the Chinese. And Buddhist subjects werewrought in a characteristically Chinese style.Thus we see Buddha, or any of a number of otherBuddhist figures, in Chinese dress, adoptingChinese poses, and surrounded by Chlnese land-scapes.Confucianism. Confucius, a Chinese scholar andteacher, was also born in the sixth century B.C.Although he was a contemporary of Lao Tzu, histeachings differed radically from those of Taoism.He believed that cultivated men, trained in ethicsand aesthetics, were the best hope for a stablegovernment. He taught that respect for one's el-ders, for the wisdom of early rulers, and for ritualobservance would promote the welfare of human-ity. These ancient Chinese teachings, which heand his disciples codified and collected into sev-eral volumes, have been a shaping force in Chineseculture for 2,500 years.

Confucius's tolerant, scholarly, well-manneredapproach to life exercised a profound influence onChinese art. His philosophy of the Golden Mean,developed in his work the Chung Yzmg, or Doc-

Figure 2. This carving is an outstandingexa mp le of t he C hin ese zise of color andsymbo l ism in jade . T he peach i s a symbol ofimmo rtal i ty ; the bats denote happiness; thel utter fl ies im m o~ ta l i t y ; nd the s i ll twormindustrionsness. ladeite 19th century 4 in.by 4 in. Courtesy of the C rys ~a li te orporation.Photograph 198 1 Harold tir Erica Va n Pelt-Photog~uphers os Angeles C A.

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T AO T IEHOf all the emblems ever used in Chinese art, themost constant in form and most widely used isa compound, mask-like design known as the t'aot'ieh (figure3 .It is both one of the oldest and oneof the least understood of the ancient motifs (Nott,1947).We do know that Sung dynasty (960-1279A.D. art critics labeled this already ancient em-blem the t'ao t'ieh, or glutton, inferring that itwas orginally meant as a symbol of greed or lustand used as a warning against these vices. Theirtheory, however, is no longer taken seriously asan explanation for the origin of the t'ao t'ieh. Forone thing, it is inconceivable that the Chinesewould have insulted their ancestors, their minordeities, or their guests at official banquets by

Figure 3. T w o t'ao t'iehs (mons ter maslzs)appear on the front o f this covered urn. Bothmaslzs are split b y the ridge running d o w n thefront of the piece. The upper m a s k is highlystylized, so that only the eyes are easilyrecognizable. The lower t ao t'ieh is moreconventional: i t s eyes, eyebrows, and flaringnostrils are clear. Nephrite, la te 19th century,H. 13 in Courtesy o f the Los Angeles CountyMuse um of Natural History. Photograph b yT ino H am m id , GI G e m Media.

trine o the Mean, advocated a love of learningand knowledge so that one might become a su-perior man. Moderation in everything was cen-tral to his philosophy. The Chinese artist fol-lowed the doctrine of the mean. The philosophyof neither too much nor too little led him to seeka perfect balance in his use of detail, proportions,textures, and colors.Confucianism also affected Chinese art by fos-tering an appreciation of the culture's ancestralheritage. Because Confucius and his followerstaught respect for one's elders, for tradition, andfor the wisdom of the ancestors, many early ar-tistic motifs were used long after their originalmeanings were lost. In some instances, these areamong the most pervasive forms in Chinese art.The t'ao t'ieh is one such form.

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warning them against eating or drinking too much(Burling and Burling, 1953).Described as a gluttonous ogre with a fang

projecting on each side, the mask might be a rep-resentation of the all-devouring storm god of theChinese, with a background of clouds (Laufer,1946).Laufer supports this theory with his obser-vation that the t'ao t'ieh always appears on abackground of meanders emblematic of atmo-spheric phenomena. . However, he also citesanother expert (Hirth),who proposes that the earlyt'ao t'ieh was based on the features of the Tibetanmastiff. This is possible since the Chinese do-mesticated the dog in ancient times and held itin high esteem.

The t'ao t'ieh has also been identified as adragon, but Pope-Hennessey (1923)points out thatsince the t'ao t'ieh and the dragon sometimes ap-pear side by side on the same object, this expla-nation is unlikely. Instead, she suggests that thet'ao t'ieh was derived from the face of a tiger. Thistheory is more plausible than most, since the ti-ger is an ancient and ominous figure in Chineseart. It is also consistent with the appearance ofthe t'ao t'ieh and dragon on the same carving,since Chinese mythology has traditionally groupedthe tiger and the dragon together. The tiger sym-bolizes the West and autumn; and the dragon, theEast and spring. The winds were said to followthe tiger; and the rains, the dragon (Nott, 1947).It has also been suggested that the t'ao t'ieh is adiagram which ancient Chinese healers used whendiagnosing and discussing pain with their pa-tients (Nott, 1947).

Because of its antiquity, the t'ao t'ieh is prob-ably Taoist in origin. Since it can be made up ofany collection of natural forms grouped symmet-rically to suggest a mask, it is perfectly suited tothe Taoist perception of patterns within patternsin nature and the universe. As such, it is a won-derfully versatile decorative device whose longlife stems, at least in part, from its ability to bemodified and used in a variety of ways withoutbecoming repetitious. It can be strong, bold, anddominant, or faintly and delicately suggested. To-day, the t'ao t'ieh is used as an emblem of culturalorigin, an elegant testimony to an ancient aes-thetic heritage.THE PIAlthough much has been written, little is under-stood about the origin and meaning of the pi (pro-

nounced bee ), a flat, circular disk with a holein the center. Early forms were plain and roughlyfinished. As the art of carving progressed, how-ever, the pi was first covered with relief designs,and later carved as ornate, highly stylized sculp-ture [figure4).

Undoubtedly Taoist in origin, the pi has beenused in ritual worship since the beginning of re-corded history. In writing about the pi, jade au-thorities have suggested that it stood for every-thing from a musical instrument to the flywheelof a drill (Willetts, 1958). The most popularly ac-cepted interpretation, however, is that the pi rep-resents heaven. The ook of ites (Chou dynasty,1122-256 B.C.) lists i t as the first of the six ritualjades: With a sky-blue pi, worship is paid toHeaven.Gump proposes that the pi stands for, amongother things, the sun disk, or the sun shiningthrough the vault of heaven, or heaven itself. Ashe suggests, we have only to put ourselves in theplace of the early Chinese looking up into the skyto understand this explanation. That the ancientgraph for sun was written as @further corrobo-rates this theory (Willetts, 1958). Whatever itsorigin, for thousands of years the pi has been usedas a symbol of heaven and is so used today.THE DR GONCreated in ancient Babylonia, mankind's mostpervasive mythical invention moved, both liter-ally and figuratively, in opposite directions, to-ward the West to become a symbol of evil, andtoward the East to become a symbol of benefi-cence. Today it is known the world over as thedragon (Leach and Fried, 1972).

Actually, as is the case with other ancientsymbols, the true origin of the dragon is open toconjecture. That it is mankind's most commonmythical animal, one that is found in almost allcultures, has produced endless rounds of specu-lation and little agreement among authorities.Perhaps it is a Jungian archetype, an element ofthe subconscious common to all men regardlessof culture. Or perhaps, as suggested above, it hadone birthplace in mythology and spread as traveland trade increased throughout the world. A com-bination of these two theories probably explainsthe dragon's pervasiveness. Even if it had onebirthplace, the dragon myth could hardly havespread and taken hold unless it satisfied somebasic need in the human psyche.

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Figure 4 Ni n e l i the , a l m o s t cat-l ike, ch ih dragons scamper around and through this pi.7 X e laclz o f scales and claws , t h e s i n e w y body, and t h e playful s tance characterize this t ype ofdragon. Nephri te, la te medieva l or early Ming period (14th-16th cen tury A.D.), Diam. 5 i n .Courtesy o f t h e As ian Art M u s e u m o f Sun Francisco, T h e Avery Brundoge Collect ion.

Less esoteric scholars remind us of the exis-tence of prehistoric dinosaur bones and suggestthat there is an obvious connection between earlydragon myths and the discovery of the first ofthese bones (Leach and Fried, 1972). Such discov-eries may or may not have produced the dragonmyth, but they undoubtedly contributed to itsproliferation.

In discussing the origin and development ofthe dragon myth in China, scholars frequentlymention the snake worship of India, citing theIndian influence on Chinese culture, most nota-bly the influx of Buddhism at about the time ofChrist. According to Nott 1947)) in Chinese

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translations of Buddhist writings the Indian termnaga ( snake ) is frequently rendered lung[ dragon ). However, the dragon existed beforeBuddhism came to China and probably beforeBuddhism began; thus, while snalze worship mighthave influenced the development of the dragonmyth, it is unlikely to have been its source.There are many different kinds of dragons inChinese mythology. All are benevolent creaturesassociated with nature and the elements. Theycontrol the wind and, more importantly, the rainthat nourishes the crops.

The least fearsome are the chi'ih, or imma-ture, dragons. These are usually portrayed as

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Figure 5. fire-breathing dragon is carved i n high relief on this vessel. ladeite late 19th century I ) , H . 5 in .Courtesy of t he Crystalite Corporation. Photograph @ 1981 Harold Erica Van Pelt-Photographers.

clinging, lizard-like, or in some instances almostcat-like,reptiles with clawless feet and a split tail(again, see figure 4). The chi'ih dragon is partic-ularly beneficial, said to have guardianship overmortals (Nott, 1947).

Water dragons are characterized by sinewy,fish-like bodies, also with long split tails. InChinese mythology, they have dominion over theoceans and rivers (Nott, 1947).It has been sug-gested that the dragon was modeled after the al-ligator (Gump, 1962); the scales on the waterdragon support this theory.

Regardless of its origin, the development ofthe dragon myth in China was remarkable. In noother culture do we find the profusion of typesand styles of dragons (figure 5), and nowhere is

the dragon as important as it is to the Chinese.Because this myth has existed for such a longtime and is so closely associated with nature andthe elements, the dragon of Chinese mythologyis probably Taoist in origin.THE O DOGAlthough in its conventional form it resembles apekingese more than anything else, the dog of Fois actually a Buddhist lion (figure 6). Since fo dogs(pronounced foo, as in food ) came to Chinawith Buddhism, they are not seen in Chlnese artearlier than the Han dynasty (207B.C.-220 A.D.).

In Buddhism, the lion is the defender of thelaw and the guardian of sacred buildings. Far frombeing intimidating, fo dogs are usually portrayed

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Figure 6 Tw o elaborate antlereddragons hold loose rings on the side

and a fo dog snarls from th top ofthis incense burner. A low-relieffree-form carving decorates the

front. Nephrite Date ( ), H 6 7110in Courtesy Los Angeles County

Museum of Natural History.Photograph by Tino Hammid

GIA Gem Media.

as small, playful lions and are frequently shownwith a brocaded ball that represents the Jewel ofthe Law. In their capacity as guardians, they areoften placed at the entrances of buildings or onthe corners of roofs. Fo dogs may be standing orsitting, with their heads up or elegantly curvedback, jaws open, and manes and brows repre-sented by spirals.J DE MOUNTAINSThe largest and most famous jade mountains werecarved during the reign of Ch'ien-lung; who ruledChina from 1736 to 1795. The empire was secureunder Ch'ien-lung; trade flourished, the economywas strong, China was wealthy. Not only wasCh'ien-lung an able statesman and ruler, he wasalso a creative thinker and a patron of all artisticendeavors. His reign was an age of creative free-dom and artistic accomplishment.

During the reign of Ch'ien-lung, jade carving

reached an apex of perfection and refinementnever touched before or since (Burwell, 1948), asfigures 1 and 3 illustrate. In a field where agree-ment among authorities is conspicuously absent,all are unanimous that as a group Ch'ien-lungjades are the finest jade carvings ever produced.Consequently, there is a tendency to label all finejade carvings as Ch'ien-lung even though theymay have been produced before or after thatperiod.

Jade mountains are mentioned in Chinese lit-erature as early as the Yuan dynasty (1260-1368A.D.). According to dlArgencC (1972)) hough, nonehas been dated with any certainty prior to theCh'ing dynasty (1644-1912 A.D. .

Religous motifs predominate i n jade carvings,and throughout most of China's history carversfreely chose the religious themes they used. As aresult, different pieces from one workshop mightbe inspired by any of China's religions. Most jade

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Figure 8. Fjve batssymbol i ze happiness andt h e five blessings: old age,heal th, weal th , l o ve ofvirtue, and a natural death.T h e t w o larger and threesmaller bats mi g h t alsorepresent t h e f a mi l y anda w i s h for domes t ichappiness. Nephrite, la teMing-early Ch ing period(17 t h century A.D. , Wi n . Courtesy o f t h e As ianAr t Muserlm of SanFrancisco, T h e Aver yBrundage Collection.

In most countries, the bat is maligned and un-loved, but in China it is a symbol of happinessand long life. The Chinese are renowned punsters,and at times their puns have become well-estab-lished symbols and art motifs dlArgence, 1972).This is the case with the bat; its use to signifyhappiness was not derived from the natural char-acteristics of the little marauder but from theChinese word for happiness, fu-i which whenpronounced with a slightly different emphasis de-notes a bat. When depicted in groups of five, thebat symbolizes the five happinesses or blessings:old age, health, wealth, love of virtue, and a nat-ural death seefigure 8 and refer back to figure 2).

The Chinese wedding ceremony includes theprescription that the bride and bridegroom eachdrink three cups of wine in succession Nott,1962).The vessels used in the ceremony are fre-quently decorated with such auspicious symbolsas bats, butterflies, and peaches. In this instance,the bat is associated with matrimonyj it is a com-mon motif on wedding presents and symbolizesthe wish for a long and happy marriage.

The butterfly is a symbol of immortality again,see figure 2). In ancient times, jade butterflieswere buried with the dead in the hope that thedeceased would awalzen to an afterlife in the sameway that a butterfly emerges from its cocoon aftera period of dormancy Nott, 1962).Gradually thebutterfly has evolved into a symbol of longevity.When used in pairs, butterflies symbolize happi-ness in marriage.

The peach, another symbol of immortalityfigure 2), has origins that are even more obscure.According to early Taoist mythology, the peachwas a talisman in the quest for everlasting life.Legend has it that Ho Hsien Ku, the only femaleof the eight Taoist immortals, ate one of thepeaches of immortality and so achieved eternalbliss Nott, 1962).Other religious figures are alsofrequently depicted holding or carrying peaches.

Unlike many other cultures, the Chinese wereremarkably tolerant of religious differences. Whilethere was religious persecution from time to time,for the most part the three dominant religions ofChina co-existed peacefully, even borrowing sym-

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Figure 9. Small slightly flattened peaches arefrequently carved for use as pendants. Theysymbolize the wish for a long and happy life.ladeite Modern H . 2 in. Photograph by TinoHammid GIA Gem Media.

bols from one another. For example, the Buddhistsaint Kuan Yin is often depicted with the Taoistpeach of immortality. Today, small, slightly flat-tened, almost heart-shaped peaches, carved singlyor in bunches, are worn as pendants to symbolizethe wish for a long and happy life (figure 9).J DE C RVING TO D YJade carving is an ancient art. Not only were theChinese carving jade before the fall of Troy (ap-proximately 1184 B.C.), but they were also usingsome of the same motifs then that they use now.For example, some of the more comprehensivecollections of early carvings contain examples ofpi's, t'ao t'iehs, and dragons from the late Shang(1766-1 122 B.C.) and early Chou (1122-256 B.C.)dynasties.

Today, in an age characterized by space travel,micro chips, and computers, the Chinese are stillcarving jade. large community of hardstonecarvers following the Chinese tradition flourishesin Hong Kong. Smaller carving centers are scat-tered throughout the Far East. In the United States,some individual carvers are making names forthemselves on both the East and West Coasts.The People's Republic of China produces hard-stone carvings both for export and for their do-mestic marlzet. Recent reports indicate that theyare attempting to further revitalize their carvingindustry by offering tax incentives and other in-ducements to Hong Kong carvers who set up shopsand teach in mainland Chlna (Don Kay, personalcommunication).

Modern tools and methods have changed thejade carver's art. Carvings that once would havetalzen years can now be finished in weelzs ormonths. The great potential for jade carving liesin blending the old and the new. skilled andartistic carver who combines contemporary toolswith the artistic heritage developed in China overthe last 4,000 years can create a work of art torival any produced in the history of jade carving.

REFERENCESBurling J. Burling A.H. (1953)Chinese Art. Crown Publishers,

New York, NY.Burwell W.B. (1948) ~x hibi ti on of Chinese Jades-OAC-London. Or ~e n ta l r t Autumn 1948, p. 157.dlArgence R.L. (1972)Chinese lades in the Avery BrundageCollection. The d e Young Museum Society and Patrons ofArt and Music for the Center of Asian Art and Culture,Japan.Gump R. (1962) ade: Stone of Heaven. Doubleday Com-pany, Garden City, NY.Hansford H.S. (1968)Chinese Corved lodes. New York GraphicSoclety, Greenwich, CT. ILaufer B. (1946) ade a study in Chinese Archeology and Re-ligion. P.D. Ione Perkins , South Pasadena, CA.Leach M. Fried J. (1972) tandard Dictionary of Folkore My-thology and Legend. Funk Wagnalls, New York, NY.Nott, S.C. (1947)Voices from the Flowery Kingdom . E.L. Hil-dreth Company, Brattleboro, VT.Nott S.C. (1962)C l~ine s eade Tl7roughout the Ages. CharlesE. Tuttle Company, Rutland, VT, and Tokyo, Japan.Pope-Hennessey U. (1923)Early Chinese lades. Frederick A.Stolzes Company, New York, NY.Whitlock H.P., Ehrmann M.L. (1949)The Story of lade. Sher-idan House, New York, NY.Willetts W. (1958) Chinese Art. Richard Clay Company,Great Britain.

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Jade Forms From Ancient China