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Islam in EuropeFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Islam gained its first foothold in continental Europe in 711 with the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. Theyadvanced into France but in 732, were defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Tours. Over the centuries theUmayyads were gradually driven south and in 1492 the Moorish Emirate of Granada surrendered toFerdinand V and Isabella. Muslim civilians were expelled from Spain and by 1614 none remained in Spain.[2]

Islam entered Eastern and Southeastern Europe in what are now parts of Russia and Bulgaria in the 13thcentury. The Ottoman Empire expanded into Europe taking huge portions of the Byzantine Empire in the14th and 15th centuries. Over the centuries, the Ottoman Empire also gradually lost almost all of itsEuropean territories, until the empire collapsed in 1922. However, parts of the Balkans (such as Albania,Kosovo, Macedonia and Bosnia) continued to have large populations of Muslims.

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries substantial numbers of Muslims immigrated to Europe. By 2010 anestimated 44 million Muslims were living in Europe, including an estimated 19 million in the EU.[3]

Contents

1 History1.1 Iberia and Southern France

1.1.1 Sicily1.1.2 Cultural impact and Christian interaction

1.2 The Balkans, Russia and Ukraine1.3 Balkans during the Ottoman Empire

1.3.1 Conversion to Islam1.4 Cultural influences

2 Current population and its perception2.1 Projections

3 See also3.1 Organizations

4 References5 Further reading6 External links

History

Iberia and Southern France

Main articles: Al­Andalus and Moors

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Islam in Europeby percentage of country population[1]

< 1% Armenia · Belarus ·Czech Republic · Estonia ·Finland · Hungary · Iceland ·Latvia · Lithuania · Malta ·Moldova · Monaco · Poland· Portugal · Romania ·San Marino · Slovakia ·Ukraine

1–2% Andorra · Croatia · Ireland

2–4% Italy · Luxembourg ·Norway · Serbia · Slovenia ·Spain

4–5% Denmark · Greece ·Liechtenstein · UnitedKingdom

5–10% Austria · Belgium · Bulgaria· France · Germany ·Netherlands · Sweden ·Switzerland

10–20% Georgia · Montenegro ·Russia

20–30% Cyprus

30–40% Rep. of Macedonia

40–50% Bosnia–Herzegovina

80–90% Albania

90–95% Kosovo

95–100% Turkey · Azerbaijan

A manuscript page of theQur'an in the script developedin al­Andalus, 12th century.

Muslim forays intoEurope began shortlyafter the religion'sinception, with a shortlived invasion ofByzantine Sicily by asmall Arab and Berberforce that landed in 652.Islam gained its firstfoothold in continentalEurope from 711 onward,with the Umayyadconquest of Hispania. Theinvaders named their landAl­Andalus, whichexpanded to include what

is now Portugal and Spain except for the northernhighlands of Asturias, Basque country, Navarra and fewother places protected by mountain chains from southwardinvasions.

Al­Andalus has been estimated to have had a Muslimmajority by the 10th century after most of the localpopulation converted to Islam.[4]:42 This coincided with theLa Convivencia period of the Iberian Peninsula as well asthe Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Pelayo ofAsturias began the Christian counter­offensive known asthe Reconquista after the Battle of Covadonga in 722.Slowly, the Christian forces began a conquest of thefractured taifa kingdoms of al­Andalus. By 1236,practically all that remained of Muslim Spain was thesouthern province of Granada.

In the 8th century, Muslim forces pushed beyond Spaininto Aquitaine, in southern France, but suffered atemporary setback when defeated by Eudes, Duke ofAquitaine, at the Battle of Toulouse (721). In 725 Muslimforces captured Autun in France. The town would be theeasternmost point of expansion of Umayyad forces intoEurope; just seven years later in 732, the Umayyads wouldbe forced to begin their withdrawal to al­Andalus afterfacing defeat at the Battle of Tours by Frankish KingCharles Martel. From 719 to 759, Septimania was one ofthe five administrative areas of al­Andalus. The lastMuslim forces were driven from France in 759, butmaintained a presence, especially in Fraxinet all the way

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The Moors request permission fromJames I of Aragon, Spain, 13thcentury

Muslim musicians at thecourt of the NormanKing Roger II of Sicily,12th century

into Switzerland until the 10th century.[5] At the same time, Muslim forces managed to capture Sicily andportions of southern Italy, and even sacked the Basilicas of SaintPeter and Saint Paul in Rome in 846 and later sacked Pisa in 1004.

Sicily

Sicily was gradually conquered by the Arabs and Berbers from 827onward, and the Emirate of Sicily was established in 965. They heldonto the region until their expulsion by the Normans in 1072.[6][7]

The local population conquered by the Muslims were RomanizedCatholic Sicilians in Western Sicily and partially Greek speakingChristians, mainly in the eastern half of the island, but there werealso a significant number of Jews.[8] These conquered people wereafforded a limited freedom of religion under the Muslims asdhimmi, but were subject to some restrictions. The dhimmi werealso required to pay the jizya, or poll tax, and the kharaj or land tax,but were exempt from the tax that Muslims had to pay (Zakaat). Under Arabrule there were different categories of Jizya payers, but their commondenominator was the payment of the Jizya as a mark of subjection to Muslimrule in exchange for protection against foreign and internal aggression. Theconquered population could avoid this subservient status simply by convertingto Islam. Whether by honest religious conviction or societal compulsion largenumbers of native Sicilians converted to Islam. However, even after 100 yearsof Islamic rule, numerous Greek speaking Christian communities prospered,especially in north­eastern Sicily, as dhimmi. This was largely a result of theJizya system which allowed co­existence. This co­existence with the conqueredpopulation fell apart after the reconquest of Sicily, particularly following thedeath of King William II of Sicily in 1189.

Cultural impact and Christian interaction

The Christian reconquests the Iberian peninsula and southern Italy helped toreintroduce ideas and concepts lost to the Western World after the fall of Romein A.D. 476. Arab speaking Christian scholars saved influential pre­Christian texts and this coupled withthe introduction of aspects of medieval Islamic culture (including the arts, agriculture, economics,philosophy, science and technology) assisted with fomenting conditions required for a rebirth of Europeanthought and art (Renaissance). (See Latin translations of the 12th century and Islamic contributions toMedieval Europe for more information).

Muslim rule endured in the Emirate of Granada, from 1238 as a vassal state of the Christian Kingdom ofCastile, until the completion of La Reconquista in 1492.[4]:41 The Moriscos (Moorish in Spanish) werefinally expelled from Spain between 1609 (Castile) and 1614 (rest of Spain), by Philip III during theSpanish Inquisition.

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"Araz" coat of arms ofPolish Tatar nobility. Tatarcoats of arms often includedmotifs related to Islam.

Mosque of Rome, in Rome, thelargest in the EU

The East London Mosque was one of thefirst in Britain to be allowed to useloudspeakers to broadcast the adhan.[9]

The Great Mosque of Paris, builtafter World War I.

Throughout the 16th to 19thcenturies, the Barbary States sentBarbary pirates to raid nearby partsof Europe in order to captureChristian slaves to sell at slavemarkets in the Arab Worldthroughout the Renaissance period.[10][11] According to Robert Davis,from the 16th to 19th centuries,pirates captured 1 million to 1.25million Europeans as slaves. Theseslaves were captured mainly fromthe crews of captured vessels[12]and from coastal villages inSpain and Portugal, and fromfarther places like Italy, Franceor England, the Netherlands,

Ireland, the Azores Islands, and even Iceland.[10]

For a long time, until the early 18th century, the CrimeanKhanate maintained a massive slave trade with the OttomanEmpire and the Middle East.[13] The Crimean Tatars frequentlymounted raids into the Danubian principalities, Poland­Lithuania, and Russia to enslave people whom they couldcapture.[14]

The Balkans, Russia and Ukraine

There are accounts of the trade connections between the Muslimsand the Rus, apparently people from Baltic region who made theirway towards the Black Sea through Central Russia. On his way toVolga Bulgaria, Ibn Fadlan brought detailed reports of the Rus,claiming that some had converted to Islam. "They are very fond ofpork and many of them who have assumed the path of Islam miss itvery much." The Rus also relished their nabidh, a fermented drinkIbn Fadlan often mentioned as part of their daily fare.[15]

The Mongols began their conquest of Rus', Volga Bulgaria, and theCuman­Kipchak Confederation (present day Russia and Ukraine) inthe 13th century. After the Mongol empire split, the eastern European section became known as the GoldenHorde. Despite the fact that they were not Muslim at the time, the western Mongols adopted Islam as theirreligion in the early 14th century under Berke Khan, and later Uzbeg Khan who established it as the officialreligion of the state. Much of the mostly Turkic­speaking population of the Horde, as well as the smallMongol aristocracy, were Islamized (if they were not already Muslim, such as the Volga Bulgars) andbecame known to Russians and Europeans as the Tatars. More than half[16] of the European portion of what

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Log pod Mangartom Mosque was the onlymosque ever built in Slovenia, in the townof Log pod Mangartom, during World WarI.

The Ottoman campaign forterritorial expansion in Europe in1566, Crimean Tatars asvanguard.

The Ottoman Sultan Suleiman theMagnificent, awaits the arrival of hisGreek Muslim Grand Vizier PargalıIbrahim Pasha at Buda, in the year1529.

Medieval Bulgaria particularly thecity of Sofia, was the administrativecentre of almost all Ottomanpossessions in the Balkans also knownas Rumelia.[17]

is now Russia and Ukraine, were under suzerainty of Muslim Tatars and Turks from the 13th to 15thcenturies. The Crimean Khanate became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire in 1475 and subjugated whatremained of the Great Horde by 1502. The Khanate of Kazan was conquered by Ivan the Terrible in 1552.

Balkans during the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire began its expansion into Europe by taking the European portions of the ByzantineEmpire in the 14th and 15th centuries up until the 1453 capture of Constantinople, establishing Islam as the

state religion in theregion. The OttomanEmpire continued tostretch northwards, takingHungary in the 16thcentury, and reaching asfar north as the Podolia inthe mid­17th century(Peace of Buczacz), bywhich time most of theBalkans was underOttoman control.Ottoman expansion inEurope ended with theirdefeat in the GreatTurkish War. In theTreaty of Karlowitz (1699), theOttoman Empire lost most of itsconquests in Central Europe.The Crimean Khanate was later

annexed by Russia in 1783.[18] Over the centuries, theOttoman Empire graduallylost almost all of itsEuropean territories, until itscollapse in 1922, when theformer empire wastransformed into the nationof Turkey.

Between 1354 (when theOttomans crossed intoEurope at Gallipolli) and1526, the Empire hadconquered the territory ofpresent­day Greece,Bulgaria, Romania, Albania,Serbia, Macedonia,

Montenegro, Bosnia and Hungary. The Empire laid siege to Vienna in 1683. The intervention of the PolishKing broke the siege, and from then afterwards the Ottomans battled the Habsburg Emperors until 1699,

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Painting of the bazaar at Athens, OttomanGreece, early 19th century

Registration of Christian boys for thetribute in blood. Ottoman miniaturepainting, 1558.[19]

when the Treaty of Karlowitz forced them to surrender Hungary and portions of present­day Croatia,Slovenia and Serbia. From 1699 to 1913, wars and insurrections pushed the Ottoman Empire further backuntil it reached the current European border of present­day Turkey.

For most of this period, the Ottoman retreats were accompanied by Muslim refugees from these province(in almost all cases converts from the previous subject populations), leaving few Muslim inhabitants inHungary, Croatia, and the Transylvania region of present­day Romania. Bulgaria remained under Ottomanrule until around 1878, and currently its population includes about 131,000 Muslims (2001 Census) (seePomaks).

Bosnia was conquered by the Ottomans in 1463, and a largeportion of the population converted to Islam in the first 200years of Ottoman domination. By the time Austria­Hungaryoccupied Bosnia in 1878, the Habsburgs had shed the desire tore­Christianize new provinces. As a result, a sizable Muslimpopulation in Bosnia survived into the 20th century. Albaniaand the Kosovo area remained under Ottoman rule until 1913.Previous to the Ottoman conquest, the northern Albanians wereRoman Catholic and the southern Albanians were ChristianOrthodox, but by 1913 the majority were Muslim.

Conversion to Islam

Apart from the effect of a lengthy period under Ottomandomination, many of the subject population were converted to Islamas a result of a deliberate move by the Ottomans as part of a policyof ensuring the loyalty of the population against a potential Venetianinvasion. However, Islam was spread by force in the areas under thecontrol of the Ottoman Sultan through devşirme and jizya.[20][21]Rather Arnold explains Islam's spread by quoting 17th­century pro­Muslim author Johannes Scheffler who stated:

“ Meanwhile he (i.e. the Turk) wins (converts) bycraft more than by force, and snatches away Christby fraud out of the hearts of men. For the Turk, it istrue, at the present time compels no country byviolence to apostatise; but he uses other meanswhereby imperceptibly he roots out Christianity...What then has become of the Christians? They arenot expelled from the country, neither are theyforced to embrace the Turkish faith: then they mustof themselves have been converted into Turks.[22]

”

Cultural influences

Further information: Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe and Reception of Islam in EarlyModern Europe

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Muslim­majority areas in Europe

The Mosque of SultanMehmet Fatih in Pristina,Kosovo

Islam piqued interest among European scholars, setting off the movement of Orientalism. The founder ofmodern Islamic studies in Europe was Ignác Goldziher, who began studying Islam in the late 19th century.For instance, Sir Richard Francis Burton, 19th­century English explorer, scholar, and orientalist, andtranslator of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, disguised himself as a Pashtun and visited bothMedina and Mecca during the Hajj, as described in his book A Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al­Medinah and Meccah.

Islamic architecture influenced European architecture in various ways (for example, the Türkischer Tempelsynagogue in Vienna). During the 12th­century Renaissance in Europe, Latin translations of Arabic textswere introduced. The Koran was also translated (for example, Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete).

Current population and its perception

According to the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims inEurope in 2010 was about 44 million (6%),[23] excluding Turkey.The total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2010 wasabout 19 million (3.8%).[23] Approximately 9 million Turks areliving in Europe, excluding the Turkish population of Turkey, whichmakes up the largest Muslim immigrant community in Europe.[24]However the real number of Muslims in Europe is not well­known.The percentage of Muslims in Russia (the biggest group of Muslimsin Europe) varies from 5[25] to 11.7%,[23] depending on sources. Italso depends on if only observant Muslims or all people of Muslimdescent are counted.[26]

The Muslim population in Europe is extremely diverse with variedhistories and origins. Today, the Muslim­majority regions of Europe areAlbania, Kosovo, parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, parts of Bulgaria,Montenegro and Macedonia, as well as some Russian regions in NorthernCaucasus and the Volga region. The Muslim­dominated Sandžak of NoviPazar is divided between Serbia and Montenegro. They consistpredominantly of indigenous Europeans of the Muslim faith whosereligious tradition dates back several hundred years. The transcontinentalcountries of Turkey, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan also are Muslim majority.

The Muslim population in Western Europe is composed primarily ofpeoples who arrived to the European continent in or after (1945), whenmany Western countries (firstly, the UK and France) start policy ofmulticulturalism and permanent immigration of non­white and/or non­Christian people. Muslim emigration to metropolitan France surged duringthe Algerian War of Independence. In 1961, West German Governmentinvited first Gastarbeiters. Similar contracts were offered by Switzerland.A 2013 poll by Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung says thatIslamic fundamentalism is widespread among European Muslims with themajority saying religious rules are more important than civil laws and

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According to the Pew ResearchCenter, Europe's population was 6%Muslim in 2010, and is projected tobe 8% Muslim by 2030.[23]

three quarters rejecting religious pluralism within Islam.[27] The European Monitoring Centre on Racismand Xenophobia reports that the Muslim population tends to suffer Islamophobia all over Europe, althoughthe perceptions and views of Muslims may vary.[28]

A 2015 poll by the Polish Centre for Public Opinion Research found that 44% of Poles have a negativeattitude towards Muslims, with only 23% having a positive attitude towards them. Furthermore, a majorityagreed with statements like "Muslims are intolerant of customs and values other than their own." (64%agreed, 12% disagreed), "Muslims living in Western European countries generally do not acquire customsand values that are characteristic for the majority of the population of that country." (63% agreed, 14%disagreed), "Islam encourages violence more than other religions." (51% agreed, 24% disagreed)[29]

The UN High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that 70% of the people of Albania [30][31][32] areMuslim, 91% in Kosovo, and 30% of them in Macedonia are Muslim. Bosnia has a Muslim plurality. Intranscontinental countries such as Turkey 99%, and 93% in Azerbaijan[33] of the population is Muslimrespectively. Muslims also form about one sixth of the population of Montenegro. In Russia, Moscow ishome to an estimated 1.5 million Muslims.[34][35][36]

Projections

A Pew Research Center study, published in January 2011,forecasted an increase of Muslims in European population from 6%in 2010 to 8% in 2030.[23] The study also found that Muslim fertilityrate in Europe would drop from 2.2 in 2010 to 2.0 in 2030. On theother hand, the non­Muslim fertility rate in Europe would increasefrom 1.5 in 2010 to 1.6 in 2030.[23] A Pew study published in 2015projected that in 2050 Muslims will make up 10.2% of Europe'spopulation.[37]

However a 2007 Center for Strategic and International Studies(CSIS) report argued that some Muslim population projections areoverestimated, as they assume that all descendants of Muslims willbecome Muslims even in cases of mixed parenthood.[38] PhilipJenkins of Penn State University estimates that by 2100, Muslimswill compose about 25% of Europe's population. Jenkins states this figure does not take account divergentbirthrates amongst Europe's immigrant Christians.[39] Other analysts are skeptical about the accuracy of theclaimed Muslim population growth, stating that because many European countries do not ask a person'sreligion on official forms or in censuses, it has been difficult to obtain accurate estimates, and arguing thatthere has been a decrease in Muslim fertility rates in Morocco, the Netherlands and Turkey.[40]

See also

European IslamBosnian GenocideJihadIslam by country

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Islamic cultureIslamic dress in EuropeIslamismEurabia7 July 2005 London bombingsA Common Word Between Us and YouRacism in EuropeIslamic terrorism in EuropeIslamophobic incidentsList of cities in the European Union by Muslim populationList of mosques in EuropeList of mosques in RussiaPersecution of MuslimsTurks in EuropeIslamic feminism

Organizations

Catholic–Muslim ForumEuropean Council for Fatwa and ResearchMuslim Council for Cooperation in EuropeMuslim Executive of Belgium

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global­muslim­population­regional­europe/). Pew Research Center). January 27, 2011.4. Hourani, Albert, History of the Arab Peoples, Faber & Faber, 2002, ISBN 0­571­21591­25. Manfred, W: "International Journal of Middle East Studies", pages 59­79, Vol. 12, No. 1. Middle East Studies

Association of North America, Aug 1980.6. "Roger II" (http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article­9377080/Roger­II). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved

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res=9B0DE1D61331F935A15757C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2)8. Archived link (http://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf): FromIslam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily, Charles Dalli, page 153. In Religion, ritual and mythology : aspects ofidentity formation in Europe / edited by Joaquim Carvalho, 2006, ISBN 88­8492­404­9.

9. Eade, John (1996). "Nationalism, Community, and the Islamization of Space in London". In Metcalf, BarbaraDaly. Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe (http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft2s2004p0&chunk.id=s1.12.69&toc.id=ch12&brand=ucpress). Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN 0520204042. Retrieved 19 April 2015. "As one of the few mosques in Britain permitted to broadcast callsto prayer (azan), the mosque soon found itself at the center of a public debate about “noise pollution” when localnon­Muslim residents began to protest."

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11. "Jefferson Versus the Muslim Pirates by Christopher Hitchens, City Journal Spring 2007" (http://www.city­journal.org/html/17_2_urbanities­thomas_jefferson.html).

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12. Milton, G (2005) White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow And Islam's One Million WhiteSlaves, Sceptre, London

13. "The Crimean Tatars and their Russian­Captive Slaves (http://www2.econ.hit­u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf)" (PDF). Eizo Matsuki, Mediterranean Studies Group atHitotsubashi University.

14. "Historical survey > Slave societies (http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article­24157)". EncyclopædiaBritannica,

15. Vikings in the East, Remarkable Eyewitness Accounts(http://www.nordicway.com/search/Vikings%20in%20the%20East.htm)

16. Encarta, Mongol Invasion of Russia (http://www.webcitation.org/5kwrYIYiP). Archived from the original(http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_17/Russia.html) on 2009­10­31.

17. http://media.hoover.org/sites/default/files/documents/Macedonia_and_the_Macedonians_Andrew_Rossos_63.pdf18. "Avalanche Press" (http://www.avalanchepress.com/Soldier_Khan.php). Retrieved 21 June 2015.19. Nasuh, Matrakci (1588). "Janissary Recruitment in the Balkans"

(http://warfare.netau.net/Ottoman/Suleymanname/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans.htm). Süleymanname,Topkapi Sarai Museum, Ms Hazine 1517.

20. Basgoz, I. & Wilson, H. E. (1989), The educational tradition of the Ottoman Empire and the development of theTurkish educational system of the republican era. Turkish Review 3(16), 15

21. The preaching of Islam: history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg. 135­144

22. Johannes Scheffler (1663). Türcken­Schrifft Von den Ursachen der Türkischen Überziehung. (trans. Writing onthe Turks: Of the causes of the Turkish invasion"). as quoted in Sir Thomas Walker Arnold (1896). Thepreaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith(https://archive.org/details/preachingofislam00arno)., pg. 158

23. Pew Forum, The Future of the Global Muslim Population, January 2011, [1] (http://www.pewforum.org/The­Future­of­the­Global­Muslim­Population.aspx)[2] (http://www.pewforum.org/The­Future­of­the­Global­Muslim­Population.aspx?print=true)[3] (http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the­future­of­the­global­muslim­population/), [4] (http://features.pewforum.org/muslim­population/), [5] (http://www.pewforum.org/future­of­the­global­muslim­population­regional­europe.aspx?print=true)

24. Cole, Jeffrey (2011), Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia, ABC­CLIO, p. 367, ISBN 1­59884­302­825. by example only 6% of the Russian population is Islamic here (http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/1997068)26. "What is the weight of Islam in France ?" (http://www.lemonde.fr/les­decodeurs/article/2015/01/21/que­pese­l­

islam­en­france_4559859_4355770.html). Les décodeurs (Le Monde). January 21, 2015.27. "Islamic fundamentalism is widely spread" (http://www.wzb.eu/en/press­release/islamic­fundamentalism­is­

widely­spread). Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung. December 9, 2013.28. European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (2006): Muslims in the European Union. Discrimination

and Islamophobia (http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/156­Manifestations_EN.pdf) RetrievedSeptember 25, 2012

29. "Postawy wobec Islamu i Muzułmanów" (http://cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2015/K_037_15.PDF) (PDF). MichałFeliksiak. CBOS. March 2015. (Polish)

30. Religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu (http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Albania/rbodies.html)31. Religiousintelligence.co.uk (http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=103)32. "Albania" (http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71364.htm). Religious Intelligence. United States Department

of State. Retrieved 2008­07­27.33. "Embassy of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the UK, Country Profile 2007, p.4"

(http://www.kazembassy.org.uk/img/Country%20Profile%202007_1.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2007­06­21.34. The rise of Russian Muslims worries Orthodox Church

(http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article551693.ece), The Times, 5 August 200535. Don Melvin, Europe works to assimilate Muslims

(http://www.ajc.com/news/content/news/stories/1204/17muslims.html), Atlanta Journal­Constitution, 2004­12­17,Archive copy(https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.ajc.com/news/content/news/stories/1204/17muslims.html) at theWayback Machine

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Further reading

Ghodsee, Kristen (2009). Muslim Lives in Eastern Europe: Gender, Ethnicity and the Transformationof Islam in Postsocialist Bulgaria (http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9068.html). Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press. ISBN 978­0­691­13955­5.

External links

For Muslim Minorities, it is Possible to Endorse Political Liberalism, But This is not Enough(http://ssrn.com/abstract=1574982)BBC News: Muslims in Europe(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/europe/2005/muslims_in_europe/)Khabrein.info: Barroso: Islam is part of Europe (http://www.khabrein.info/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14172&Itemid=88)Euro­Islam Website Coordinator Jocelyne Cesari, Harvard University and CNRS­GSRL, Paris(http://euro­islam.info/)

[10] (http://www.euro­islam.info/2013/01/23/the­numbers­of­french­muslims­and­muslims­in­france­are­exaggerated/)[11] (http://bibliobs.nouvelobs.com/essais/20121220.OBS3294/on­exagere­deliberement­le­nombre­de­musulmans­en­france.html)

Asabiyya: Re­Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies(http://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp4459.html)Why Europe has to offer a better deal towards its Muslim communities. A quantitative analysis ofopen international data (http://ideas.repec.org/b/erv/ebooks/b001.html)Köchler, Hans, Muslim­Christian Ties in Europe: Past, Present and Future(http://hanskoechler.com/ice.htm), 1996"Islam in Europe: A Resource Guide" (http://www.nypl.org/blog/2011/12/15/islam­europe­resource­guide). USA: New York Public Library. 2011.

36. Tolerance and fear collide in the Netherlands (http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/40ffd2eb4.html), UNHCR,Refugees Magazine, Issue 135 (New Europe)

37. "Projected Religious Population Changes in Europe ­ Pew Research Center"(http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/europe/). Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2 April2015. Retrieved 21 June 2015.

38. Esther Pan, Europe: Integrating Islam (http://www.cfr.org/publication/8252/europe.html), Council on ForeignRelations, 2005­07­13

39. Philip Jenkins, Demographics, Religion, and the Future of Europe, Orbis: A Journal of World Affairs, vol. 50,no. 3, pp. 533, summer 2006

40. Mary Mederios Kent, Do Muslims have more children than other women in western Europe?(http://www.prb.org/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx?p=1)[6](http://www.prb.org/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx)[7](http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx), Population Reference Bureau, February2008, Simon Kuper, Head count belies vision of ‘Eurabia’ (http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/123ade02­4e6f­11dc­85e7­0000779fd2ac,print=yes.html), Financial Times, 19 August 2007, Doug Saunders, The 'Eurabia' myth deserves adebunking(http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20080920.wreckoning20/BNStory/International/home/)[8] (http://dougsaunders.net/2008/09/eurabia­debunking­steyn­bawer­melanie­phillips­geert­wilders/)[9](http://dougsaunders.tumblr.com/post/7999134091/debunking­the­eurabia­myth), The Globe and Mail, 20September 2008, Islam and demography: A waxing crescent (http://www.economist.com/node/18008022/print),The Economist, 27 January 2011

8/18/2015 Islam in Europe ­ Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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