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Islam in Europe, Florida, 6 March 2009 Muslim Organisations, Multiculturalism & the UK State. Dr Seán McLoughlin Theology & Religious Studies University of Leeds, UK. Overview. 1) Muslims in Britain: a Very Brief Profile - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Islam in Europe, Florida, 6 March 2009
Muslim Organisations, Multiculturalism & the UK State
Dr Seán McLoughlin
Theology & Religious Studies
University of Leeds, UK
Overview
1) Muslims in Britain: a Very Brief Profile 2) From Race to Faith Relations: The State,
Multiculturalism & Established Church 3) From the Local to the National: Old & New Muslim
Leaderships 4) The Rise & Fall of the Muslim Council of Britain
(MCB) 5) The State & Muslim Leaderships after ‘7/7’
1) Muslims in Britain: Profile
Religious Question 2001 Census– 1.6 million (hitherto estimates 1M - 3M)– 2nd largest; Hindus (552k), Sikhs (329k), etc– Grown 60% since 1991; 3% pop in England
Nearly 50% Pakistani - 75% South Asian overall– 96% Pakistanis & Bangladeshis & 16% Indians Muslim
Others... – Middle East, Africa, Eastern Europe – some refugees rather
than labour migrants– 5-10,000++ converts
1) Muslims in Britain: Profile
Geographical Distribution:– London – 1/3 of all Muslims; most diverse– West Midlands – Birmingham (140k); – West Yorkshire – Bradford (75k); – Lancashire – Manchester (35k)
High unemployment, low educational qualifications: – 60% Pakistanis / Bangladeshis low incomes compared to 16% of Whites– but also ‘YUMMies’
The consequences of migration context: – Pakistanis / Bangladeshis less mobile / more conservative than Indian &
‘African’ Asians (‘Twice Migrants’). – Social & cultural capital.
2) From Race to Faith Relations
Immigration, Citizenship, Race & Ethnic Relations:– Commonwealth citizenship – Race riots 1950s – Immigration legislation from early 1960s– Discrimination legislation - 1966 & 1976.
Multiculturalism: – Liberal accommodation of cultural difference from 1960s.– 1980s - de-industrialisation & riots. – New politics of recognition. Ad hoc. Localised. Minority votes.
Lord Parekh (2000) The Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain – Between liberalism & greater pluralism?
2) From Race to Faith Relations
New Labour, Glocal Crises & Community Cohesion: Riots in northern mill towns & ‘9/11’.
– Failure of Multiculturalism? Discourse about citizenship & loyalty.
Renewal of ‘civic identity’: – ‘Shared values’ and ‘common citizenship’ to ‘minimise...further
disorder’ (Denham, 2002: 1-2). – ‘Rights’ and ‘responsibilities’. More critical dialogues.
Increased regulation & securitisation: – Citizenship, language tests (e.g. imams), forced marriage, anti /
counter-terrorism
2) From Race to Faith Relations
The Church of England & Muslims: The impact of Church-State relations (cf Fetzer & Soper,
2005): – Key role in institutions & civic life– Models of what ‘religion’ should be - liberal, tolerant,
No recognition of ‘other faiths’ – Church legitimates - & mediates - public religion. – Importance of inter- & multi-faith alliances.– Symbolic recognition of sacred versus secular?
But other faiths lack capacities & infrastructure. – NB Religious authority structures - Islam not a ‘church’.
2) From Race to Faith Relations
The Faith Relations Industry? Inner Cities Religious Council (1992)
– Religious communities = people, networks, organizations, buildings = urban regeneration.
New Labour (1997) engaged ‘faith’ more widely. – Cf Communitarianism– Religion a source of ‘bonding’, ‘bridging’ & ‘linking’ capital (Putnam,
2000)
Accessing excluded Muslims & promote ‘cohesion’ through Interfaith dialogue.
– But idealised? Opposition. Encorporation of religion?
3) From the Local to the National: Old & New Muslim Leaderships
Grassroots ‘Muslim’ organising: – Mosques.
Highly gendered, ethnic spaces.
– ‘Lay’ & ‘religious’ leaders. Former often been the public face. Bridging / linking social capital.
1970s-90s: – Interlocutors of local state:
Representative bodies & public recognition. Also calming influence on youth?
– Surface co-operation of leaders rather than engaging the whole community. ‘Difference multiculturalism’ = autonomy.
3) From the Local to the National: Old & New Muslim Leaderships
Rushdie Affair (1989) – Strengths & weaknesses of grassroots leadership– No Members of Parliament – Irrelevant national umbrella organisation (Union of Muslim
Organisations, 1970)
UK Action Committee on Islamic Affairs (UKACIA)– ‘New’ alliance of reformist Islamist & neo-traditionalist businessmen
& professionals – Peaceful national lobby, work with media … but failed.
‘Old’ (g)local leadership – Book-burning in Bradford followed by Ayatollah’s fatwa
3) From the Local to the National: Old & New Muslim Leaderships
1990s UKACIA engaged strategy: – Recognise Muslims as ‘Muslims’ on national level. – Blasphemy, Religious Discrimination? No joy.
1994 Home Secretary – Muslims must “speak with one voice”.– NB 1997 Islamophobia report (Runnymede Trust).
Impetus for Muslim Council of Britain (1997) – modelled on Jewish Board of Deputies
‘British citizens with an Islamic heritage’ ‘a more enlightened appreciation of Islam and Muslims’ ‘better community relations and work[ing] for the good of society as a whole’
4) The Rise & Fall of the Muslim Council of Britain
1997 – New Labour: – Widespread national recognition of Muslims:
MPs, state-funded schools, chaplains, Census.
The Honeymoon Period:– MCB ‘first port of call’ for government, civil society agencies
General Secretaries (1997-2006) – First two prosperous African Asian & Indian businessmen.
Membership / affiliates:– NB 1/3 to 1/2 reformist Islamist heritage
e.g. Islamic Foundation, Islamic Society of Britain
– Alliances with neo-traditionalists but few Sufi links.
4) The Rise & Fall of the Muslim Council of Britain
However, MCB unable to influence foreign policy: – State grooming of ‘moderates’ failed
War on Terror after ‘9/11’ - ‘Stop the War’ alliance. Shift of Muslim votes
– Dangers of state patronage for minority leaderships.
Criticism from other Muslim organisations – e.g. Q-News - authoritarian / delusions of grandeur?
Significant stage in evolution of Muslim representation.– Adapted to spaces allowed by public reason.– But dangers of identity politics - too absolutising of ‘Muslim’
difference?
5) State & Muslim Leaderships after ‘7/7’
Overwhelming significance of ‘7/7’ for UK– British born bombers - 1000 arrested, 50 charged– Growing influence of Wahhabism & Salafism; promise to ban ‘radical
Islamists’ e.g. Hizb al-Tahrir – ‘Islamophobia’ - verbal & physical abuse
New visibility / scrutiny of diasporic public spheres– ‘Mediatisation’ - various media exposés:
Affiliates’ demonisation of West; support Hamas but not Holocaust Memorial (Observer 14.08.05)
– NB Predicament of diasporas – ‘double consciousness’.
From clear distinction of Islam from terrorism after 9/11 – to Blair’s call for modernising reform (Guardian 04.07.06)
5) State & Muslim Leaderships after ‘7/7’
State now ‘re-balancing’ partnerships & funding – 2005 ‘Preventing Extremism Together’ working groups:
Radical Middle Way roadshow Mosques & Imams National Advisory Board (MINAB)
– 2006 - Sufi Muslim Council: Silent majority? Lacked institutional expression. Classical Islam v politics?
Traditional religious leaders enter ‘struggle for Islam’– Denounce radicals theologically as ‘Wahhabi’ etc.
Wider trend since 9/11 of mature, self-critical, cosmopolitan Muslim voices
– condemning militancy from many lineages / constituencies
5) State & Muslim Leaderships after ‘7/7’
The Future?– Continuing Muslim self-regulation – Or greater state intervention / legislation? (Birt, 2006)
e.g. a state-sponsored UK shariah council?
Still a UK commitment to the spirit of multiculturalism– Even if the term itself compromised– Still clear distinctions vis-à-vis France
e.g. on veiling
N.B. 2007 - The Racial and Religious Hatred Act – A sop to Muslims because of expanded securitisation?– Riddled with exceptions / qualifications