Irradiation of spices, herbs and other vegetable seasonings...spices are grown, and which survive the drying process. The source of contamination may be dust, insects, faecal materials

IAEA-TECDOC-639

Irradiation of spices, herbs andother vegetable seasonings

A compilation of technical data for itsauthorization and control

International Consultative Group on Food Irradiationestablished under the aegis of

FAO, IAEA, WHO

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

February 1992

The IAEA does not normally maintain stocks of reports in this series.However, microfiche copies of these reports can be obtained from

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IRRADIATION OF SPICES, HERBS AND OTHER VEGETABLE SEASONINGSIAEA, VIENNA, 1992lAEA-TECDOC-639

ISSN 1011-4289

Printed by the IAEA in AustriaFebruary 1992

FOREWORD

The International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI) wasestablished on 9 May 1984 under the aegis of FAO, IAEA and WHO. ICGFI iscomposed of experts and other representatives designated by governments whichhave accepted the terms of the "Declaration" establishing ICGFI and havepledged to make voluntary contributions, in cash or in kind, to carry out theactivities of ICGFI.

The functions of ICGFI are as follows:

a) to evaluate global developments in the field of food irradiation,b) to provide a focal point of advice on the application of food

irradiation to Member States and the Organizations; andc) to furnish information as required, through the Organizations, to the

Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Commission on the Wholesoraeness of IrradiatedFood, and the Codex Alimentarius Commission.

As of 31 December 1991, the following countries had become members ofICGFI:

Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada,Chile, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Ecuador, Egypt, France, Germany,Ghana, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Malaysia,Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Poland,Syria, Thailand, Turkey, United Kingdom, united States of America, VietNam and Yugoslavia.

This publication contains a compilation of all available scientific andtechnical data on the irradiation of spices, herbs and other vegetableseasonings. It is intended to assist governments in considering theauthorization of this particular application of radiation processing of foodand in ensuring its control in the facility and the control of irradiatedfood products moving in trade. The Compilation was prepared in response tothe requirement of the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods andassociated Code that radiation treatment of food be justified on the basis ofa technological need or of a need to improve the hygienic quality of the food.

It was prepared also in response to the recommendations of theFAO/IAEA/WHO/ITC-UNCTAD/GATT International Conference on the Acceptance,Control of and Trade in Irradiated Food (Geneva, 1989) concerning the needfor regulatory control of radiation processing of food.

It is hoped that the information contained in this publication willassist governments in considering requests for the approval of radiationtreatment of spices, herbs and other vegetable seasonings, or requests forauthorization to import such irradiated products.

It is suggested that the various guidelines, codes and other documentsadopted by ICGFI or prepared under ICGFI's auspices be also consulted (seeReferences).

The present Compilation of Data was prepared by Prof. J. Farkas,University of Horticulture and Food Industry, Budapest, Hungary, on behalf ofICGFI. It has been referenced as ICGFI Document No. 12.

EDITORIAL NOTE

In preparing this material for the press, staff of the International Atomic Energy Agency havemounted and paginated the original manuscripts and given some attention to presentation.

The views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the governments of the Member States ororganizations under whose auspices the manuscripts were produced.

The use in this book of particular désignations of countries or territories does not imply anyjudgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of theirauthorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries.

The mention of specific companies or of their products or brand names does not imply anyendorsement or recommendation on the pan of the IAEA.

This text was compiled before the unification of Germany in October 1990. Therefore the namesGerman Democratic Republic and Federal Republic of Germany have been retained.

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 7

2. SCOPE AND PURPOSE ............................................................................... 8

3. JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROCESS .............................................................. 11

3.1. Alternative methods for reducing the microbial contaminationof diy commodities ................................................................................ 11

3.2. Description of the radiation decontamination process ...................................... 123.3. Recommended dose ranges ...................................................................... 163.4. Requirements for the commodities to be irradiated ......................................... 183.5. Requirements for packaging/storage ........................................................... 193.6. Labelling requirements ............................................................................ 203.7. Methods of detection/determination of irradiation treatment .............................. 213.8. Dosimetry and process control .................................................................. 253.9. End product specification ........................................................................ 28

4. WHOLESOMENESS DATA .......................................................................... 29

5. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CLEARANCES ........................................ 34

6. RECOMMENDATIONS ON CONTROL AND REGULATORY PROVISIONS .......... 38

REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 41

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................... 51

1. INTRODUCTION

The International Document on Food Irradiation (Anon., 1989a) adopted bythe Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO/ITC-UNCTAD/GATT Conference on the Acceptance, Controlof and Trade in Irradiated Food, Geneva, 12-16 December 19B8, recommendedthat consideration be given to the application of food irradiation technologyfor public health benefits, for the reduction of post-harvest losses and forquarantine treatment of certain foods. Reference is made to the Codex GeneralStandard for Irradiated Foods (Anon., 1984a) and the RecommendedInternational Code of Practice for the Operation of Irradiation Facilitiesused for the Treatment of Foods (Anon., 1984b) which have been sent toGovernments for acceptance. These documents were established on the basis ofthe Report of a Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee on Wholesomeness ofIrradiated Food (JECFI, 1981). After evaluation of the results of extensivewholesomeness studies on irradiated foods, including dry food ingredients,the JECFI which met in 1980 concluded that irradiation of any food commodityup to an overall average dose of 1O kGy presents no toxicological hazard andirradiated foods do not pose specific microbiological and nutritionalproblems.

Among food irradiation applications, radiation decontamination ofspices, condiments and dried herbs has the most immediate applicationpotential in many countries. This compilation was prepared under thesponsorship of ICGFI, and it is intended to provide justification for theradiation decontamination of spices, herbs and other vegetable seasonings,and to provide information for Governments when developing regulationspermitting this specific application of food irradiation and/or permittingthe importation of such irradiated commodities. Governments are invited tonotify the Secretariat of ICGFI of their intended action concerning theauthorization of the food irradiation process, and sale of irradiated foods,and/or importation of irradiated foods, especially from other ICGFI membercountries.

2. SCOPE AND PURPOSE

According to the International Trade Centre UNCTAD/GATT "spices may bedefined as one of the various strongly flavoured or aromatic substances ofvegetable origin obtained from tropical and other plants, commonly used ascondiments or employed for other purposes on account of their fragrance andpreservative qualities" (Anon., 1982a). Condiments are spices alone, orblends of spices which have been formulated with other flavour potentiatorsto enhance the flavour of foods. The so-called "true spices" (pepper,cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, etc.) are products of tropical plants, and may bebark, roots, buds, fruit or other parts. Herbs are usually from leafy partsof plants of the temperate zone (oregano, marjoram, basil, etc.)- Spice seeds(mustard, caraway, celery, anise, etc.) may be either from tropical ortemperate areas. Dehydrated vegetable seasonings (onion, garlic, parsley,etc.) are also important items. The characteristics and nomenclature of allcommonly recognized spices and condiments have been reviewed by Pruthi (198O).

Under the prevailing production and handling conditions, most spices,herbs and other vegetable seasonings contain a large number of microorganismscapable of causing spoilage, or, more rarely, disease. The microorganisms arethose which are indigenous to the soil and surroundings in which herbs andspices are grown, and which survive the drying process. The source ofcontamination may be dust, insects, faecal materials from birds and rodents,and possibly the water used in some processes, e.g. for soaking pepper in thepreparation of white pepper. Fungal growth may occur prior to drying, orduring drying, storage, and shipping.

The viable cell counts of spices and herbs of various origins can showdeviations of several log cycles, and large variations may occur in themicrobial count of different lots of the same commodity (ICMSF, 198O)(Table 1 ). There is no apparent correlation between the country of origin,the seasoning quality and numbers of microorganisms of predominant flora.Black pepper, turmeric, paprika, allspice, and marjoram are the spices mosthighly contaminated with bacteria.

The aerobic plate count of these spices may sometimes reach the 8O- tolOO-million-per-gram level. Anaerobes are less numerous than aerobicbacteria. Dry herbal teas have also revealed significant levels of microbial

Table 1

Contamination of untreated spices and herbs with bacteria and moulds

Product Percentage incidence ofaerobic plate count/g mould count/g

"105 -106 >107 • 104 >105 >106

AllspiceAniseBasileBayCapsicum( Chili )CarawayCardamomCassiaCinnamonClovesCorianderCuminFennelFenugreekGarlicGingerMaceMarjoramMustardNutmegOreganoPaprikaPepper( black )Pepper( white )SageSavoryThymeTurmeric

9041861061

24403

254636726503752778108328997

62

47108596

45538343

63304026251320970331498092

5

605375

300012

000201300000050001842

0

00029

251361119

7015643513025011429299530

61

500873

700012

0010009130250000000025

25

0060

00005

00000000000000000

23

2

0000

Source: ICMSF, 1980 (see REFERENCES)

contamination (Grünewald, 1984; Saint-Lèbe et. al., 1985). In one study,7 ßtotal counts as high as 10 to 1O microorganisms per gram were found in

about 1O% of charoomile samples investigated, while about 8O% of the samplesc o

contained between 1O and 1O microorganisms per gram (Katusin-Razem etal., 1983).

In many spices, the majority of the microbial flora consists ofsoil-originated aerobic mesophilic spore-forming bacteria (Fabri et al.,1985; Ito et al., 1985; Neumayer et al., 1983). Aerobic bacterial spores mayfrequently form more than 5O% of the mesophilic total viable count. Theproportion of obligate anaerobe spore formers is usually small. Thermophilicanaerobes and aerobes are found occasionally, sometimes in moderate numbers.Concerning potentially pathogenic bacteria, the frequent occurrence of B.cereus in spices was reported. In extreme cases, B. cereus counts up to10 /g were found (Baxter and Holzapfel, 1982). A relatively high incidenceof Clostr idium perf r ingens has also been found in some herbs and spices (DeBoer and Boot, 1983). Since spores of these organisms may survive cooking

otemperatures and will grow in foods at temperatures between 2O and 5O C,spices harboring these spores must be considered as a potential health hazard.

Although spices may not be suitable substrate for the growth or longsurvival of Salmonellae, occasional Salmonella contamination has been foundboth in samples of spices and herbs and in some herbal teas (Bockemühl andWohlers, 1984; Niemand, 1985). Even this rare presence of Salmonella is ofspecial concern because spices and herbs are often used on foods that areconsumed raw, or they are added to foods after cooking, while herbal drugsare frequently consumed after only maceration or infusion, not boiling.Indeed, black and white pepper have been implicated as vehicles of infectionin some outbreaks of salmonellosis in Canada (Laidley et al., 1974), andSweden (Persson, 1988) while black pepper has also proved to be the source ofa Salmonella epidemic in Norway (Anon., 1982b).

Spices play a major etiological part in mould contamination of meatproducts. Mould counts of spices do not correlate with the aerobic platecounts of spices. White pepper, black pepper, chili, and coriander seem tobe most heavily contaminated with moulds (ICMSF, 198O). The main componentsof fungal contamination both in spices and herbal drugs are those belongingto the genera of Aspergillus and Pénicillium (Ito e_t al., 1985). Relativelyhigh incidence of toxigenic moulds has been detected (ICMSF, 198O; Llewellynet. al.., 1981) .

10

The health- and/or spoilage-hazards presented by a food ingredient mustbe evaluated always in the context of its use. The problem of microbialcontamination is of particular concern in the case of foods which are notheat-treated effectively before consumption (various sauces, smoked products,instant soup powders, herbal products for infusion, etc.)- While freedomfrom pathogenic microorganisms or microbial toxins in levels which mayrepresent a hazard to health is a general requirement, contamination ofingredients with heat-resistant bacterial spores is for many food processorsespecially troublesome. The thermoduric bacterial spores introduced to foodproducts with ingredients often necessitate a severe subsequent heattreatment/ which ensures the microbiological storage stability only at thecost of a substantial reduction in the nutritional and sensory quality of themanufactured product. Such problems account for attempts to reduce the viablecell counts of these ingredients and eliminate specific potentiallypathogenic microorganisms by an appropriate decontamination treatment.

3. JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROCESS

3.1. Alternative Methods for Reducing the Microbial Contamination of DryCommodit ies

Because of volatility and/or heat sensitivity of the delicate flavourand aroma components of spices and herbs, normal heat sterilization cannot beused (Maarse and Nijssen, 198O) without adversely affecting flavour andcolour (Sorenson, 1989) and steam treatment of coated spice granules or theextrusion technique (USP, 1985) are also of limited utility. Microwavetreatment (Neumayer et: al., 1983) or ultraviolet irradiation (Eschmann, 1965)has been tried but is considered unsuitable for decontamination of these drycommodities. Volatile oils, spice extracts or oleoresins are practically freefrom microorganisms, but their flavour quality and spicing power generally donot equal those of the original spices (Anon, 1982c); further, solventresidues in the extracts may be of concern (Farkas, 1988).

The most widely used method for decontamination of dry ingredients wasuntil recently fumigation with ethylene oxide (Gerhardt and Ladd Effio,1982). Even though ethylene oxide is a relatively efficient microbicidal

11

agent, fumigation is a time-consuming batch procedure, it appears to be besetwith problems concerning the uniformity of decontamination, and it requirescomplex process-monitoring (Frohnsdorff, 1981). The residual absorbedethylene oxide level may be fairly high after treatment, and although itdecreases continuously during subsequent storage of the fumigated product,this is frequently due to further chemical reactions rather than simply toloss of the gas (Gerhardt and Ladd Effio, 1983).

In addition to ethylene glycol, ethylene chlorohydrin (ECH) and ethylenebroraohydrin (EBH) may be formed during ethylene oxide fumigation, andethylene chlorohydrin is more persistent than ethylene oxide (Wesley et al.,1965; Heuser and Scudamore, 1969). Both ethylene oxide and ethylenechlorohydrin are mutagens and they are also suspected of causing otherchronic or delayed toxic effects (Gerhardt and Ladd Effio, 1983; Wesley etal., 1965; Heuser and Scudamore, 1969; Pfeiffer and Dunkelberg, 1981;Ehrenberg and Hussain, 1981; Hogstedt e_t al., 1979; Dunkelberg, 1981;Kligerraan et aj.., 1983; OSHA, 1984).

Thus ethylene oxide fumigation represents a significant occupationalhealth hazard for workers in the fumigation plants (OSHA, 1984;Osterman-Golkar, 1983) and the presence of residues in the treatedcommodities gives rise to more and more toxicological concern, and more andmore regulatory restrictions are being introduced (Neumayer et al., 1983;Gerhardt and Ladd Effio, 1982; OSHA, 1984). The UNEP/ILO/WHO Expert Panel onEthylene Oxide (WHO, 1985) concluded that "ethylene oxide should beconsidered as a human carcinogen and its levels in the environment should bekept as low as feasible". The use of ethylene oxide for fumigation of foodand food ingredients has been already banned, for example, in Switzerland(Grünewald, 1984), Japan (Kawabata, 1982), the FRG (Frank and Beyer, 1984),Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands (Loaharanu, 199O). An EC Directiveprohibits the use of ethylene oxide within the European Community after 199Owithout derogation (EC, 1989a).

3.2. Description of the Radiation Decontamination Process

Research and development in the past 35 years on a large variety of dryfood ingredients and herbs has proved that treatment with ionizing radiationis an effective process for destroying contaminating organisms (Farkas,1988). The largest amount of work so far has been devoted to the irradiationof spices and condiments.

12

Radiation decontamination is a technically feasible, economically viableand safe physical process. It is a well controllable technology, requires noadditives and is highly efficient.

Radiation processing, particularly with gamma rays, is moreover arelatively simple technology. Materials to be treated are exposed to acontrolled amount of radiation (ionizing energy) from a permissible radiationsource. Appropriate radiation sources and conditions of radiation treatmentare defined in the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods (Anon., 1984a)and the associated Recommended International Code of Practice for theOperation of Irradiation Facilities used for the Treatment of Foods(Anon., 1984b).

Food irradiation technology and techniques have a very substantialliterature. Besides countless original articles and reports, they aredescribed in a number of comprehensive reviews, (e.g. Farkas, 1988; Josephsonand Peterson, 1982-1983; Anon., 1982d; Urbain, 1986; Diehl, 199O).Fundamentals of the process can be summarized as follows:

For practical reasons, ionizing radiations applied for food irradiationare limited to gamma rays from isotopic sources such as Co and Cs,and to machine-produced X-rays (of energies up to 5 MeV) or acceleratedelectrons (with energies up to 1O MeV). These radiation sources have beenchosen because:

i) they produce the desired effects with respect to the foods,ii> they do not induce radioactivity in foods or packaging materials,

andiii) they are available in quantities and at costs that allow

commercial use of the process. Other kinds of ionizing radiationsfail in one or more respects to meet the requirements for use infood irradiation.

High energy electron beams for radiation processing are produced bymeans of accelerating machines. When a beam of high energy electrons collideswith a dense metal target (such as tungsten or gold) X-rays (Bremsstrahlung)are produced within the target as the electrons are stopped.

13

Gamma rays and X-rays are the same type of electromagnetic radiation.There are, however, differences between "Bremsstrahlung" and gamma radiation,which influence their utility; in contrast with the discrete energy levels ofgamma rays from isotopic sources , X-ray machines produce electromagneticradiation in a broad energy spectrum. Gamma rays are emitted in alldirections, unlike the high energy "Bremsstrahlung", which is emittedpreferentially in the direction of the electron beam which produces it(forward scattering property).

Gamma rays and X-rays have a high penetrating capacity compared toaccelerated electrons. Penetration depends on the kinetic energy of photonsor electrons and on the density of the product to be treated. The usefulpenetration can be increased by irradiating both sides of the material.

Except for differences in penetration, electromagnetic ionizingradiations and electron beams are equivalent in food irradiation and can beused interchangeably.

The effect which ionizing radiations have is related to the amount ofenergy which the food absorbs from the radiation (the absorbed dose). Theabsorbed dose (sometimes referred to simply as dose), is the amount of energyabsorbed per unit mass of irradiated material at a point in the region ofinterest. The Si-derived unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). 1 gray isthe dose absorbed by 1 kilogram material when 1 joule energy is transmittedto it by an ionizing radiation (1 Gy = 1 J/kg).

Treatment of food with ionizing radiation causes almost no temperaturerise in the product. Irradiation can be applied through packaging materialsincluding those which cannot withstand heat. Since radiation can be appliedto hermetically packaged products, re-contamination or re-infestation can beprevented by proper packaging prior to radiation treatment.

An irradiation facility can be operated as a component of a foodprocessing line or bulk store, or it can be operated as a service facility ona fee paying basis. The necessary size of the facility is governed by thedose requirement for the product and the throughput (kg per hour), plus thenumber of hours per year it is to be operated.

The process of food irradiation must be carried out in facilitieslicensed, registered and controlled by the appropriate national authorities,and be subject to periodic inspection by these authorities. An ICGFI

14

guideline document regarding the licensing of food irradiation facilities isin draft (ICGFI, 1988b).

Irradiation facilities provide for treatment of foods under controlledconditions. In any given application, the amount of radiation is controlledby knowing the rate of energy output of the source, by controlling thephysical relationship (mainly distance) between the source and targetmaterial, and by controlling the time of treatment. Dose rate from gammasources is usually below 1O Gy/s. Dose rate from electron accelerators is

• Ousually between 1O and 5xlO Gy/s.

Depending on the design of the irradiation facility and theirradiation requirements, the products can be treated in packages orcontainers, or they can be treated in bulk. The commodities concerned inthis monograph are best packaged before irradiation in order to avoidre-contamination after radiation treatment. Since radiation processing doesnot induce radioactivity or heat, products can be handled or shipped as soonas they have been treated.

Besides the radiation source, basic components of irradiationfacilities are the irradiation cell (biological shield) designed to protectoperating personnel from exposure to radiation, the maze and some form ofcarrier or conveyor system to bring the food product in proximity to thesource for processing, and a safety interlock/control console system.

The maze (labyrinth) allows the products to pass through the shieldingwithout allowing radiation to escape from the irradiation cell. Shieldingmaterials that have been evolved over the years include high densityconcrete, mild steel, lead and earth. The labyrinth makes use of theproperty of radiations to travel in straight lines only.

For a given product presented in an established loading pattern and ata given source size or machine output, the speed of the conveyor movementwill determine the dose absorbed. An interlock system ensures that conveyormovement occurs when the source is in the "exposure" position or the machineis switched on. Conversely, no conveyor movement should occur when theisotopic source is in the "safe" position or the machine source is "off",thus ensuring that products cannot pass through the cell without receivingtreatment.

15

3.3. Recommended Dose Ranges

Depending on the number and type of microorganisms, and the chemicalcomposition of the commodity, a radiation dose of up to 2O kGy may berequired to achieve commercial "sterility" (i.e. a total viable cell count ofless than 1O per gram) in natural spices and herbs; however, doses of 3 to 1OkGy can reduce the viable cell counts to an acceptable level (from 1O7 41O per gram to less than 1O per gram) (Zehnder and Ettel, 1982;

Grünewald, 1984; Farkas, 1988). This dose range is approximately equal inmicrobicidal effect to commercial fumigation with ethylene oxide.

The number of bacterial spores normally decreases by at least 2 ordersof magnitude as a result of irradiation with 5 kGy. A dose of 4-5 kGy caneliminate moulds at least as efficiently as ethylene oxide treatment.Thermophilic bacteria, of great importance to the canning industry, can bepractically eliminated with the same radiation dose as that necessary for asufficient reduction of the total aerobic viable count. Bacteria of theEnterobacteriaceae family are relatively radiation sensitive even in dryingredients, and in most cases a dose of approximately 5 kGy seems to besufficient, for their elimination. The germicidal efficiency of irradiationis much less dependent on the moisture conditions than is that of ethyleneoxide.

The surviving microflora of spices treated with such "pasteurizing"doses of ionizing radiation have lower heat- and salt-resistance and are moredemanding as regards pH, moisture and growth temperature requirements thanthose of untreated spices, which further reduces their ability to survive andgrow in processed food products (Farkas e_t al., 1973; Kiss and Farkas, 1981;Farkas and Andrassy, 1985). The heat-sensitizing effect of irradiationincreases with increasing radiation dose and the weakening of the survivingmicroflora in irradiated dry ingredients is permanent and does not diminishduring normal storage of the ingredients (Farkas and Andrassy, 1984).

No substantial changes were found in the volatile oil content and inthe amount of other chemical constituents of most spices treated with dosesof up to 10-15 kGy (Neumayer e£ al., 1983; Farkas et al., 1973; Farkas, 1988;Farkas and Andrassy, 1988; Bahari et al., 1988; Weber, 1983; Zehnder, 198O;Josimovic, 1983). The doses of 3-1O kGy sufficient for "pasteurization" donot influence the sensory properties of the overwhelming majority of spices(Farkas, 1988; Farkas and Andrassy, 1988; Eiss, 1984). The threshold doses

16

required to produce organoleptic changes in spices and herbs detectable bysensory panels are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2

Threshold doses causing organoleptic changes in spices andherbs detectable by sensory panels

Product Threshold dose (T.D.)in kGy

Allspice (pimento)BasilCarawayCardamomCayenne pepperCelery seedCharlockChiveCinnamonClovesCoriander

CuminCurryDill tipsFennelFenugreek

Garlic powder

Ginger (dry)JuniperLemon peel (powdered)Marjoram

Mustard seedNutmegOnion powder

Orange peel (powdered)OreganoPaprikaPepper, blackPepper, whiteRed pepperSageThymeTurmeric

15.0>10.012.57.510.0>10.010.0

4.0< T.D. <8.010.0< T.D. <20.0

<20.0< 5.0(odour)

<5.0 but also >10.06.0 - 10.0

>10.0>10.0>10.0< 5.0(odour)10.0

3.0< T.D. <4.5(aged sample)

>10.0(fresh sample)

>10.0>15.0

5.0< T.D. <10.0< 5.0(odour)

5.0< T.D <10.0 but also >10.0>10.0>10.0<10.0

(optical index, colour)8.0< T.D. <16.0(smell, taste)5.0< T.D. <10.0

>10.0> 8.0> 7.5> 9.010.0>10.0>10.0

5.0< T.D. <10.0

Source: Farkas, 1988 (see REFERENCES)

17

Experiments have demonstrated packaging and storage conditions toaffect the quality of spices more than radiation treatment. The antioxidantproperties of some spices remained unaltered by the radiation decontaminationtreatment (Ito et al., 1985; Kuruppu e_t al., 1985). Varied resultsconcerning the threshold dose of organoleptic changes in some spices andherbs as shown in Table 2 may be due to various reasons. One of them is thatradiation sensitivity may depend on the age of the seasoning beingirradiated. Aged samples, where aroma qualities deteriorated in storage ortypical aroma had been at a low level prior to decontamination treatment, maybe more sensitive to radiation treatment than fresh, aroma-intensive batches(Funke e_t al., 1984).

Recent comparative flavour profile studies with selected spices (blackpepper, paprika, onion powder, and garlic powder) showed less change in theflavour .profile of radiation decontaminated than fumigated samples (Farkasand Andrassy, 1988). It should be noted that even in cases where thesensitive methods of sensory panels may detect a statistically significantdifference in flavour between untreated and radiation decontaminated spices,the spicing power is usually not influenced or not to an extent which affectsthe applicability of radiation decontaminated spices in the food industry(Eiss, 1984).

Because of the much greater sensitivity of insects thanmicroorganisms, it goes without saying that radiation treatment formicrobiological purposes always ensures insect disinfestation as well, thedose requirement for which does not exceed 1 kGy.

3.4. Requirements for the Commodities to be Irradiated

Food and food ingredients for all types of further processing shouldbe handled hygienically. Therefore, irradiation of spices, condiments anddried herbs should only be used as an additional safeguard when goodmanufacturing practice (GMP) has been met. Minimum requirements of hygienefor harvesting and post-harvest technology of spices and herbs (curing,bleaching, drying, cleaning, grinding, packing, transportation and storage)are described in the Proposed Draft Code of Hygienic Practice for Spices andCondiments (Codex, 1989a).

Regarding specific microbiological requirements for spices, herbs, andvegetable seasoning to be further processed, including by irradiation, anICGFI Consultation has concluded that some provisional guidelines may be

18

useful to orientate both processors and food control authorities concerningthe probability of problems in manufacturing, and handling practices worthyof further investigation. According to the Report of that Consultation (WHO,1989), most untreated spices, herbs and vegetable seasonings, harvested andhandled under hygienic conditions and tested by appropriate methods ofsampling and examination should contain

4- not more than 1O coliform bacteria per gram;- not more than 10 mould propagules per gram.

However, the Consultation recommended that systematic studies shouldbe performed to establish more relevant microbiological data onrepresentative samples of lots of spices and herbs produced under goodmanufacturing, handling and storage practices.

3.5. Requirements for Packaging/Storage

Most types of packaging and packaging materials required to maintainquality and prevent infestation and contamination of spices, condiments anddried herbs, are also suitable to ensure that the post-irradiation quality ofthe product is maintained under proper storage conditions. Most of packagingmaterials do not undergo deleterious changes as a result of irradiationwithin the recommended upper limit of 1O kGy (Killoran, 1983).

Because irradiation may brown glass, this material may be unsuitablefor terminal irradiation (irradiation in final package) whenever thedarkening which eventually results might be a disadvantage (ICGFI, 1988a).In some cases, however, brown glass is preferred.

The size and shape of product packages are determined in part byproduct transport systems of the irradiation plant and the radiation sourcesused, as they relate to the dose distribution obtained within the package.

No special requirements exist for the post-irradiation handling andstorage of spices and dried herbs, and the storage stability of dryingredients is not impaired by radiation decontamination (Farkas, 1988; Eiss,1984). On the contrary, it was demonstrated that due to radiation damage ofsurvivors radiation decontamination doses may prevent mould growth inproperly packaged spices even under high relative humidity, which is animportant additional potential benefit, particularly for spice-producing

19

developing countries (Ito e_t al., 1985; Farkas, 1988; Lebai Juri et al.,1986).

3.6. Labelling Requirements

The Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods (Anon., 1984a) statesthat for irradiated foods, whether prepackaged or not, the declaration of thefact of irradiation shall be made clear on the relevant shipping documents,which shall give also appropriate information to identify the registeredfacility which has irradiated the food, the date(s) of treatment and lotidentification.

For pre-packaged foods intended for direct consumption therequirements are described in the Codex General Standard for the Labelling ofPrepackaged Foods (Codex, 1989b). While foods treated by other physicalpreservation processes such as heating, refrigeration or freezing are notrequired to be labelled that they are so treated, the Codex General Standardfor the Labelling of Prepackaged Food, as amended by the 19th Session of theCodex Alimentarius Commission, states that:-

"5.2.1. The label of a food which has been treated with ionizingradiation shall carry a written statement indicating that treatment in closeproximity to the name of the food. The use of the international foodirradiation symbol, as shown below , is optional, but when used it shall bein close proximity to the name of the food.

5.2.2. When an irradiated product is used as an ingredient in anotherfood, this shall be so declared in the list of ingredients.

5.2.3. When a single ingredient product is prepared from a rawmaterial which has been irradiated, the label of the product shall contain astatement indicating the treatment."

Labelling of minor ingredients and second generation products producedwith irradiated ingredients is a complicated and controversial issue(Ladomery and Nocera, 198O), and views of governments vary significantly from

20

no labelling of "second generation irradiated food" in the USA, to labellingof all irradiated ingredients in the food in the case of Denmark. A surveyof national regulations, including labelling, has been prepared under theaegis of ICGFI (3CGFI, 1991).

Labelling should not only identify the food as irradiated, but alsoserve to inform the purchaser as to the purpose and benefits of thetreatment. The label may bear the food irradiation symbol developed in theNetherlands and adopted by several countries, and a phrase e.g."....(product's name) decontaminated/disinfected by irradiation."

3.7. Methods of Detection/Determination of Irradiation Treatment

Laboratory tests, which can identify irradiated samples would beadvantageous to enforce labelling rules.

In general, no reliable routine test has been developed yet forsimple identification of irradiated foods. In special cases, however,some tests are showing promising results. Advances in the identificationof irradiated food were reviewed recently by Delincée and Ehlermann(1989). The Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food andAgriculture has published a review of literature on analytical detectionmethods for irradiated foods (IAEA-TECDOC-587).

In chemically multicomponent ingredients such as spices,condiments and dried herbs, detection of radiolytic products, formed inextremely low concentrations, is so difficult that chemicalidentification of radiation processing is in most cases non-feasible.

Japanese authors proposed recently to identify irradiated wholespices by using gas chromatography to measure the amount of hydrogen gaswhich is formed and trapped in organic substances irradiated withionizing radiation (Dohmaru et al., 1989). The problem of this method isthat retention of hydrogen in the irradiated material is stronglyaffected by both storage time and storage temperature, and it is probablya function of many other factors such as particle size, packaging, etc.

Modern methods of multicomponent analysis combined withmultivariate statistical evaluation holds some promise for detection ofchemical changes specific to irradiation (Delincée and Ehlermann, 1989).

21

Attempts in this direction have already been made using multivariatestatistics with irradiated and unirradiated constituents separated byhigh power liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Takagi e_t al., 1988). Inanother study, multiple regression analysis has been performed forspectral data acquired at three different wavelengths by near infraredspectroscopy of irradiated and unirradiated pepper, which were related toapplied dose levels. A linear correlation was found up to 2O kGy (Suzukiet al., 1988).

Formation and disappearance of radiation-induced radicals havebeen investigated in irradiated spices first by electron-spin resonance(ESR) measurements (Beczner et al., 1974; Shieh and Wierbicki, 1985; Yanget al., 1987; Wieser, 1988), and more recently on the basis of thechemiluminescence effect (Heide et al., 1987a). The latter method isbased on the observation that, due to oxidative free radicals, light isemitted on dissolving or at least suspending irradiated solids in certainliquids. The light emission can be significantly amplified by the use ofa photosensitizer such as Luminol. Much more light is emitted during thechemiluminescence/lyoluminescence reaction when "pure" and completelysoluble solid substances e.g. salt or sugar, are irradiated. In fact,various dosimetric methods have been developed on the basis oflyoluminescence/chemiluminescence of irradiated alkali halides,saccharides, and amino acids (Ettinger and Puite, 1982).

A multitude of factors may influence, however, the formation offree radicals and their longevity, and thereby the ESR- orchemiluminescence-detection of irradiation of dry food ingredients. Thechemiluminescence phenomena induced by UV light (Heide and BogI/ 1988),and autooxidative processes may reduce the reliability of thechemiluminescence signal (Heide and Bögl, 1985). Temperature conditionsmay have also a great effect. In organic matrices such as spices andherbs, the formation and disappearance of radiation-induced free radicalsare found to be strongly affected also by the moisture content ofsamples. If a sample of low-moisture content containing a highconcentration of free radicals was placed in an atmosphere of highermoisture content, the free radicals decayed rapidly (Delincée andEhlermann, 1989; Beczner e_t al. , 1974? Delincée, 1987).

More encouraging are the results with thermoluminescencemeasurements for detecting treatment of spices with ionizing radiation

22

(Heide arid Bögl, 1984; 1985). Thermoluminescence is based on the factthat electrons which are transferred to an excited state by ionizingradiation/ and trapped in the solid matrix, return with emission of lightto a ground state, when irradiated solid samples are heated. By measuringthe light intensity as a function of temperature, the so-called glowcurve is obtained. (Thermoluminescence technique is widely applied toradiation dosimetry using natural and synthetic phosphors, and also,using naturally occurring minerals for the age determination ofarcheological samples).

In general, the measurement of thermoluminescence is moresensitive than chemiluminescence measurements. Both chemiluminescence andthermoluminescence intensities can be very different from one spice toanother, and individual spices showed very different dose-responsecurves. Intensity increases in samples treated with 10 kGy variedbetween factor 1 (no effect) and approximately 1OOO in comparison tountreated samples. Recent studies demonstrated that thethermoluminescence signal is basically due to contaminating mineralspresent in variable amounts in many spices and herbs (Sanderson et al.,1989; Göksu-Ogelmann and Regulla, 1989).

In spite of the above difficulties, the FRG considered the resultsof intercomparison studies positive enough to include the luminescencetechniques in the official collection of food control methods (Heide andBögl, 1987; Anon., 1989b,c).

Rheological methods may contribute to the detection of specificdry ingredients including some spices. Namely, the reduction of viscosityobserved in irradiated hydrocolloids seems to be utilizable for detectionof irradiation of some spices which give normally highly viscoussuspensions when their suspensions are boiled (Mohr and Wichman, 1985;Heide et al., 1987b). This is mainly due to the heat-gelatinization oftheir starch content. Approx. 1O % suspension of a number of spices, suchas black and white peppers, mustard seed, savory, cinnamon, nutmeg andginger showed marked differences in such measurements between untreatedand irradiated (dose /4-8 kGy) samples, most probably as a consequence ofradiation damage of starches (Heide e_t al., 1987b; Farkas et al.,199Oa,b).

23

Due to a very large reduction of viable cell counts by irradiationof spices, the combined use of the direct epifluorescent filter technique(DEFT) and the counting of viable cells, e.g. by aerobic plate counting,may provide a bacteriological screening test for radiation decontaminatedspices and herbs (Sjöberg et al., 199O). However, the effects of otherpossible decontamination treatments must be taken into concideration.

While use and positive results of the above methods, particularlyin combination with microbiological tests, may hint at radiationtreatment, further studies would be necessary if it were desired that theidentification method should be used as proof for legislatory controlpurposes, even in the absence of the comparable unirradiated samples, andover the expected storage life of the commodities (Delincée andEhlermann, 1989).

The range of "natural" variation of properties on which thepromising detection methods are based, should be established byinvestigating the differences between varieties of the same unirradiatedcommodity as influenced by geographic origin, or manufacturing andstorage conditions, in order to establish the minimum radiation dosesproducing enough changes to enable identification. Inter-laboratory andinternational comparisons should corroborate the validity ofidentification methods (Heide e_t al., 1989).

At present none of the potential methods for identification offoods which have been radiation processed can reliably estimate theabsorbed dose (post-irradiation dosimetry) or detect irradiatedingredients in composite foods (Beczner et al., 1974).

It is worthwhile to mention, however, that even the lack ofroutine tests for reliable identification of irradiated ingredientsshould not hamper the application of the radiation decontaminationprocess. Its effectiveness can be checked by microbiological tests of theprocessed product and by control of the process itself, and by recordkeeping. This practice is not unique to irradiation, because a similarsituation exists with heat-sterilized food where bacteriological controlis statistically too unreliable, and with certain heat-pasteurized foodwhere no suitable enzyme tests have been developed for routine control ofprocess effectiveness. The irradiation process is, for physical reasons,easier to control and check (by dosimetry) than are traditional processes.

24

3.8. Dosimetry and Process Control

As it is not easy to distinguish irradiated food fromnon-irradiated by inspection or by any other means, it is necessary todepend on process control at the radiation facility.

One of the advantage of ionizing radiation over fumigation is thatradiation permits precise process control (Frohnsdorff, 1981; Farkas,1984). However, it is essential that no sub-standard commodity should bepresented for irradiation, nor should inadequate handling and storageprocedures precede or follow irradiation processing.

In the framework of the FAO/WHO International Food StandardsProgramme, the Codex Alimentarius Commission has already established aRecommended International Code of Practice for the Operation ofIrradiation Facilities used for the Treatment of Foods (Anon., 1984b). Itis required that "good irradiation practices" be followed and that dosesbe measured and recorded using standardized dosimetry.

The primary process control programme which incorporates "goodirradiation practice" in a food irradiation plant is fully compatiblewith other hygienic practices used to ensure general food safety. To bemost effective it should be based on the Hazard Analysis and CriticalControl Point (HACCP) system {Farkas, 1984). The HACCP system identifiespoints in the operation where food safety and quality are determined andthen monitors those aspects to ensure that the operation is undercontrol. HACCP is highly process-and product-specific. The World HealthOrganization at a recent Consultation (Brussels, 22nd November 1989)considered HACCP as a means for better control of food production (ICMSF,1988). The Consultation recognized, as others have, that HACCP requiresthe close co-operation of the industry and the Authorities in developingand applying the system and recommended that "the regulatory agencyshould not develop HACCP programme on its own but should identify thebasic elements of a programme on a commodity basis."

In the U.S., the Food Safety Inspection Services (FSIS) of theU.S. Department of Agriculture developed two sets of HACCP guidelines forpreparing products for irradiation and for irradiating food products(Crawford, 199O). These guidelines, which are based on work done by theAmerican Society for Testing and Materials and the Codex Alimentarius

25

Commission, can be considered to be applicable also to radiationtreatment of spices and herbs. A Code of Good Irradiation Practice forthe Control of Pathogens and other Microflora in Spices, Herbs and otherVegetable Seasonings has been also prepared by ICGFI for food irradiators(ICGFI, 1988a).

Control of the food irradiation process in all type of facilitiesinvolves the use of accepted methods of measuring the absorbed radiationdose and the distribution of dose in the product package, and ofmonitoring of the physical parameters of the process (Anon., 1977a; ASTM,1987; Thalacker et al., 1986).

Dosimetry for food irradiation is analogous to heat penetrationmeasurements in thermal processing, with dosimeters being the analogs ofthermo-couples in that they are employed to provide an accurate measureof the rate of energy delivery and total energy delivered or absorbed.There are several types of dosimeters, the most common ones being basedon a chemical change that is linear within a practical dose range.

Dosimetry is the keystone of the proper radiation processing.Careful dosimetry is required to ensure that a technologically usefuldose has been aplied, while maintaining the best possible dose uniformityratio.

In addition, a knowledge of the absorbed dose is needed in orderto ensure that it does not exceed the established legal dose limit.Therefore, prior to the commissioning of the plant, extensive dosimetriccalibrations of the irradiator are carried out, and are followed duringthe processing by a routine dosimetry. Routine dosimetric systems are nowsufficiently accurate, easy to use and reasonably priced to meet therequirements of industrial production and control. The dose distributionin the irradiated materials is monitored systematically to keep theabsorbed dose between the minimum and maximum permissible values.This is easier in packaged products and gamma irradiators than intransported bulk material or in machine irradiator systems. The sourcegeometry and the mode of irradiation container or carrier movement willdetermine the dose distribution throughout the carrier. This can bemeasured directly using a "dummy" or "phantom" target, which is designedto fill a typical carrier and allow dosimeters to be distributed in amanner which will give the dose distribution at numerous points

26

throughout the carrier, ensuring measurements at the points of minimumand maximum dose. Validation dosimetry is repeated following any majorchange in plant design or source size to ensure that the dosedistribution in the carrier has not changed.

In the case of electron accelerators, the dose is mainlydetermined by the beam current. Coverage is ensured by the proper scanwidth. Quantitative measurements of dose can be made using various dyedfilms placed under product targets, both "phantom" and actual.

Having established the most convenient points at which to placedosimeters for routine dosimetry, dosimeters should be used at regularintervals in the case of a "continuous" plant. With a radiation plantoperating on the "batch" principle, there must be at least one dosimeterwithin each batch carrier during the irradiation (Ley, 1985).

It should be emphasized that in batch type irradiations withdiscontinuous material transport, it is highly important to pay attentionto the need for very accurate checking of the absorbed dose, as duringthe manual handling of the materials the containers may be exchangedaccidentally. This possibility is excluded in the case of constrainedroute irradiations of a continuous operation.

In continuous plants, special attention must be paid to continuousmonitoring the dose rate when the plant is operating routinely.Semiconductor detectors are fixed at the places in the irradiationchamber and in the maze where the dose rate is relatively low.The detectors are attached to a recorder, allowing follow-up of anyvariations in the dose rate. This enables the management of the plant toprovide a document for the authorities which certifies that the sourcehas not been brought back into storage position during irradiationperiods, and that the goods have been given a continuous uniformradiation treatment.

Because it is not possible to distinguish irradiated fromunirradiated products by inspection of their appearance, it is importantthat appropriate indicator devices which undergo radiation-induced colourchange be attached to each container/package, and that physical barriersbe employed in the radiation plant to keep the irradiated andnon-irradiated products separate.

27

In addition to the labelling requirements described in Chapter3.6, the documentation kept by the irradiation plant shall be such as toallow each batch of irradiated product to be identified with theirradiation facility and with the treatment given. Coupled with anadministrative inventory control, dosimetry can provide a guarantee thatthe process has been correctly applied, and regulatory release ofirradiated food can be based on accurate and reproducible absorbed dosemeasurement (Miller and Chadwick, 1989).

3.9 End Product Specification

As minimum hygienic requirements, the Proposed Draft Code ofHygienic Practice for Spices and Condiments (Codex, 1989a) states that:-

"7.9.3. When tested by appropriate methods of sampling andexamination, the products

(a) should be free from pathogenic micro-organisms in levelswhich may represent a hazard to health; and

(b) should not contain any substance originating frommicroorganisms, particularly aflatoxin, in amounts whichexceed the tolerance or criteria established by the officialagency having jurisdiction."

Furthermore:

"7.10. The products should comply with the provisions for foodadditives, contaminants, and with maximum levels for pesticideresidues, recommended by the concerned official agency."

The Codex Alimentarius Commission is developing a Code of HygienicPractice for Spices including a code for spices for use in themanufacture of meat products.

Besides these general requirements regarding health hazard, thespoilage hazard presented by a food ingredient must be evaluated alwaysin the context of its use. In the spice trade, total aerobic viable cell

3 4counts below a level of 10 to 1O /g were traditionally required andaccepted as a maximal count of decontaminated spices (in German:"entkeimte Gewürze").

28

A Proposed Draft Guide for the Microbiological Quality of Spicesand Herbs used in Processed Meat and Poultry Products developed by theCodex Committee on Processed Meat and Poultry Products has recommended asan endproduct specification for such ingredients, after a decontaminationtreatment, including irradiation, that "4.3. When tested by appropriatemethods of sampling and examination, the products should meet thefollowing microbiological end-product specifications: Spores of aerobicbacteria should not be recovered from any of five sample units examinedin a number exceeding 1O,OOO per gram (n=5, M=1O,OOO). (Anon., 1989d).However, these end product specifications have been deleted in laterdrafts of the Codex Guide.

4. WHOLESOMENESS DATA

Reference is made to the reports of JECFI described in Chapter 1(JECFI, 1981), as well as to literature compilations on chemical,microbiological and toxicological data on irradiated spices and herbspublished by the Institut für Strahlenhygiene, Bundesgesundheitsamt,Neuherberg b/München, FRG (Schüttler and Bögl, 1984).

It is clearly established that irradiation with energy levelsforeseen for processing of spices and herbs (up to 5 MeV for gamma- andX-rays, and up to 1O MeV for electrons) does not produce measurableradioactivity in the foods so treated (JECFI, 1981; Diehl, 199O). Thishas also recently been proved with 1O MeV electron-irradiated pepper(Furuta et al., 199O). Chemical studies on many foods and ingredientsdemonstrated that radiation treatment produces only very small amounts ofreaction products and does not leave residues. In various spicesirradiated with a dose of 45 kGy, gas-chromatographic studies revealedradiation-induced compounds at a level less than O.O1% of the totalvolatile constituents (Tjaberg e_t al. , 1972).

The major factors in influencing product yields are thecomposition, the physical state, and the processing parameters of foods.Research on product formation and reaction mechanism have shown thatdespite the complexity of the primary radiolytic events, only a few key

29

radicals are ultimately formed and become precursors of major finalproducts. Since the ultimate fate of radicals formed depends on theirability to migrate or to twist into position for bimolecular reaction,factors that alter their environment can influence their pathways todecay and hence their lifetimes. For non-lipid components/ the presenceof water is of particular importance. Water forms a primary set ofradicals, i.e. OH radicals, H atoms and hydrated electrons. Such radicalsare responsible for the indirect action of radiation in foods, becausethese primary radicals react with food components to form a second set ofradicals and ultimately final radiolysis products. Therefore, the stateof hydration is important both in radiolysis and product quality (Taub,1983). In dehydrated systems the reactions are limited due to the lackof water for primary radical formation. The influence of water onmigration of other reactive entities (e.g. oxygen) is also important.This is the reason, why in general, dry or semidry foods can take higherdoses without deleterious effect to product quality.

Compared with those in moist systems, the decay of free radicalsin dry products is much slower, though considerable differences could beobserved among these products in changes of residual radicals duringstorage (Farkas, 1988). Therefore, in dry substances the presence of freeradicals can be expected as a result of irradiation (see alsoChapter 3.7).

It should be pointed out that free radical formation is notlimited to irradiated foods. Although the generation and subsequentreaction of free radicals comprise the major route by which radiolyticproducts are formed, such reactions are also common during conventionalfood processing and storage. On the other hand, irradiated dryingredients are generally used in other foods that contain water. Thus,the manner in which these commodities are used generally provides a meansfor rapid dissipation of the free radicals, thereby precluding theiringestion.

Notwithstanding the fact that free radicals trapped in drysubstances are eliminated on soaking, a long-term feeding study wasespecially designed to look for possible effects of an irradiated dietcontaining a high free radical concentration. The results have beennegative both with regard to chronic toxic effects and tumor formation,

30

and to mutagenic effects in a dominant lethal assay (Renner and Reichert,1973; Renner e_t al. , 1973; Saint-Lèbe £t al., 1982).

Radiation chemistry studies relevant to wholesomeness of dryvegetable ingredients demonstrated that none of the radiolytic productswas present in sufficient amount to be toxic, and that all of them couldalso be produced by other processes of food preservation (Saint-Lèbe etal., 1982; Raff i and Saint-Lèbe, 198O). Although some of these compoundsare toxic to unicellular organisms, they are not toxic to mammals in theconcentration produced by irradiation (Diehl, 199O).

Spices were accorded a high priority in the wholesomeness testingprogram of the International Project in the Field of Food Irradiation(IFIP), a co-operation in which 25 countries eventually took part underthe aegis of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and theInternational Atomic Energy Agency between 1971 and 1981 (Phillips andElias, 1979). Specific animal feeding tests as well as teratogenicity andgenotoxicity studies with various irradiated dry ingredients wereexecuted, mainly in Hungary, France, The Netherlands, Belgium, andGermany, within the framework of IFIP (Farkas, 1988).

In the wholesomeness testing of spices, herbs, and dry vegetableseasonings, we face the difficulty that feeding tests with hot andpungent materials, or those containing high concentrations ofbiologically active compounds, i.e. those found in many of the importantspices and herbs, are extremely difficult or even impracticable toperform. There are exceptions to this, e.g. the powder of sweet(capsaicin-free) paprika, which was consumed by albino rats at a 35%level of total diet for months without adverse effects (Farkas, 1975;Barna, 1973). A subacute wholesomeness test was performed then withoutany difficulty with irradiated (15 kGy) and/or heat-treated (autoclaved)paprika powder at the same 35% level in the diet. In spite of theabove-mentioned difficulties, feeding studies in rats fed a dietcontaining a spice mixture at levels ranging from 2 to 25% have beencompleted (Barna, 1975, 1976; Anon., 1977b). Apart from the lower growthrate caused by the lower feed consumption by rats of feed containing highlevels of spice, the data show no evidence of adverse effects fromfeeding of spices whether irradiated (15 kGy), unirradiated, or treatedwith ethylene oxide, even up to a 25% dietary level. Nevertheless, it wasfelt that in the course of a long term study, feeding high levels of

31

spice would produce underweight animals and this might lead to furthercomplications. Therefore, further research programs included short-termtests on mutagenicity and teratogenicity and the identification of someradiation-induced chemical changes in individual spices.

For teratogenicity studies, groups of pregnant CFÏ albino ratswere fed either stock ration (controls) or diets containing eithernonirradiated or irradiated (15 kGy) spices at levels of 3.5, 25, and 25%for ground black pepper, mild paprika, and spice mixture, respectively(CFRI, 1976). Between 1O and 15 dams per group were used, and the testdiets were made available to the animals from the 6th to the 15th days ofgestation only. This first experiment was conducted within 2 weeks of theirradiation treatment of the spices. A similar study was conducted inwhich the irradiated spice had been stored for 3 months. The foodconsumption and growth of the dams were similar in all groups. The damswere killed on day 20 of gestation, and the contents of the uteri wereexamined. No treatment-related effects were reported in the numbers ofimplantation sites, résorptions (which were low), or viable fetuses or inthe number of gross, soft-tissue, or skeletal abnormalities in theoffspring. Similar findings were obtained in the experiment with thestored irradiated spices. It was concluded from these studies that noteratogenic effects were associated with the consumption of dietscontaining either irradiated or non-irradiated black pepper, mildpaprika, or spice mixture. (The spice mixture was made up of 55%paprika, 14% black pepper, 9% coriander, 9% allspice, 7% marjoram, 4%cumin and 2% nutmeg).

Cytogenetic effects of irradiated paprika were studied withmicronucleus tests in mice (Chaubey ejc al., 1979). Groups of 5 femaleSwiss mice were fed for 12 days on diets containing O (control), 2O% (dryweight) paprika (capsaicin free) or 2O% (dry weight) irradiated paprika(capsaicin free). A further group of animals was fed on control diet andat 3O and 6 h before killing was given 1OO mg/kg hycanthone sulfonate(positive control). At the end of the feeding period the animals werekilled and bone marrow preparations made. No differences were observedbetween the control and paprika-fed groups in the incidence ofmicronucleated erythrocytes. The sensitivity of the test was confirmedby the positive findings with hycanthone methane sulfonate.

32

The possible mutagenic effects of irradiated paprika (capsaicinfree), black pepper, and the spice mixture mentioned above were studiedusing the Ames test and host-mediated assays as well (CFRI, 1977; Farkaset al., 1981). Extracts were prepared from heat-treated paprika orirradiated (5O kGy) paprika by solvent extraction with dimethyl sulfoxide(DMSO). Samples of both paprika samples and their DMSO extracts weresubjected to bacterial mutagen icity tests using Salmonella typhimuriumstrains TA1535, TA98, and TA1975. No difference in the incidence ofrevertants was reported between the paprika samples and their extracts orbetween the heat-treated and the irradiated paprika. In a further studyto compare the mutagenic potential of the heat-treated paprika withirradiated (5O kGy) paprika, groups of male CFLP albino mice were fed for1 week on diets containing O (control), 35% heat-treated paprika, or 35%irradiated (5O kGy) paprika. A host-mediated assay was conducted usingS. typhimurium TA153O as the test organism. There was a high variabilityin the results observed, though no pattern emerged to indicate anytreatment—related effect. In neither study were the results indicative ofa mutagenic effect on the part of irradiated paprika.

Extracts were prepared from a spice mixture, irradiated with 15 or45 kGy, by solvent extraction with DMSO and subjected to bacterialmutagenicity tests using Salmonella typhimurium strains TA1537, 1538 and98 with metabolic activation (S9). No effects were observed with eithersample. In a further study, groups of albino rats were fed for 6 days ondiets containing O (control), 25% nonirradiated spice mixture, 25%irradiated (5 kGy) spice mixture, 25% irradiated (15 kGy) spice mixture,25% nonirradiated paprika, 25% irradiated (5 kGy) paprika, 25% irradiated(15 kGy) paprika, 3.5% nonirradiated black pepper, 3.5% irradiated (5kGy) black pepper, or 3.5% irradiated (15%) black pepper. Samples ofurine collected from these rats were subjected to bacterial mutagenicitytests using S. typhiraurium strains TA1537, 1535, 1538, 98 and 1OO. Notreatment-related effects were reported in the results of these tests.The results of these studies indicate a lack of mutagenic potential notonly on the part of various irradiated spice extracts but also on thepart of their urinary metabilites in rats (Farkas et al., 1978).Prophage induction tests for potential carcinogens using blood samples ofthe same animals were also performed with negative results (Farkas andAndrassy, 1981a). None of these experiments has indicated induction of,or increase in, reverse mutations or other DNA-damaging effects due toirradiated spices. Irradiated garlic and onion powders did not reveal any

33

mutagenic activity using the Salmonella/mammalian microsome mutagenicityassay, and the in vitro sister chromatid exchange test (Münzner andRenner, 1981; Farkas and Andrassy, 1981b; Anon., 198O), or in recessivesex-linked lethal tests in Drosophila (Mittler, 1981; Mittler and Eiss,1982), respectively. Possible genotoxic effects of irradiated onionpowder by means of prophage induction (Inductest) also gave negativeresults (Farkas and Andrassy, 1982).

5. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CLEARANCES

The national legislative recognition of the safety of irradiatedfoods is gradually following the achievements at the UN level describedin Chapter 1. As regards spices, condiments, herbs and dried vegetableseasonings, clearances issued at national level are summarized in Table3. It can be seen from Table 3 that twenty-four countries had grantedsome sort of clearances for these types of commodities by 1989.

The ICGFI has recently prepared a comprehensive review on currentnational laws and regulations on"food irradiation (ICGFI, 199O).

At international level, the Scientific Committee for Food of theCommission of the European Community (CEC) verified the conclusions ofthe JECFI (CEC, 199O). Since commercial application of food irradiationis a reality in several EC countries, and in light of the membercountries' intention to create an unrestricted common market by the year1992, a proposed Directive (EC, 1989a) is being considered by the ECunder the Single Law Act, to be finalized before the end of 1992. Theproposed Directive lists a number of food items including spices whichwill be permitted to be irradiated in EC countries.

34

Table 3

List of clearance on radiation decontamination of spices.condiments, herbs and dried vegetable seasonings

( As of 31 Dec., 1991, Grouped according to country )

Country

ARGENTINA

BANGLADESH

BELGIUM

BRAZIL

Product Sort of Doseclearance (kGy)

spices unconditional up to 30

spices unconditional up to 10

black/white provisional up to 10pepperpaprika powder provisional up to 10

different provisional up to 10spices (78products)

herbal teas up to 10different unconditional up to 10spices (13products)

Date ofapproval

11.83

28.12.83

16.10.80

16.10.80

29.09.83

30.11.88

07.03.85

CANADA

CHILE

DENMARK

FINLAND

FRANCE

spices andcertain driedseasonings

onion powder

spices andcondiments

spices andherbs

dry and de-hydratedspices andherbs

spices andaromaticsubstances(72 productsinclusivepowdered onionand garlic)aromatic herbs(frozen)

unconditional up to 10 03.10.84



unconditional up to 15 23.12.85(max.)

up to 10 (aver.)

unconditional up to 10 13.11.87(aver.)



35

INDIA

INDONESIA

Table 3 (cont.)

Country

HUNGARY

Product Sort ofclearance

spices unconditional

Dose(kGy)

6(aver . )

Date ofapproval

19.08.86

spices

dried spices

for export up to 10 01.86only (overall average)


ISRAEL spices(61 differentproducts)


KOREA,REPUBLIC OF

NETHERLANDS

NEW ZEALAND

NORWAY

PAKISTAN

POLAND

SOUTHAFRICA

dry and driedvegetable andedible plants

dried spices

spices andherbs

herbs andspices(one batch)dried spices

spicesspices and herbs

variousspices

unconditional

uncondit ional

temporaryfor 2 years

provisional

unconditional

unconditional

unconditional

unconditional

up to 10(average)

up to 10(average)up to 10

up to 10

up to 10up to 10up to 10

up to 10

17.02.87

01.09.88

20.10.88

03.85

07.82

13.06.88

10.90

82

SYRIAN ARABREPUBLIC

herbal teas

various dehy-drated vegetables

spices andcondiments,dried onionand onionpowder

uncond i t ional

uncond i t ional

unconditional up to 10

82

02.08.86

36

Table 3 (cont.)

Country Product Sort ofclearance

Dose(kGy)

Date ofapproval

THAILAND spices &condiments,dehydrated,onions andonion powder

TAIWAN, CHINA spices

UNITED KINGDOM spices andcondiments

UNITEDSTATESOF AMERICA

YUGOSLAVIA

spices anddry vegetableseasonings(38 commodi-ties)

dry or dehydr.aromatic veg.substances

herbal teas

spices

dehydratedfruit andvegetablescondiments



unconditional up to 10 01.01.91(overall average)






Note; The term "provisional" indicates that the approval islimited in time and/or quantity.

37

6. RECOMMENDATIONS ON CONTROL AND REGULATORY PROVISIONS

Industry should have the primary responsibility and obligation toassure the safety and quality of its products. The competent authority,however, has a duty to verify such practices and to keep them underregular monitoring (Pothisiri, 1989). The general food hygieneregulations of a country are applicable to all food processingactivities, including food processing by ionizing radiation. Generalhygienic reguirements for handling spices and condiments are described inthe Proposed Draft Code of Hygienic Practices for Spices and Condiments(Codex, 1989a). General provisions on good irradiation practice are givenin the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods and the Code ofPractice (Anon., 1984a, 1984b). In addition to requirements defined inthese documents, the following provisions should be considered from thepoint of view of quality assurance and regulatory requirements for theHACCP system for radiation decontamination of spices, condiments anddried herbs. (These provisions summarize the information contained inChapter 3).

a) As part of the pre-processing evaluation, it should be verifiedthat:-

- the commodities intended for radiation treatment are packedin packaging materials approved for food irradiation, andapproriate for maintaining the integrity of the product, andfor preventing reinfestation and recontamination,

- the packages are undamaged,the packages bear proper labels,the microbiological quality of the incoming product does notindicate hygienically unacceptable manufacturing and handlingpractices. The provisional guidelines mentioned in Chapter3.4 can be considered for evaluating microbiological quality.Although it is of interest also to a service irradiator to beassured that the commodities received for irradiationtreatment are of acceptable hygienic quality, primarily it isthe responsibility of the product's owner to ensure that theproduct meets the quality standard(s) set for the specificproduct, and that it was produced in accordance with goodmanufacturing practice.

38

b) Processing evaluation should verify that:-

processing parameters are properly set,- dosimeters for routine measurements are correctly positioned,- the dosimeters are appropriate to the dose range being

applied,suitable go/no-go indicator labels are attached to thepackages,records of processing required by the responsible authoritiesare made. Such operational records should include e.g. thenature and quality of commodities treated, their lot number,the consignee, the date of irradiation, the type of packagingused during treatment, and dosimetry data. Documentation keptby the plant and accessible to control officials includecommissioning information, dose mapping for individualproducts, product loading pattern, conveyor operation, thenumber and duration of processing interruptions, and startand stop times of processing.

c) Post-processing evaluation should check that:-

- the condition of the product remained satisfactory aftertreatment, and that the packages are in a proper condition toprevent reinfestât ion/recontaminat ion,

- the radiation dose received is within the approved limits,i.e. minimum effective dose and maximum dose requirements forproduct quality tolerance or statutory observance are met.The minimum dose requirement shall be based on the doseprescribed either for elimination of specific potentiallypathogenic microorganism or for the necessary reduction ofthe microflora critical for further technological use of theproduct.

the product is properly labelled with indications prescribedby the appropriate clearances or regulations,

- verification of the process is duly recorded on commercialdocuments prepared in accordance with the regulations.

The International Dose Assurance Service operated by the IAEAprovides an additional assurance complementary to the calibrationtraceable to national standards (Nam, 1985). This service sends

39

dosimeters to radiation plants for irradiation during product processingalongside previously calibrated routine dosimeters. The IAEA arranges acentral read-out of their dosimeters to assess the dose, and compares itwith that quoted by the facility operator. In this way, the operator cangain additional assurance that his calibrated dosimeter system ismeasuring the process dose reliably.

Besides dosimetry, which is the primary monitoring means forquality assurance in good irradiation practice, monitoring the Tnicrobialquality to meet end-product specifications set by relevant authorities orby the user of the product may be necessary. (See for example theProposed Draft Guide for the Microbial Quality of Spices and Herbs usedin Processed Meat and Poultry Products, referred to in Chapter 3.9).

Inspection of radiation facilities by authorized agencies shouldinclude (Pothisiri, 1989):

- checking that the operation meets all the conditions laiddown in the licence and that the plant is well maintained,

- reviewing the logs and records, the results of various tests,maintenance and monitoring programs,

- conducting periodic audits to ensure that the qualityassurance programme is being properly carried out,

- checking that the recommendations made after a previousinspection have been taken into account.

40

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

ICGFI Publications Relating to Good Practices in theControl and Application of Radiation Treatment of Food

Guidelines for Preparing Regulations for the Control of Food IrradiationFacilities (ICGFI Document No. 1).

Draft International Inventory of Authorized Food Irradiation Facilities(ICGFI Document No. 2 in preparation).

Code of Good Irradiation Practice for Insect Disinfestât ion of CerealGrains (ICGFI Document No. 3).

Code of Good Irradiation Practice for Prepackaged Meat and Poultry (tocontrol pathogens and/or extend shelf-life) (ICGFI Document No. 4).

Code of Good Irradiation Practice for the Control of Pathogens and OtherMicroflora in Spices, Herbs and Other Vegetable Seasonings (ICGFIDocument No. 5).

Code of Good Irradiation Practice for Shelf-life Extension of Bananas,Mangoes and Papayas (ICGFI Document No. 6).

Code of Good Irradiation Practice for Insect Disinfestation of FreshFruits (as a quarantine treatment) (ICGFI Document No. 7).

Code of Good Irradiation Practice for Sprout Inhibition of Bulb andTuber Crops (ICGFI Document No. 8).

Code of Good Irradiation Practice for Insect Disinfestation of DriedFish and Salted and Dried Fish (ICGFI Document No. 9).

Code of Good Irradiation Practice for the Control of Microflora in Fish,Frog Legs and Shrimps (ICGFI Document No. 10).

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Publications relating to Food Irradiation issuedunder the Auspices of ICGFI

Trade Promotion of Irradiated Food. (IAEA-TECDOC-391)

Legislations in the Field of Food Irradiation. (IAEA-TECDOC-422)

Task Force on the Use of Irradiation to Ensure Hygienic Quality ofFood. Report of the Task Force Meeting on the Use of Irradiation toEnsure Hygienic Quality of Food, held in Vienna, 14-18 July 1986.(WHO/EHE/FOS/87.2)

Guidelines for Acceptance of Food Irradiation. Report of a Task ForceMeeting on Marketing/Public Relations of Food Irradiation.(IAEA-TECDOC-432)

Safety Factors Influencing the Acceptance of Food IrradiationTechnology. (IAEA-TECDOC-490)

Regulations in the Field of Food Irradiation. {IAEA-TECDOC-585)

Consultation on Microbiological Criteria for Foods to be FurtherProcessed including by Irradiation. Report of a Task Force Meeting,held in Geneva, 29 May to 2 June 1989. (WHO/EHE/FOS/89.5)

Irradiation of Poultry Meat and its Products - A Compilation ofTechnical Data for its Authorization and Control (in preparation).

<oCO<oIDo

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Documents

Irradiation of spices, herbs and other vegetable seasonings...spices are grown, and which survive the drying process. The source of contamination may be dust, insects, faecal materials