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CONTENTS

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Chapter: 1

Introduction:

Evolution:

Scope of International Relations:

Actors in International Relations:

A: Nations

B. Leaders of Nations

C. Sub state actors

D. Transnational Actors

Evaluating the Influence of Actors:

Chapter 2

The historical development of the state

The state in classical antiquity:

The modern state

The state in modern political thought:

Evolution of modern state system:

A. Sumerian city state (existed before 2500 B.C)

B. Greek city states

C. Roman Empire:

D. treaty of Westphalia (1648) and the

acknowledgement of other states;

E. Italian mercantile city states:

F. French revolution and development of

ideas of self determination:

Chapter 3

Nationalism

Concepts of sovereignty:

National interest:

History:

Chapter: 4

Imperialism, colonialism & neo-colonialism

History:

A. The Economic Motive:

B. political motives:

C. ideological motives:

D. reactive imperialism:

The effect of imperialism:

Colonialism:

Types of colonies:

A. colonies of settlement

B. colonies of exploitation:

C. contested settlement colonies:

D. other types of colonies:

History of colonies:

A. age of exploration (1450-1700)

Spanish colonies

Portuguese colonies:

Dutch colonies:

English colonies:

French colonies:

B. European merchant empires (1700-1815):

C. imperialism of free trade:

A. new imperialism (1870-1914):

B. mandates and trusts:

Motives for colonization:

A. economic motives:

A. religious and strategic motives:

Neocolonialism:

Chapter: 5

Elements of national power

National power:

Elements of national power:

1. geography:

2. Location:Climate:

Topology:

Population:

Economic factors:

Military preparedness:

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Government organization:

National character:

National prestige:

National morale:

Chapter: 6

Balance of power

Significance to international relations:

Balance of power is a doctrine of

equilibrium:

Historical perspective:

Balance of power today:

Protection of freedom and sovereignty

1. Better relations with super powers:

2. Cordial relations with Muslim

countries:

3. Kashmir issue:

4. Non interference:

5. Implementation of UN charter:

promotion of world peace

6. promotion of human rights:

Chapter: 8

Diplomacy

Chapter: 9

International law: nature, origin and

development

Chapter: 10

Economic aspects of international relations:

Chapter: 11

The concept of war and peace in

international relations:

Chapter: 12

New phenomenon and concepts in

international relations

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Chapter: 1

Introduction:

The discipline that studies interactions between and among states and more

broadly the workings of the international system as a whole.

BARRY BUZEN

Study of the relations of states with each other and with international

organization and certain sub national entities (e.g. Bureaucracy and political

parties)

International relations is the study and practice of political relationship among the

worlds nations especially their interactions between non governmental groups,

such as multinational corporations (companies that operate in more red cross or

the united nations (UN).

International relations is a broad and complex topic both for countries engaged in

relationships with other nations and for observers trying to understand those

interaction. These relationships are influenced by many variables. They are

shaped by the primary participants in international relations, including national

leaders, other politician, and nongovernmental participants such as private

citizens’ corporations and nongovernmental organizations. They are also affected

by domestic political events and nonpolitical influence including economics,

geography and culture. Despite all of these other influence the primary focus of

international relations is on the interactions between nations.

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Evolution:

The history of international relations is often traced back to the peace of

Westphalia of 1648 where the modern state system was developed. Prior to this

the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely

hierarchical religious order. Westphalia instituted the legal concept of sovereignty

which essentially meant that rulers or the legitimate sovereigns would recognize

no internal equals within a defined territory and no external superiors as the

ultimate authority with in the territory sovereign borders. Classical Greek and

roman authority at times resembled the Westphalian system but both lacks the

notion of sovereignty.

Westphalia encouraged the rise of the independent nation state the

institutionalization of diplomacy and armies. This particular European system was

exported to the Americas, Africa and Asia via colonialism and the standards of

civilization. The contemporary international system was finally established

through decolonization during the cold war. However this come what over

simplified, while the nation state system is considered modern many states have

not incorporated the system and are termed pre modern. Further a handful of

states have moved beyond the nation state system and can be considers post

modern. The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the relations of these

different types of states id disputed. A level of analysis is a way of looking at the

international system which includes the individual level the domestic nation state

as a unit the international level of transnational and intergovernmental affairs and

the global level.

IR theory however has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other social

sciences. The use of capitalizations of the I and r in international relations aims to

distinguish the academic discipline of international relations aims to distinguish

the academic discipline of international relations from the phenomena of

international relations. Many cite Thucydides history of Peloponnesian war as the

inspiration for realist theory with Hobbes Lwviarhan and Machiavelli’s the prince

providing further elaboration. Similarly liberalism draws upon the work of Kant

and Rousseau with the work of the former often being cited as the first elaboration

of democratic peace theory. Though contemporary human rights is considerably

different than the type of rights envisioned under natural law Francisco de

Vitoriahugo Grotius and john Locke offered the first accounts of universal

entitlement to certain rights on the basis of common humanity. In the twentieth

century in addition to contemporary theories of liberal internationalism Marxism

has been a foundation of international relations.

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Scope of international relations:

International relations is a branch of political science. It represents the study of

foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system

including the roles of states inter governmental organizations (IGOs) non

governmental organizations (NGOs) and multinational corporations (MNCs). It is

both an academic and public policy field and can be either positive or normative

as it both seeks to analyze as well as formulate the foreign policy of particular

states. It can be conceived of either as a multidisciplinary field gathering together

the international aspects of politics economics, history, law and sociology or as a

meta discipline , focusing on the systematic structures and pattern of interaction

of the human species taken as a whole.

Apart from political science, IR draws upon such diverse fields as economics,

history, law, philosophy, geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology and

cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of issues from globalization and its

impacts on societies and state sovereignty to ecological sustainability nuclear

proliferation, nationalism, economic development terrorism. Organized crime,

human security, and human rights.

The scope of international relations has greatly expanded in modern times.

Initially international relations were concerned only with the study of diplomatic

history. It concentrated on the study of contemporary foreign affairs with a view

to draw certain lessons. Later on emphasis began to be laid on the study of

international law and international relations began to be studied with in the

framework of international law. The field of the study of international relations

was further widened with the establishment of the League of Nations after the

First World War and the study of international organizations and institutions was

also included with in its purview.

The scope of international relations in the post world war II period got further

widened dir to significant changes which tool place viz the emergence of USA

and USSR as the superpowers; the of a large number of non European states in to

the society of nations the danger of thermo nuclear war increasing

interdependence of states and rising expectations of people in the under developed

world etc. greater emphasis began to be placed on scientific study of international

relations, which led to development of new methodologies and introduction of

new theories in the study of international relations.

Actors in international relations:

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The participants in international relations often called actors have a great

influence of the relationships between nations and on world affairs. The major

participants include the nations themselves, the leaders of those nations, sub state

actors (organizations operating in more than one country) and international

organizations.

A: nations

The nations themselves are the most important actors in international relations. A

nation is territory with a defined border and a government that answers to no

higher authority than its own. All or part of the population shares a group identity,

often based on a combination of common ancestry, language or culture. In 1997

there were 186 recognized nations in the world. There also are a number of

political entities sometime thought of as nations. These include territories that

function independently, such as Taiwan which is officially considered a province

of china; colonies such as Martinique and nations that are not yet recognized such

as Palestine. Also included in this list is Vatican City which does not fit into any

of these categories.

Nations vary in size and power from the United States with a $7 trillion economy

and china with more than I1 billion people to nations with fewer the 100,000

people, such as Andorra and Greenland. Size and power are two important

variables in determining a nation’s relationships with other countries and its

influence in international affairs. The handful of the most powerful nations that

control most of the worlds military and economics strength are called great

powers. The great powers include the United States, Great Britain, Russia

(formerly the Soviet Union) France, china, Germany and Japan. These powers are

the most important actors in international relations.

B. leaders of nations

The most important individual actor with in a nation is the top leader of that

country. The top leader is the person who example the top leader in great Britain

is the prime minister who is the head of government and has the most political

power even though the king or queen of that country is considered the head of

state. The top leader I the United States is the president.

C. Sub state actors

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Besides the top leader o f a nation, there are other groups and individuals within

that nation that influence its international relationships. These domestic actors,

called sub state actors including particular industries with distinct interests in

foreign policy (such as the automobile or tobacco industry) and ethnic

constituencies with ties to foreign countries, as well as labor unions, cities and

regions. All of these actors may be affected by international events differently

from each other or the country where they operate. These groups can influence a

nation’s foreign policy in several ways such as by lobbying political leaders,

donating money to political candidates or parties, or swaying public opinion on

certain issues.

D. Transnational actors

Organizations operating in more than one country are known as transnational

actors. They often have specific interests in international issues that differ from

those of any nation. Transnational actors include multinational corporations. They

also include non governmental organization (NGOs) such as Planned Parenthood

and the Roman Catholic Church, which promotes their interests with particular

nations that support their interests and come into conflict with those that show

lack of support. Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) are groups whose

members are national governments. Examples of intergovernmental organizations

include the European Union (EU) and the Intel sat satellite consortium. They are

usually created to promote cooperation between different nations on a particular

issue or in a particular geographic region. Nongovernmental organizations and

intergovernmental organizations together are called international organizations.

Evaluating the influence of actors:

Scholars of international relations have divided the various influences in

international events in to different categories of levels of analysis. There are three

widely used levels of analysis: (1) individual actors (2) domestic influences and

(3) interstate influences. Some scholars also study a fourth level of analysis,

global influences.

In the individual level of analysis scholars study the concerns perceptions and

choices of the individual people involved great leaders, crazy leaders, activists or

individual citizens. For example if the assassin of Archduke Francis Ferdinand in

1914 had bungled the job World War 1 might not have broken out when it did.

In the domestic level of analysis scholars look at how international relations is

influenced by domestic actors, including special interest groups , political

organizations and government agencies. Scholars study how different kinds of

societies and governments behave, such democracies versus dictatorships, they

also look at the politics of ethnic conflict and nationalism, both of which can lead

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to international conflict and war. The domestic level of analysis is also called the

state of societal level.

In the interstate level of analysis, scholars focus on the interactions of states

themselves, without regard to their internal makeup or the particular individuals

who lead them. For realists this is the most important level because it looks at

how a nation relative power compared with other nations affects its behavior. The

interstate level of analysis is also called the international or systemic level of

analysis.

Some scholars also look at the global level of analysis. In this analysis scholars

study how global tends and forces, such as technological change and the global

environment, affect international relation. They also study how the lingering

affects of colonialism influence international relations.

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Chapter 2

State

State is generally a group of people inhabiting a specific territory and living

according to a common legal and political authority; a body politic or nation. In

this definition the term state includes government; in another usage the two terms

are synonyms. A state is a political association with effective sovereignty over a

geographic area. These may be nation states sub national states or multinational

states. A state usually includes the set of institutions that claim the authority to

make the rules that govern the exercise of coercive violence for the people of the

society in that territory though its status as state often depends in part on being

recognized by a number of other states as having internal and external sovereignty

over it. In sociology the state is normally identified with these institutions in max

Weber influential definition it is that organization that successfully claims a

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monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force with in a given territory which

may include the armed forces civil service or state bureaucracy courts and police.

Usage; although the term often includes broadly all institutions of government or

rule ancient and modern the modern state system bears a number if characteristics

that were first in western Europe beginning in earnest in the 15 th century when

the term state also acquired its current meaning. Thus the word is often used in a

strict sense to refer only to modern political systems. Within a federal system the

term state also refers to political units not completely sovereign themselves

however these systems are subject to the authority of a constitution defining a

federal union which is partially or co sovereign with them. Thus we find the states

and territories of Australia and the states in the United States of America.

In casual usage the terms country nation and state are often used as if they were

synonymous but in a more strict usage they can be distinguished;

1, country denotes a geographical area.

2, nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share the

adjectives national and international also refer to matters pertaining to what are

strictly states as in national capital international law.

3, state refers to the set of governing institution that has sovereignty over a

definite territory and population.

The historical development of the state:

The earliest forms of the state emerged whenever it became possible to centralize

power in a durable way. Agriculture and writing are almost every where

associated with this process. This in turn allowed and encouraged the emergence

of a class of people who controlled and protected the agricultural stores and thus

did not have to spend most of their time providing for their own subsistence.

Some political philosophers believe the origins of the state lie ultimately in the

tribal culture which developed with human sentence the template for which was

the alleged primal alpha male micro societies of our earlier ancestors which were

based on the coercion of the weak by the strong. However anthropologists point

out that extent band and tribe level societies are notable for their lack of

centralized authority and that highly stratified societies i.e. states constitute a

relatively recent break with the course of human history.

The state in classical antiquity:

The history of the state in the west usually begins with classical antiquity. During

that period the state took a variety of forms none of them very much like the

modern state. There were monarchies whose power (like that of the Egyptian

pharaoh) was based on the religious function of the king and his control of a

centralized army. There were also large quasi bureaucratized empires like the

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Roman Empire which depended less on the religious function of the rule and

more in effective military and legal organizations and the cohesion of an

aristocracy.

Perhaps the most important political innovations of classical antiquity came from

the Greek city states and the roman republic. The Greek city states before the 4 th

century granted citizenship rights were combined with a directly democratic form

of government that was to have a long afterlife in political though and history.

In contrast Rome developed from a monarchy in to a republic governed by senate

dominated by the roman aristocracy. The roman political system contributed to

the development of law constitutionalism and to the distinction between the

private and the public spheres.

From the feudal state to the modern state in the west. The story of the

development of the specifically modern state is the west typically begins with the

dissolution of the Western Roman Empire. This led to the fragmentation of the

imperial state in to the hands of private and decentralized lords whose political,

judicial and military production. In these conditions according to Marxists the

economic unit of society corresponded exactly to the state on the local level.

The state system of Europe was an unstable configuration of suzerains and

anointed kings. A monarch formally at the head of a hierarchy of sovereigns was

not an absolute power who could rule at will; instead relations between lords and

monarch were mediated by varying degree of mutual dependence which was

ensured by the absence of a centralized system of taxation. This reality ensured

that each ruler needed to obtain the consent of each estate in the realm. This was

not quite a state in the Weberian sense of the term since the king did not

monopolize either the power of lawmaking (which was shared with the church) or

the means of violence (which were shared with the nobles).

The formalization of the struggles over taxation between the monarch and other

elements of society (especially the nobility and the cities) gave rise to what is now

called the Standestaat, or the state of estates characterized by parliaments in

which key social groups negotiated with the king about legal and economic

matters. These estates of the parliaments but sometimes lost out in their struggles

with the monarch leading to greater centralization lawmaking and coercive

(chiefly military) power in his hands. Beginning in the 15th century, this

centralizing process gave rise to the absolutist state.

The modern state:

The rise of the modern state as a public power constituting the supreme political

authority with in a defined territory is a defined territory is associated with

Western Europe gradual institutional development beginning in earnest in the late

15th century culminating in the rise of absolutism and capitalism.

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As Europe dynastic states England under the Tudors, Spain under the Hapsburgs

and France under the bourbons embarked on a variety of programs designed to

increase centralized political and economic control, they increasingly exhibited

many of the institutional features power involved the delineation of political

boundaries as European monarchs gradually defeated or co-opted other place of

the fragmented system of feudal rule with its often indistinct territorial claims

large unitary states with extensive control over definite territories emerged. This

process gave rise to the highly centralized and increasingly bureaucratic forms of

absolute monarchical rule of the 17th and 18th centuries, when the principal

features of the contemporary state system took form including the introduction of

a standing army a central taxation system, diplomatic relations with permanent

embassies and the development of state economic policy mercantilism.

Cultural and national homogenization figured prominently in the rise of the

modern state system. Since the absolutist period, stated have largely been

organized on a national basis. The concept of a national state however is not

synonymous with nation state. Even in the most ethnically homogeneous societies

there is not always a complete correspondence between state and nation hence the

active role often taken by the state to promote nationalism through emphasis on

shared symbols and national identity.

It is in this period that the term the state is first introduced into political discourse

in more or less its current meaning. Although Niccolo Machiavelli id often

credited with first using the term to refer to a territorial sovereign government in

the modern sense in the prince published in 1532m it is nit until the time of the

British thinkers Thomas Hobbes and john Locke and the French thinkers jean

Bodin that the concept in its current meaning is fully developed.

Today most western states more or less fit the influential definition of the state in

max Weber’s politics as a vocation. According to Weber the modern state

monopolizes the means of legitimate physical violence over a definite territory or

their legitimacy may not be adequately described a rational legal. But they are still

recognized distinct from feudal and absolutist states in the extent of their

bureaucratization and their reliance on nationalism as a Principe of legitimating.

Since Weber an extensive literature on the processes by which the modern state

emerged from the feudal state has been generated. Marxist scholars for example

assert that in the formation of modern states can be explained primarily in terms

of the interests and struggles of social classes.

Scholars working in the broad Weberian tradition by contrast have often

emphasized the institution building effects of war. For example Charles Tilly has

argued that the revenue gathering imperatives forced on nascent states by

geopolitical competition and constant warfare were mostly responsible for the

development of the centralized territorial bureaucracies that characterize modern

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states in Europe. States that were able to develop centralized tax gathering

bureaucracies and to field mass armies survived into the modern era; states that

were not able to do so did not.

The state in modern political thought:

The rise of the modern state system was closely related to changes in political

thought, especially concerning the changing understanding of legitimate state

power. Early modern defenders of absolutism such as Thomas Hobbes and jean

Bodin undermined the doctrine of the divine right of kings by arguing that the

power of kings should be justified by reference to the people. Hobbes in particular

went further and argued that political power should be justified with reference to

the individual not just to the people understood collectively. Both Hobbes and

Bodin thought they were defending the power of kings, not advocating democracy

but their argument about the nature of sovereignty were fiercely resisted by more

traditional England who thought that such defenses ultimately opened the way to

more democratic claims.

These and other early thinkers introduced two important concepts in order to

justify sovereign power the idea of a state of nature and the idea of social contract.

The first concept describes an imagined situation in which the state understood as

a centralized coercive power does not exist and human beings have all their

natural rights and powers the second describes the conditions under which a

voluntary agreement could take human beings out of the state of nature and into a

state of civil society. Depending on what they understood human nature to be ad

the natural rights they thought human beings had in that state, various writers

were able to justify more or less extensive forms of the state as a remedy for the

problems of the state of nature. Thus for example Hobbes who described the state

of nature as a war of every man against every man argued that sovereign power

should be almost absolute since that sovereign power should be almost absolute

since almost all sovereign powers would be better than such a war whereas john

Locke who understood the state of nature in more positive terms, thought that

state power should be strictly limited. Both of them nevertheless understood the

powers of the state to be limited by what rational individuals would agree to in a

hypothetical or actual social contract.

The idea of the social contract lent itself to more democratic interpretations than

Hobbes or Locke would have wanted. Jean Jacques Rousseau for example argued

that the only valid social contract would be one were individuals would be subject

to laws that only themselves had made and assented to as in a small direct

democracy. Today the tradition of social contract reasoning is alive in the work of

john Rawals and his intellectual heirs though I n a very abstract form. Rawls

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argued that rational individuals would only agree to social institutions specifying

a set of inviolable basic liberties and a certain amount of redistribution to alleviate

inequalities for the benefit of the worst off. Lockean state of nature reasoning by

contrast is more common in the libertarian tradition of political thought

represented by the work of Robert Nozick. Nozick argued that given the natural

rights that human beings would Havei in a state of nature the only state that could

be justified would be a minimal state whose sole functions would be to provide

protection and enclose agreements.

Some contemporary thinkers such as Michel Foucault have argued that political

theory needs to get away from the notion of the state we need to cut off the kings’

head. We need to cut off the king’s head. In political theory that has still to be

done. By this he meant that power in the modern world is much more

decentralized and uses different instruments than power in the early modern era so

that the notion of a sovereign centralized state is increasingly out of date.

Evolution of modern state system:

The evolution of modern state system can be described in following stages.

A. Sumerian city state (existed before 2500 B.C)

The earliest known people of the Fertile Crescent were the Sumerians. About

4000 B.C they lived in southern Mesopotamia in a number of independent city

states. Each consisted of a small city and its surrounding area. The rulers of these

city states constantly warred with one another.

Sumerian cities were often rectangular in shape surrounded by high wide walls.

Inside the city gates were broad avenues used for religious processions or victory

parades.

Trade brought riches to cities. Traders sailed along the rivers or risked the dangers

of desert travel to carry goods to distant regions. Archaeologists have found goods

from as far away as Egypt and India in the rubble of Sumerian cities.

Summer included many independent city states. Rival cities often battled for

control of land and water. For protection, people turned to courageous and

resourceful war leaders. Over time these war leaders evolved into hereditary

rulers.

In each city states the ruler was responsible for maintaining the city walls and the

irrigation systems. He led armies in war and enforced the laws. As government

grew more complex he employed scribes to carry out functions such as collection

taxes and keeping records. The ruler also had religious duties. He was seen as the

chief servant of the gods and led ceremonies designed to please them.

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Each Sumerian city state had a distinct social hierarchy or system of ranks. The

highest class included the ruling family leading officials and high priests. A small

middle class was made up of merchants’ artisans and lesser priests and scribes.

Like mist ancient peoples the Sumerians were polytheistic worshipping many

gods.

B. Greek city states

Initially many Greek city states seem to have been petty kingdoms there was often

a city official’s carrying some residual ceremonial functions of the king (basileus)

e.g. the archon Basileus in Athens. However by the archaic period and the first

historical consciousness most had already become aristocratic oligarchies. It is

unclear exactly how this change occurred. For instance in Athens the kingship had

been reduced to a hereditary life long chief magistracy archon by 1050 BC; by

753 BC this had become a decennial elected archonship and finally by 683 BC an

annually elected archonship; and finally by 683 BC an annually elected

archonship. Through each stage more power would have been transferred to the

aristocracy as a whole and away from a single individual. Inevitably the

domination of politics and concomitant aggregation of wealth by small groups of

families was apt to cause social unrest in many poleis. In many cities a tyrant not

in the modern sense of repressive autocracies, would at some point seize control

and govern according to their own will often a populist agenda would help sustain

government by a strongman was often the best solution.

Athens fell under a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century. When this

tyranny was ended as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy regaining power

the Athenians founded the world’s first democracy. A citizen’s assembly the

ecclesia for the discussion of city policy had existed since the reforms of draco in

621 BC; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of solon early 6 th

century but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office.

With the establishment of the democracy the assembly became the de juru

mechanism of government all citizens now had equal privileges in the foreigners

living in Athens or slaves had no political rights at all.

After the rise of the democracy in Athens other city states founded democracies.

However many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in

other matters, Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece ruled through

the whole period by not one but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of

diarchy. The kings of Sparta belonged to the agiads and the eurypontids

descendants respectively of eurysthenes and proclus. Both dynasty founders ere

believed to be twin sons of aristodemus a Heracles ruler. However the powers of

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these kings ere trammeled by both council of elders the gerousia and magistrates

specifically appointed to watch over the kings the ephods.

C. Roman Empire:

The Roman Empire is the phase of the ancient roman civilization characterized by

an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and the

Mediterranean. Usually Roman Empire is the term used to describe the roman

state after the establishment of rule by emperors but is sometimes in non specialist

contexts used more generally to refer to the expansionary roman state both after

and before the time of the first emperor, Augusts. The 500 years old roman

republic (509 BC 1st century BC) which precedes it conceptually had been

weakened by the civil wars of the late republic.

Several dates are commonly proposed to mark the transition from republic to

empire including the date of Julius Caesar’s appointment as perpetual dictator (44

BC) the victory of Caesar’s heir Octavian at the battle of actium (September 2,31

BC) and the roman senate’s granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus. (January

16, 27 BC).

The Latin term imperium romanun Roman Empire probably the best known Latin

expression where the word imperium denotes a territory indicates the part of the

world under roman rule. Roman expansion began in the days of the republic but

reached its zenith under Emperor Trojan. At this territorial peak the Roman

Empire controlled approximately 5,900,000 km2 (2,300,000 sq. mi) of land

surface. Because of the empire vast extant and long endurance. Roman influence

upon the language religion architecture philosophy law and government of nation

around the world lasts to this day.

In the late 3rd century ad Diocletian established the practice of dividing authority

between two emperors one in the western part of the empire and one in the east in

order to better administer the vast territory. For the next century this practice

continued with occasional periods in which one emperor assumed complete

control. However after the death of Theodosius I in 395, the teo halves ere

permanently divided. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late fifth

century as its territory was seized by Germanic tribes. The east roman of

Byzantine Empire endured until 1453 with the capture of Constantinople by the

ottoman Turks. Therefore it is difficult to give an exact date when the Roman

Empire ceased to exist but this permanent division In 395 ad.

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D. treaty of Westphalia (1648) and the acknowledgement of

other states;

The term peace of Westphalia refer to the two peace treaties of Osnabruck and

Munster signed on may 15 and October 24 of 1648 respectively which ended both

the thirty years war in Germany and the eighty years war between Spain and the

Netherlands. The treaties involved the holy roman emperor Ferdinand III

(Hapsburg) the kingdoms of Spain France and Sweden the Dutch republic and

their respective allies among the princes of the Holy Roman Empire.

The peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern diplomatic congress and

initiated a new order in central Europe based on the concept of national

sovereignty. Until 1806 the regulation became part of the constitutional laws of

the Holy Roman Empire. The treaty of the Pyrenees signed in 1659 ended the war

between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall accord.

E. Italian mercantile city states:

The Italian city states were a remarkable political phenomenon of small

independent states in the northern Italian peninsula between the tenth and

fifteenth centuries. After the fall Roman Empire there was a strong continuity of

urban awareness in northern Italy which had virtually disappeared in the rest of

Europe. Some cities and their urban institutions had survived in Italy since the

cark ages. Many of these towns were survivors of earlier Etruscan and roman

towns which had existed with in the Roman Empire. The republican institutions

of Rome had also survived. Some feudal lords existed with a servile labor force

and huge tract of land but by 11th century many cities including Venice Milan

Florence and Genoa had become large trading metropolises able to conquer

independence from their formal sovereigns.

In fact Italy between 12th an 13th centuries was vastly different from feudal Europe

north of the Alps. The peninsula was a mélange of political and cultural elements

rather than a unified state. Marc Bloch and Fernand Braudel have argued the

geography determined the history of the region. With in the Italian peninsula there

is great physical diversity. Italy is cut into numerous small regions very difficult.

The po plain however was an exception o teas the only large contiguous area and

most city states which fell to invasion were located there. Those that survived

longest were in the more rugged regions, such as Florence or Venice defended by

her lagoon. Because an attack across the Alps was very difficult, German prince

lings could not exert sustained control over their Italian vassal states and thus ital

yeas substantially freed of German political interference. So no strong monarchies

19

emerged as they did in the rest of Europe; instead there emerged the independent

city states.

While those roman urban republican sensibilities persisted there were many

movements and changes afoot.

Italy first felt the changes in Europe from the 11 th to the 13th centuries. Typically

there was:

!. A rise in population the population doubled in this period. (the

demographic explosion)

2. An emergence of huge cities (in Italy were Venice, Florence and Milan

with over 100,000 inhabitants by 13th century bur many others surpassed

50,000 as Genoa bologna Verona).

3. The rebuilding of the great cathedrals.

4. Substantial migration from country to city in Italy the rate of urbanization

reached 20% the most urbanized society in the world at that time.

5. an agrarian revolution

6. The development of commerce.

It is estimated that the per capita income of northern Italy nearly tripled from the

11th century to the 15th century. This was a highly mobile, demographically

expanding society, fueled by rapidly expanding renaissance commerce. By the

13th century northern & central Italy had become the most literate society in the

world. More then one third of male population could read in the vernacular an

unprecedented rate since the decline of the roman empire as could a small bur

significant proportion of women.

During the 11th century in northern Italy a new political and social structure

emerged the city state or commune.

The civic culture which arose from this Arabs was remarkable. In mist places

where communes arose e.g. Britain and Flanders they were absorbed by the

monarchical state as it emerged. Almost uniquely they survived in northern and

central Italy to become independent and powerful city-states. The break way from

their feudal overlords by these communes occurred in the late 12 th century and

13th century during the investiture controversy between the pope and the emperor

Milan led the Lombard cities against the holy roman emperors and defeated them

gaining independence barrels of legnano 1176 and Parma 1248 see Lombard

league. Meanwhile Venice and Genoa were able to conquer their naval empires

on the Mediterranean Sea.

By the late 12th century a new and unique society had emerged rich mobile

expanding with a mixed aristocracy interested in urban institutions and republican

20

government. But many city states housed also a violent society based on family

confraternity and brotherhood who mined their cohesion.

By 1300 most of these republics had become princely states dominated by

signore. The exceptions ere Venice Florence Laucca and a few others which

remained republics in the face of an increasingly monarchic Europe.

During 14th century and 15th century the most powerful of these cities Milan

Venice Florence were able to conquer 1454 peace of Lodi ended their struggle for

the hegemony in Italy and started the policy of balance of power.

At the beginning of 16th century apart some minor city states like San Marino only

Venice was able to preserve her independence and to match the European

monarchies of France and Spain and the Ottoman Empire.

F. French revolution and development of ideas of self

determination:

Just as colonization and colonialism have been practiced throughout human

history political self determination has been cherished by people through history

the ancient Mesopotamian and later Greek city states being early examples.

Self determination is defined as free choice of one’s own acts without external

compulsion and especially as the freedom of the people of a given territory to

determined their own political status or independence from their current state. The

latter is a complex concept with confliction definitions and legal determining

which groups may legitimately claim the right to self determination.

The revolt of the British colonists in North America has been defined as the first

assertion of the right of national and democratic self determination because of the

explicit invocation of natural law the natural rights of man and consent of and

sovereignty by the people ideas inspired particularly by john Locke’s writings.

Thomas Jefferson further promoted the notion that the will of the people was

supreme especially through authorship of the declaration of independence which

inspired Europeans throughout the 19th century. The French revolution also was

motivated by and legitimatized ideas of self determination.

During the early 1800s most of the nations of South America achieved

independence from Spain. The American public organized groups and even

congressional resolutions often supported such movements especially the Greek

war of independence (1821-29) and the demands of Hungarian revolutionaries in

1848 however such support never became official government policy. After the

American civil war the United States government opposed self determination for

the West Indian islands of St. Thomas and St. John in 1868 the Hawaiian island in

1868. By the conclusion of the Spanish American war in 1899 the United States

supported its annexation without the consent of the peoples the former Spanish

21

colonies of Guam Puerto Rico and the Philippines; it retained “Quasisuzerainty”

over Cuba.

However since the early 1990s the legitimatization of the principle of national self

determination has led to an increase in the number of conflicts with in states as

subgroups seek greater self determination and even full secession and as their

conflict for leadership with in groups and with other groups and with the

dominant state become violent. The international reaction to these new

movements has been uneven and often dictated more by politics than principle.

The year 2000 United Nations millennium declaration failed to deal with these

new demands mentioning only the right to self determination of peoples which

remain under colonial domination and foreign occupation.

22

Chapter 3

Nationalism

It is a term referring to a doctrine or political movement that holds a nation

usually defined in terms of ethnicity or culture has the right to constitute an

independent and autonomous political community based on a shared history and

common destiny. Most nationalists believe the border of the state should be

congruent with the borders of the nation (a nation state).

Nationalist efforts such as those propagated by fascist movements in the twentieth

century held the nationalist concept that nationality is the most important aspect

of ones identity while some of them have attempted to define the nation in terms

of race or genetics. Some contemporary nationalist reject the racist chauvinism of

these groups and remain confident that national identity supersedes biological

attachments to an ethnic group.

Nationalism has had an enormous influence on modern history in which the

nation state has become the preferred form of societal organization however by no

means universal. Historian uses the term nationalism to refer to this historical

23

transition and to the emergence and predominance of nationalist ideology.

Nationalism is closely associated with patriotism.

Principles:

Nationalism is a form universalism when it makes universal claims about how the

world should be organized but it is particularistic with regard to individual

nations. The combination of both is characteristic for the ideology for instance in

these assertions:

1. In a nation state the language of the nation should be the official language

and all citizens should speak it and not a foreign language.

2. The official language of the United Kingdom should be English and all

British citizens should speak it.

The universalistic principle bring nationalism into conflict with competing forms

of universalism the particularistic principle bring specific nationalist movements

into conflict with rival nationalism for instance the Danish German tensions over

their reciprocal linguistic minorities.

The starting point of nationalism is the existence of nations which it takes as a

given. Nations are typically seen as a nation can be created artificially. Nationalist

movements see themselves as the representative of an existing nationalism imply

the reverse order that the nationalist movements created the sense of national

identity and then a political unit corresponding to it or that an existing state

promoted a national identity for it self.

Nationalists see nations as an inclusive categorization of human beings assigning

every individual to one specific nation. In fact nationalism sees most human

activity as national character. Nations have national symbols a national culture a

national music and national literature; national folklore a national mythology and

in some cases a national religion. Individuals share national values and a national

identity admire a national hero eat the national dish and play the national sport.

Nationalist define individual nations on the basis of certain criteria which

distinguish one nation from another; and determine who is a member of each

nation. These criteria typically include a shared language culture and or shared

values which are predominantly represented within a specific ethnic group.

National identity refers both to these defining criteria and to the shared heritage of

each group. Membership in a nation is usually involuntary and determined by

birth. Individual nationalisms vary in their degree of internal uniformity some are

monolithic and tolerate little variance from the national norms. Academic

nationalism theory emphasizes that national identity is contested reflecting

differences in region class gender and language or dialect. A recent development

is the idea of a national core culture in Germany the Leithultur which emphasizes

24

a minimal set of non negotiable values this is primarily a strategy of cultural

assimilation in response to immigration.

Nationalism has the strong territorial components with an inclusive categorization

of territory corresponding to the categorization of individual. For each nation

there is a territory which is uniquely associated with it the national homeland and

together they account for most habitable land. This is reflected in the geopolitical

claims of nationalism which seeks to order the world as a series of nation states

each based on the national homeland of its respective nation. Territorial claims

characterize the politics of nationalist movements. Established nation states also

make an implicit territorial claim to secure their own continued existence

sometimes it is specified in the national constitution. In the nationalist view each

nation has a moral entitlement to a sovereign state this is usually taken as a given.

The nation state is intended to guarantee the existence of a nation to preserve its

distinct identity and to provide a territory where the national culture and ethos are

dominant nationalism is also a philosophy of the state. It sees a nation state as a

necessity for each nation secessionist national movements often complain about

their second class status as a minority with in another nation. This specific view

of the duties of the state influenced the introduction of national education systems

often teaching a standard curriculum national cultural policy and national

language policy. In turn nation states appeal to a national cultural historical

mythos to justify their existence and to confer political legitimacy acquiescence of

the population in the authority of the government.

Nationalist recognize that non national states exist and existed but do not see them

as a legitimate form of state existed but do not see them as a legitimate form of

state. The struggles of early nationalist movements were often directed against

such non national states specifically multi ethnic empires such as non national

states specifically multi ethnic empires such as Austria Hungary and the ottoman

empire. Most multi ethnic empires have disappeared but some secessionist

movements see Russia and china as comparable non national imperial states. At

least one modern state is clearly not a nation state the Vatican City exists solely to

provide a sovereign territorial unit for the Roman Catholic Church.

Some critics have maintained that unlike modern nationalism which is a creation

of the 19th century nation state authentic nationalism as the Latin Natio would

suggest must be based in some form of Genophilia and the sharing of ancestors.

Nationalism as ideology includes ethical principles that the moral duties of

individuals to fellow members of nation override those to non members.

Nationalism claims that national loyalty in case of conflict overrides local

loyalties and all other loyalties to family friends’ profession religion or class.

Concepts of sovereignty:

25

Sovereignty is the exclusive right to have control over an area of governance

people or oneself. A sovereign is the supreme lawmaking authority.

Enlightenment philosopher jean Jacques Rousseau in book III chapter III of his

1762 treatise of the social contract argued the growth of the state giving the

trustees of public authority more and means to abuse their power the more the

government has to have force to contain the people the more force the sovereign

should have in turn in order to contain the government with the understanding that

the sovereign is a collective being (book II chapter I) resulting from the general

will of the people and that what any man whoever he may be orders on his own is

mot a law (book II chapter VI) and furthermore predicated on the assumption that

the people have an unbiased means by which to ascertain the general will. Thus

the legal maxim there is no law without a sovereign.

In this model national sovereignty is of an eternal origin such as nature or a god

legitimizing the divine right of kings in absolute monarchies or a theocracy.

A more formal distinction is whether the law is held to be sovereign which

constitutes a true state of law the letter of the law if constitutionally correct is

applicable and enforceable even when against the political will of the nation as

long as not formally changed following the constitutional procedure. Strictly

speaking any deviation from this principle constitutes a revolution or a coup d’etat

regardless of the intentions.

In constitutional and international law the concept also pertains to a government

possessing full control over its own affairs with in a territorial or geographical

area or limit and in certain context to various organs possessing legal jurisdiction

in their own chief rather than by mandate or under supervision. Determining

whether a specific entity is sovereign is not an exact science but often a matter of

diplomatic dispute.

While many purists regard the individual or an individual nation state as the sole

seat of sovereignty in international law sovereignty is defined as the legitimate

exercise of power and the interpretation of international law by a state dejure

sovereignty is the ability in fact to do so which becomes of special concern upon

the failure if the usual expectation that dejure and defacto sovereignty exist at the

place and time of concern and rest in the same organization. Foreign governments

recognize the sovereignty of a state over a territory or refuse to do so.

For instance in theory both the peoples’ republic of china and the republic of

china considered themselves sovereign governments over the whole territory of

main land china and Taiwan. Though some foreign governments recognize the

republic of china as the valid state most now recognize the people’s republic of

china. However defacto the peoples republic of china exercises sovereign power

over mainland china but nor Taiwan while the republic of china exercises its

effective administration only over Taiwan and some outlying islands bur not

26

mainland china. Since ambassadors are only exchanged between sovereign high

parties the countries recognizing the People’s Republic often entertain defacto but

not dejure diplomatic relationships with Taiwan by maintaining offices of

representation such as the American institute in Taiwan rather than embassies

there.

Sovereignty may be recognized even when the sovereign body possesses no

territory or its territory is under partial or total occupation by another power. The

Holy See was in this position between the annexation in 1870 of the Papal States

by Italy and the signing of the Lateran treaties in 1929 when it was recognized as

sovereign by many mostly Roman Catholic states despite possessing no territory a

situation resolved when the Lateran treaties granted the Holy See sovereignty

over the Vatican City. The sovereign military order of Malta is likewise a non

territorial body that claims to be a sovereign entity though it is not universally

recognized as such.

Similarly the governments in exile of many European states for instance Norway

Netherlands or Czechoslovakia during the Second World War were regarded as

sovereign despite their territories being under foreign occupation their governance

resumed as soon as the occupation had ended. The government of Kuwait was In

a similar situation vis-à-vis the Iraqi occupation of its country during 1990-1991.

National interest:

The national interest often referred to by the French term raison d etat is a

country’s goal and ambitions whether economic, military, or cultural. The notion

is an important one in international relations where pursuit of the national interest

is the foundation of the realist school.

The national interest of a state is multi faceted. Primary is the states survival and

security also important is the pursuit of wealth and economic growth and power.

Many states in modern times regard the preservation of the nations culture as of

great importance.

On early human history the national interest was usually viewed as secondary to

that of religion or morality. To engage in a war rulers needed to justify the action

in these contexts. The first thinker to advocate for the primacy of the national

interest is usually considered to be Niccolo Machiavelli. The practice is first seen

as being employed by France in the thirty years war when it intervened on the

protestant side despite its own Catholicism to block the increasing power of the

Holy Roman Empire. The notion of the national interest soon came to dominate

European politics that became fiercely competitive over the next centuries. States

could now openly embark on wars purely out of self interest. Mercantilism can be

seen as the economic justification of the aggressive pursuit of the national

interest.

27

A foreign policy geared towards pursuing the national interest is the foundation of

the realist school of international relation. The realist school reached its greatest

heights at the congress of Vienna with the practice of the balance of powers which

amounted to balancing the national interest of several great and lesser powers.

Metternich was celebrated as the principal artist and theoretician of this balancing

but he was simply doing a more or less clean copy of what his predecessor

kaunitz had already dome by reversing so many of the traditional Hapsburg

alliances and building international relations anew on the basis of national interest

instead of religion of tradition.

These notions became much criticized after the bloody debacle of the First World

War and the concept of the balance of power was replaced with the idea of

collective security whereby all members of the League of Nations would consider

and attack upon one as an attack upon all. Thus deterring the use of violence

forevermore. The League of Nations did not work partially because the United

States refused to join and partially because in practice nations did not always find

it in the national interest to deter each other from the use of force.

The events of World War II led to rebirth of realist and then neorealist thought as

international relations theorists re emphasized the role of power in global

governance. Many IR theorists blamed the weakness of league of nation for its

idealism contrasted with realism and ineffectiveness at preventing war even as

they blamed mercantilist beggar thy neighbor policies for the creation of fascist

states in Germany and Italy. With hegemonic stability theory the concept of the

US national interest was expanded to include the maintenance of open sea lanes

and the maintenance and expansion of free trade.

Today the concept of the national interest is often associated with political realists

who wish to differentiate their policies from idealistic policies that seek either to

inject morality into foreign policy or promote solutions that rely on multilateral

institutions which might weaken the exists in every country over what is or is not

in the national interest the term is as often invoked to justify isolationist and

pacifistic policies as to justify interventionist or warlike policies.

28

Chapter: 4

Imperialism, colonialism & neo-colonialism

Introduction:

Imperialism practice by which powerful nations or people seek to extend and

maintain or influence weaker nations or peoples. Scholars frequently use the term

more restrictively: some associate imperialism solely with the economic

expansion of capitalist states other reserve it for European expansion after 1870.

Although imperialism is similar in meaning to colonialism, and the two terms are

sometimes used interchangeably, they should be distinguished. Colonialism

usually implies formal political control involving territorial annexation and loss of

sovereignty. Imperialism refers more broadly to control or influence that is

exercised either formally or informally directly or indirectly, politically or

economically.

History:

Imperialism dates from antiquity and throughout history it has taken many forms.

In any given historical period certain forms tend to be more prevalent than others.

In the ancient world imperialism manifested itself in a series of great empires that

arose when one people usually representing a particular civilization and religion

attempted to dominate all other by creating a unified system of control. The

empire of Alexander the great and the Roman Empire are silent examples.

29

Early modern European imperialism (1400-1750) by contrast generally took the

form of overseas colonial expansion. Rather than one state attempting to unify the

world in this period many competing states established political control over

territories in south and southeast Asia and in the new world. Imperial systems

were organized according to the doctrine of mercantilism each imperial state

attempted to control the trade of its colonies in order to monopolize the benefits of

that trade.

In the mid 19th century yet another variant of imperialism appeared the

imperialism of free trade. The practice endured in this period even though

mercantilism and the pace of formal empire building declined significantly.

European especially British power and influence were extended informally

mainly through diplomatic and economic means rather than formally through

direct colonial rule. The imperialism of free trade however was short lived: by the

end of the 19th century European powers were once again practicing imperialism

in the form of overseas territorial annexation expanding into Africa Asia and the

pacific.

Since the end of World War II when most of the formal empires were dissolved

what might be called modern economic imperialism has come to predominate.

Control is exercised informally and less overly. The US for instance exerts

considerable influence over certain third world nations as a result of its national

economic power and its dominance of certain international financial organizations

such as the World Bank and the international monetary fund. Similarly European

powers have continued to affect significantly the politics and the economics of

their former colonies and they have consequently been accused of neocolonialism

the exercise of effective sovereignty without the formality of colonial rule.

Explanation of imperialism:

Historically states have been motivated to pursue imperialism for a variety of

reasons which may be classified broadly as economic political and ideological

theories of imperialism break down similarly according to which motive or

motives are viewed as primary.

A. The Economic Motive:

economic explanation of imperialism are the most common proponents of this

view hold that states are motivated to dominate others by the need to expand their

economies to acquire raw materials an additional sources of labor or to find

outlets for surplus capital and markets for surplus goods. The prominent economic

theories linking imperialism with capitalism are derived from those of Karl Marx

Lenin for example explained the European expansion of the late 19 th century as

the inevitable outcome if the need for the European capitalist economies to export

30

their surplus capital. Similarly contemporary Marxists explain the postwar

expansion of the US in to the third world in terms of economic imperatives.

B. political motives:

Alternatively some stress the political determinants of imperialism contending

that states are motivated to expand primarily by the desire for power prestige

security and diplomatic by advantages vis-à-vis other states. In this view late 19 th

century French imperialism was intended to restore Frances international prestige

after its humiliating defeat in the Franco Prussian war. Similarly soviet expansion

into Eastern Europe after 1945 can be understood in terms of security needs

specifically the need to protect nation from another invasion across its western

border.

C. ideological motives:

a third set explanations focuses on ideological or moral motives. According to this

perspective political cultural or religious beliefs force states in to imperialism as a

missionary activity. Britain’s colonial empire was motivated at least in part by the

idea that it was the white mans burden to civilize “backward” peoples. Germany’s

expansion under Hitler was based in large measure on a belief in the inherent

superiority of German national culture. The desire of the US to protect the free

world and of the former Soviet Union to liberate the peoples of Eastern Europe

and the third world are also examples of imperialism driven by moral and

ideological concerns.

D. reactive imperialism:

Finally some explanations of imperialism focus not on the motives of powerful

states but rather on the political circumstances in weaker states. The argument

holds that powerful states may not intend to expand but may be forced to by

instability on the periphery; new imperial actions result from past imperial

commitments. The British conquest of India and the Russian colonization of

central Asia in the 19th century are classic examples of reactive imperialism.

The effect of imperialism:

Because imperialism is so often viewed as economically motivated discussion of

its effects also tend to revolve around economic issues. Disagreement arises

between those who believe that imperialism implies exploitation and those who

believe that imperialism implies exploitation and in responsible for the

underdevelopment and economic stagnation of the poor nations and those who

argue those although the rich nations benefit from imperialism the poor nations

31

also benefit at least in the long run. The truth has been difficult to ascertain for at

least two reasons.

1. no consensus has been reached on the meaning of exploitation and

2. It is frequently difficult to disentangle the domestic causes of poverty from

those that are possibly international.

What is apparent is that the impact of imperialism is uneven: some poor nations

have enjoyed greater economic benefits from contact with the rich than have

others. India Brazil and other developing nations have even begun to compete

economically with their former colonial powers. Thus it is prudent to examine the

economic impact of imperialism on a case by case basis. The political and

psychological effects of imperialism are equally difficult to determine.

Imperialism has proven both destructive and creative: for better or worse it has

destroyed traditional institutions and ways of thinking and has replaced them with

the habits and mentality of the western world.

Colonialism:

Colonialism is the extension of a nation’s sovereignty over territory beyond its

borders by the establishment of either setter colonies or administrative

dependencies in which indigenous populations are directly ruled or displaced.

Colonizing nations generally dominate the resources labor and markets of the

colonial territory and may also impose socio cultural religious and linguistic

structures on the indigenous population. It is essentially a system of direst

political economic and cultural intervention and hegemony by a powerful country

in a weaker one. Though the word colonialism is often used interchangeably with

imperialism the latter is sometimes used more broadly as it covers control

exercised informally via influence as well as formal military control or economic

leverage.

The term colonialism may also be used to refer to an ideology or a set of beliefs

used to legitimize or promote this system. Colonialism was often based on the

ethnocentric belief that the morals and values of the colonizer were superior to

those of the colonized some observers link such beliefs to racism and pseudo

scientific theories dating from the 18th to 19th centuries. In the western world this

led to a form of proto social Darwinism that placed white people at the top of the

animal kingdom, naturally in charge of dominating non European aboriginal

populations.

The historical phenomenon of colonialism is one that starches around the globe

and across time including such disparate peoples as the Hittites the Incas and the

British although the term colonialism is normally used with reference to

32

discontinuous European overseas empires rather than contiguous land based

empires European or otherwise.

Land based empires are conventionally described by the term imperialism such as

age of imperialism which includes colonialism as a sub topic but in the main

refers to conquest and domination of nearby lesser geographic powers. Examples

of land based empires include the Mongol empire a large empire stretching from

the western pacific to Eastern Europe the empire of Alexander the great the

Umayyad caliphate the Persian empire the roman empire the byzan tine empire.

The Ottoman Empire was created across Mediterranean north Africa and into

south eastern Europe and existed during the time of European colonization of the

other parts of the world.

After the Portuguese Reconquista period when the kingdom of Portugal fought

against the Muslim domination of Iberia in the 12 th and 13th centuries the

Portuguese started to expand overseas. European colonialism began in 1415 with

Portugal’s conquest of the Muslim port of Ceuta northern Africa. In the following

decades Portugal braved the coast of Africa establishing trading posts ports and

fortresses. Colonialism was led by Portuguese and Spanish exploration of the

Americas and coasts of Africa the Middle East India and East Asia. The latter half

of the sixteenth century witnessed the expansion of the English colonial state

throughout Ireland.

Despite some earlier attempts, it was not until the 17 th century that Britain, France

and the Netherlands successfully established overseas empires outside in direct

competition with Spain and Portugal and each other. In the 19th century the British

Empire grew to become the largest empire yet seen.

The end of the 18th and early 19th century saw the first era of decolonization when

most of the European colonies the Americas gained their independence from their

respective metropolis. Spain and Portugal were irreversibly weakened after the

loss of their new world colonies but Britain after the union of England and

Scotland France and the Netherlands turned their attention to the old world coastal

enclaves had already established. The German empire now republic created by

most of Germany being united under Prussia omitting Austria and other ethnic

territories in other parts of the world were also added to the tarns-oceanic or extra-

European German colonial empire. Italy occupied Eritrea Somalia and Libya.

During Abyssinia and in 1936 the Italian empire was created.

The industrialization of the 19th century led to what has been termed the era of

new imperialism when the pace of colonization rapidly accelerated the height of

which was the scramble for Africa. During the 20th century the overseas colonies

of the losers of World War I were distributed amongst the victors as mandates but

it was not until the end of World War II that the second phase of decolonization

began in earnest.

33

Types of colonies:

Colonialism and colonies one country’s domination of another country or people

usually achieved through aggressive often military actions and the territory

acquired in this manner. The terms colonialism and imperialism are sometimes

used interchangeably bur scholars usually distinguish between the two reserving

colonialism for instance where one country assumes political control over another

and using imperialism more broadly to refer to political or economic control

exercised either formally or informally. This article will discuss both concepts and

how they have been practiced in different parts of the world. It will summarize

colonial practices before the 15th century and then focus in more detail in

colonialism and imperialism during the last 500 years.

In the past 500 years there have been several types of colonies. The main ones

were colonies of settlement colonies of exploitation and what might be called

contested settlement colonies. Most European powers established more than one

type of colony. The British Empire for instance included colonies of settlement

(Virginia, Massachusetts, newsziland, New South Wales) colonies of exploitation

(Nigeria, Jamaica, Malaya) a preexisting empire India contested settlement

colonies Kenya and spheres of influence Argentina. The French empire also

included settlement colonies Algeria Québec exploitation colonies (Martinique,

the French Congo) and a preexisting empire (Indochina).

A. colonies of settlement

Colonies of settlement resulted when citizens of a foreign country the colonizing

country migrated to and eventually took complete control of a new area. These

areas came to be dominated not only by foreign people but also by foreign crops

and animals. The foreign colinizers ordinarily substituted their culture for the

existing one.

Settlers often excluded native inhabitants from their societies or killed many if

them in violent confrontations or by exposure to disease. In the Americas many

Native Americans died from diseases introduced by European diseases to which

they had no immunity. Colonies of settlement were located in temperate zones

with climates similar to Europe’s.

They are sometimes called neo Europe’s or until recently white man’s countries

examples of settlement colonies include English colonies in parts of the United

States, Canada and Australia.

B. colonies of exploitation:

34

Colonize of exploitation also knows as tropical dependencies did not attract large

numbers of permanent European settles. European went to these colonies

European settlers. European went to these colonies primarily as planters,

administrators, merchants or military officers. In exploitation colonies foreign

powers established political control if necessary using forces against colonies

resistance bur they did not displace or kill native societies. They also did not for

the most part intentionally destroy indigenous native cultures. Thus the

geographical circumstances and historical dynamics of exploitation colonies are

profoundly different from those of colonies of settlement.

C. contested settlement colonies:

In a contested settlement colony a significant number of European settlers took up

permanent residence. They tended to develop their own government, independent

of or even in defiance of the parent country. A contested settlement colony also

formed its own cultural and political identity. Politically white citizens dominated

native people.

However the native population not only survived but increased. Native peoples

managed to maintain some control over their lives although their political control

was usually slight. Furthermore their labor remained the backbone of the

economy. Eventually native people were able to successfully contested white

control of the colony both the control by the colonizing country and control by the

settlers. Examples of contested settlement colonies include Algeria and southern

Rhodesia both in Africa.

D. other types of colonies:

There are several other types of colonialism and imperialism including preexisting

empires were or had been powerful states that possessed a large population strong

political structures and sophisticated economy. India under English rule is an

example.

In internal colonialism one geographic area or ethnic group dominated another

within the same country. Examples of this kind of internal control include the

economic domination of the American south by the north after the American civil

war (1861-1865) or the influence of England over other areas of the British Isles.

In spheres of influence or informal empires European interfered in the internal

affairs of a state but stopped short of formal political annexation. During the 19 th

century individual western nations declared so called spheres of influence over

parts of china. They even required that disputes involving Europeans in these

areas of china had to be judged according to western law in western courts.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries in areas ruled under the Ottoman Empire

some western nations invested heavily in canals and rail roads and intervened

35

politically when they felt they needed to protect those investments. The concept

of an informal empire is used to describe British or American relations with the

former Spanish colonies in south and Central America after Latin American

independence in the early 19th century.

History of colonies:

The Greeks and the Romans both had colonies which they dominated by

establishing military posts in conquered territory. The Greeks controlled most of

the islands in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and later the Romans controlled the

whole area from Constantinople now Istanbul in turkey to Palestine and North

Africa to Gaul France and Britain. The Romans developed a theory of

colonization they believed that a garrison military post must include women who

could work in fields and bear children. The post could then become a settlement

capable of supporting and reproducing itself. Century’s later English settlers put

this theory in to practice in their colonies in Ireland and Virginia.

The Vikings people from what is now Norway Sweden and Denmark established

colonies in Greenland and Newfoundland but the settlements failed because the

Vikings were unable to supply them. The Vikings were more successful in

establishing colonies in parts of Europe including northern France Sicily England

and Ireland eventually the people who settled in these areas were called Normans.

From the 11th century to the 13th century Christian Europeans launched military

expeditions called crusades against the Muslims in Palestine. The Europeans

wanted to recapture Jerusalem and other places to which Christian made religious

pilgrimages. The crusades were the first military expeditions that western

Christians under look far from home. They also marked the first time that

significant numbers of European Christians carried their culture and religion

beyond Europe.

In the steppe (grassy plains) regions of central Asian the Mongols created a vast

empire during the 13th and early 14th centuries. The Mongol empire controlled the

expanse to territory from the Ural Mountains in Russia across Asia to the Pacific

Ocean. Every adult male was a mounted warrior and the Mongols were a nation

of cavalry. The ottoman Turks were also originally a steppe people. They took

over most of North Africa the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula. The

Ottoman Empire founded in the late 13th century was a significant world power

until the early 20th century.

There were also militarily aggressive peoples in sub Saharan Africa and in the

Americas. The Fulani in the western Sudan established a series kingdom in the

19th century and the Zulu dominated much a southern Africa during the early part

36

of that century. In the Americas the Inca and Aztec people dominated large

geographic areas when European arrived.

A. age of exploration (1450-1700)

In the 15th century Europe was divided in to a number of emerging nation states

that competed intensely with one another. This competition was one factor that

drove these states to expand. In contrast during the same time period china was a

strong unified power that possessed both the technology and the economic base

for expansion but did not do so. China had conducted overseas voyages but

decided to end them after a bitter debate at the imperial court in the early 15 th

century. In the contrast Europe was not a single entity and its various states

competed fiercely for advantage over their neighbors.

Each of the European states ventured beyond its borders at different times: first

Portugal then Spain then the Netherlands England and France. Their attempts to

expand overseas were linked very closely with their struggles for political and

economic power. Trade was considered a form of war and trading station were

called forts. The search for a variety of products to trade drove the Europeans

explorations.

The Portuguese began race to build a commercial empire in the early 15 th century

by exploring the coast of West Africa. There they established a trade in gold and

slaves by the 16th century African slaves were common place throughout southern

and Western Europe. Other trade items encouraged exploration of other areas. In

the North Atlantic Ocean an enormously valuable trade in fish encouraged boats

of all European nations to search for fishing grounds farther from Europe. Spices

drew explorers around the tip of Africa to Southeast Asia. European refrigeration

needs spices to preserve the meat they ate. By trading directly with the east

Europeans could avoid costly customs duties or taxes charged by the rulers of

every country between Egypt and Europe for letting spice shipments pass through.

Religion also played an important role in the increase of exploration. Early

modern European especially Catholics gave high priority to converting people

with other beliefs. The Spaniards in particular incorporated religion as a vital part

of their colonial movements and they sent many missionaries to the Americas as

did the Portuguese. In early English and Dutch settlements chaplains primarily

ministered to the settlers instead of converting the indigenous peoples. The British

missionary movement did not develop significantly until about 1800 although

some early settlers left England for the Americas so that they could be free to

practice their particular religious beliefs. For example Plymouth colony in what is

now Massachusetts was founded in 1620 by the pilgrims a group of puritans who

had been persecuted in England for their religious beliefs.

37

A pivotal point in European expansion occurred at the end of the 15 th century. In

1492 Italian navigator Christopher reach Asia by anew route. Basing his voyage

on his calculation of earth’s size (an estimate that turned out to be wrong),

Columbus reached the Caribbean islands off what would later be called north and

South America. On that journey as well as others that followed, Columbus

claimed the areas and established outposts for Spain which financed his voyages.

Although at first he insisted the area as part of Asia Columbus eventually realized

that he was exploring what he called new world as yet unknown to Europeans.

In late 1497 Portuguese navigator Vasco d agama rounded the Cape of Good

Hope at the southern tip of Africa and in the spring of 1498 became the first

European to reach India by a sea route. Columbus’s and Da Gama’s explorations

helped spur vast movement towards exploration and European colonialism during

the 16th century.

Spanish colonies:

Within a few years Spanish conquistadors (conquerors) over whelmed the power

Aztec Inca empires in what are now Mexico and Peru. These conquistadors

claimed the land for Spain and settlements were soon established. This was the

beginning of the Spanish empire which became the most powerful empire of its

day.

Individual Spanish settlers received large areas of land called Ecomiendas as well

as the right to control the labor of the people who lived on the land. On these

encomiendas the Spaniards raised cattle and sheep but the most important product

of New Spain as the Spaniards called their claims in the Americas was silver. The

indigenous people overseen by the Spaniards mined silver in the mountains of

Peru and in Mexico often at great risks that resulted in death. The silver that

reached Spain helped finance that country’s trade with other European nations,

and it fueled massive inflation in the price of goods that lasted until well after

1600 through out Europe.

Much of the silver from the new world ended up in India and china. Europeans

could not sell their goods in Asia because Asian manufactured goods particularly

textiles, were more advanced than those of the Europeans. For this reason

Europeans used the gold and silver acquired from their colonies to pay for Asian

spices, silk and cotton cloth.

Portuguese colonies:

Meanwhile the Portuguese were starting settlements in Brazil. Like the Spaniards

in other parts of the Americas they tool overland and forced the native population

to work it. Also Portuguese explorers were establishing a very different sort of

38

commercial empire in the Indian Ocean. This system was based on trade and war

rather than on taking large amounts of land and dominating its people. At first the

Portuguese had no competition the Chinese had called their fleets’ home: Indian

and Arab ships did not carry guns and other European nations had not yet entered

the field.

BY the early 16th century the Portuguese had established a string of strategic bases

including Hormuz at the tip of the Persian Gulf, Goa on the western coast of India

and the straits of Moluccca the gateway between the Indian ocean and the china

sea. From these bases the Portuguese could control and monitor the sea going

trade of the entire region. Portuguese power however was entirely naval and they

were unable to threaten the internal strength of land based empires. Moreover

when larger European nation arrived in the area, Portuguese naval supremacy

vanished.

Dutch colonies:

By the early 17th century the Dutch had replaced the Portuguese as the primary

European colonial power in Asia. They tool control of the Moluccas (now part of

the republic of Indonesia) and instituted a new sustem that would have great

significance for areas in other parts of the world: the plantation system. The dutch

plantations in Indonesia were like Spanish encomiendas inthat they employed

native labor. There were however important differences. Plantations were usually

more compact and were dedicated to the production of a single cash crop a crop

produced primarily for market. The plantation was much like a modern factory it

was an early and highly profitable form of industrial capitalism. On a plantation

labor was a commodity a cost of producing a crop quickly became associated with

the plantation system.

The Dutch also colonized parts of North America. They based their claims on the

explorations of Henry Hudson an English mariner employed by Dutch east India

Company. In 1609 Hudson entered present day New York Bay and explored the

river that now bears his name. During the next few years the Dutch dispatched

several trading vessels to the region which they named new Netherlands. A few

permanent colonists began to arrive in 1624 when a trade outpost was built. The

town was named New Amsterdam (now New York City) in 1626 and the first

large wave of settlement there occurred the same year.

English colonies:

England began exploration during the same period as the Dutch. In 1600 England

granted a charter to the east India Company to establish overseas commercial and

trade interests. The English government granted the company a monopoly of

English trade with the East Indies which the company eventually stretched to

39

include the lucrative opium trade in china. Similar companies were established for

the trade with Africa Virginia and elsewhere in the Americas.

English colonization in the Americas however remained almost unknown in the

16th century because England was at war with Spain. The first English colony in

North America was established on Roanole Island off the North American coast.

This colony failed and the English did not attempt further exploration and

colonization in the Americas until 1604 after they made peace with Spain. During

the 17th century the English established colonies in the Caribbean and North

America that became the foundations of the British Empire. In the West Indies the

English established sugar plantation and in 1655 they conquered the Spanish

colony of Jamaica the first English colony taken by force. The English established

a string of colonies along the eastern seaboard of North America.

French colonies:

The English faced competition in upper North America as the French colonized

parts of what is now Canada. In 1608 French explorer Samuel de Champlain

founded the colony of Québec as a fur trading center strengthening French control

of the St. Lawrence River. The French were also interested in converting the

native peoples to Christianity and they used the fur trade to fund their missionary

activities.

Later in the century the French became interested in expansion. In 1673 explorer

Louis Joliet and Jesuit missionary Jacques Marquette reached the Mississippi

river and traveled down it as far as the Arkansas River. In 1682 explorer René

Robert cavalier Sueur de la sale led an expedition down the Mississippi to the gulf

of the Mexico claiming all the land drained by the river for Louis XIV king of

France and naming the region Louisiana. As the French gained more control in

north America they developed a rivalry with England that would come to a head

during the 18th century.

A. European merchant empires (1700-1815):

The foundations of European sea based empires were laid during the 16 th and 17th

centuries. By the 18th century these empires had become powerful. To understand

these empires it is helpful break them up into regional networks or world systems.

A world system is an area where different cultures are related through commercial

and other interactions. The boundaries of a world system are not restricted to

territory controlled by any one country. The Atlantic Ocean is an example of a

world system as the Indian Ocean.

For the Atlantic Ocean it is helpful to think of two fairly distinct but connected

world systems. The north Atlantic system included Western Europe Russia the

Baltic Scandinavia the abundant fishing areas near Newfoundland and New

40

England and what became Canada and the northern states of the United States. Its

main products were timber fish and fur. The south Atlantic system included the

Spanish colonies in south and Central America the Portuguese colony of Brazil

the sugar producing islands of the Caribbean West Africa and the southern

colonies in North America. Its most prominent products were silver sugar tobacco

African slaves and after 1880, cotton

The north Atlantic world system relied heavily on the French, Dutch and English

colonies in North America. By the beginning of the 18th century conflicts between

competing European powers had intensified in that area. Territories along north

America eastern seaboard changed hands as the British gained control of Dutch

areas and the French and British entered a series of wars. Following the French

and Indian war great Britain gained control of Canada and all French territories

east of the Mississippi river. The British also gained Florida from Spain which

had been an ally of France. The war determined that British rather than French

ideas and institution would dominate North America.

In the south Atlantic world system slavery was crucial as a source of labor.

Millions of Native American people had died because they lacked immunity to

diseases introduced to the area. Death rated reached as high as 80 to 90 percent of

the native population during the first century of contact with Europeans. Also

relatively few Europeans migrated to the new world until the late 18 th century

providing few workers for new industries.

The shortage of labor became particularly acute after the Europeans introduced

the plantation system which became the main form of agricultural production in

the south Atlantic system. The plantation system was particularly prominent in the

sugar producing areas of the Caribbean islands and Brazil and in the southeastern

colonies of mainland North America where cotton and tobacco were important.

Around the world in the Indian Ocean world system British power was growing.

By the beginning of the 18th century the powerful Mughal Empire centered in

north India began decline. The English east India Company which had established

a presence in India during the 1600s had a fort in Calcutta (now Kolkata). The

company used this fort as abase to gradually take over the entire Indian

subcontinent. The company accomplished this by hiring an Indian army overseen

by British officers which were paid for with taxes collected from Indians. This

army formed the main British military weapon in Asia until India achieved

independence from Britain in 1947.

In the Indian Ocean world system trade was primarily in spices silk and other

luxury goods. This trade had existed for thousands of years providing Asian

countries with economies featuring large sophisticated markets credit industrial

revolution of the late 18th century Europeans produced little that Asians wanted so

they were able to participate in the Indian ocean world system only because they

41

possessed a great deal of silver from America. The industrial revolution the shift

from hand manufacturing large scale factory production allowed Europeans

increase productivity of labor by about ten times. Consequently they were able to

cut costs substantial while maintaining or even improving product quality.

European had another huge advantage military power. More than any other people

Europeans had made fighting a profession one that helped them expand their

commercial activities.

B. imperialism of free trade:

During the mid 19th century Britain was the dominant economic and political

power in the world. Britain faced little competition from other European powers.

The French were recovering from the French revolution (1789-1799) and

Napoleonic wars (1799-1815). The Dutch although still in control of Indonesia

had declined in power and were not a serious threat. Left unchallenged on the seas

the British were often able to extend their power through informal influence

without necessarily asserting formal political control which would add

administrative and defensive costs and responsibilities.

The push for informal influence became known as the imperialism of free trade.

The British did not establish many formal colonies but they controlled other

nations in order to increase their economic power. In china for example British

commercial expansion resulted in the opium wars (1839-1842, 1856-1860) when

the Chinese illegally importing opium. Britain also gained a great deal of informal

power in Latin America after Spain’s colonies became independent between 1807

and 1824. Because Britain’s power and influence were so vast a popular saying

was “the sun never sets on the British empire.”

C. new imperialism (1870-1914):

That lack of competition changed in the late 19th century as European powers

again became interested in expanding. This was particularly true of Germany

which had become a united nation in 1871 (see German unification). Almost all

the European powers vied with one another for colonies. This surging political

rivalry drove new imperialism.

Although European colonial expansion colonial expansion at the end of the 19 th

century was called new imperialism the motives of colonizers remained the same

as in earlier periods. They usually sought economic advantages but these were

hard to disentangle from political and strategic motives. The main differences in

the era were the number of competing colonial powers and the parts of the world

they chose to colonize. Almost all European powers participated and they sought

colonies in Africa and in the pacific.

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In what is called the scramble for Africa European nations partitioned Africa at

the Berlin West Africa conference (1884-1885). The Germans got southwestern

Africa along with Tanganyika in east Africa. The Portuguese got Mozambique

and Angola in southern Africa. Belgium took the Congo and France got Senegal

the Cameroon’s and several other colonies in the western Sudan and central

Africa. The British got the rest including Kenya and Uganda in east Africa the

gold coast (new Ghana) and the territory that became Nigeria in West Africa. The

British already controlled Egypt which they had occupied in 1882, as well as

English speaking cape colony and natal on the southern tip of Africa. The British

also dominated southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe and northern Rhodesia (new

Zambia) through the British South Africa Company under the leadership of Cecil

Rhodes. The result was that almost every part of the African continent was a

European colony.

In the pacific the British the French and the Germans faced competition both from

the Americans who tool over Hawaii and the Philippines from the Spaniards and

from the Japanese who colonized Korea. The French took Indochina (now

Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) and the Germans colonized eastern new guinea in

the south pacific. In Asia the British strengthened their hold on Burma (now

known as Myanmar) and Malaya. Although china was never formally colonized

European powers established individual “spheres of influence.” When the Chinese

rioted in shanghai and else where in 1900 in the boxer uprising western powers

put down the revolt and imposed a huge indemnity (a fine to cover the cost of

losses and damages) on the Chinese.

Both Africa and the pacific were areas where trade investment and profits had all

been comparatively to low before the late 19th century. These were also areas

where western nations with their advanced military technology could easily

conquer indigenous states. Imperial nations adopted the attitude that they should

control these areas in order to protect what they viewed as weak peoples. In

general the citizens of the more powerful nations supported this view especially

because with the exception of Japan’s control of Korea the power holders were

white and their subjects were people of color.

D. mandates and trusts:

The victors in World War I (1914-1918) particularly France and Britain took over

the colonial possessions of the losers Germany and the Ottoman Empire in Africa

the pacific and the Middle East. They managed these called mandates as trustees

under direction of the league of nation an international alliance formed in

response to world war I. mandated territories were supposed to be managed in the

interest of the indigenous peoples as well as in the interests of the world at large.

The indigenous peoples were though to be unable to stand by themselves to quote

the League of Nations charter. The nation that served as the mandatory power had

43

to submit annual reports to the permanent mandates commission of the league of

nation. After the war neither the Germans nor the ottomans were considered to be

fit trustees. In general a mandate was a colony under another name.

colonialism was not solely a European phenomenon in the 20th century. During

this time Japan was growing as a major imperial power. In the early 1940s Japan

founded the greater East Asia co-prosperity sphere, claiming to unite Asian nation

against western domination. In effect this act brought much of Asia under

Japanese control as part of Japan’s political and economic empire. Japanese

conquests of the Philippines Indonesia Burma Malaya and Indochina ended

western colonial administration in these areas but Japan’s administration during

World War II (1939-1945) was more severe than that of the European of

American that it replaced. In Korea for example Japan imposed several measures

designed to assimilate the Korean population including outlawing Korean

language and even Korean family names.

Following world war II the united nation (UN) successor to the league of nations

replaced the mandates commission with the trusteeship council and the areas that

had been known as mandates became labeled as trusts under the old mandate

commission the European powers had assumed that a mandate would remain

dependent on the administering nation without ever becoming an independent

nation. The charter for the trusteeship council however required the administering

nation to set a target date for the trust’s independence. Several colonies such as

India, Ceylon (now SRI LANKA) and Burma (now known as Myanmar began

their struggle against remaining colonial control. After achieving independence

and becoming members of the UN general assembly several former colonies led a

campaign against colonialism pointing to the provisions of the trusteeship council

charter. In this way trusteeship accelerated the movement toward decolonization

throughout the world.

Motives for colonization:

In general strong countries dominated weaker ones to promote their own national

self interest out of economic religious cultural or other reasons. It has been said

that the three primary motives for establishing colonies were gold, god and glory

but the main incentives were usually economic.

A. economic motives:

The colonizing country could control important markets for its exports (such as

cotton products) and deny these markets to its competitors. Colonies were also

important as opportunities for investment. A country often also increased its

wealth by conquering another civilization and taking its riches or by exploiting

the mineral wealth of another land. In the 16th century for example Spain became

a rich and powerful country largely by plundering the riches of existing

44

civilizations in the Americas and by seizing the area’s mineral wealth through

mining.

These practices were promoted by the policy of mercantilism that many European

colonial powers adopted. Those who advocated mercantilism believed that

exports to foreign countries were preferable both to trade with in a country and to

imports because exports brought more money in to the country. They also

believed that the wealth of a nation depended primarily on the possession of gold

and silver. Mercantilists assumed that the volume of world wealth and trade was

relatively static so one country’s gain required another’s loss. According to this

view a colonial possession should provide wealth to the country that controlled it.

Colonies were not supposed to compete with the mother country’s home

industries. Empires were closed systems designed to keep competitors out.

To implement mercantilist policy England passed legislation called the navigation

acts that restricted its colonies to trading solely with the mother country. The acts

also stipulated that goods imported or exported by English colonies in Africa Asia

or America had to be shipped on vessels constructed by English shipbuilders and

that at least three quarters of the ships crews had to be English.

Some times such regulations back fired. During the French and Indian war (1754-

1763) in North America the British parliament sought to increase revenues to pay

the costs of defending the American colonies it used the navigation acts to levy

heavier duties on the American colonies. American colonists felt oppressed by

these taxes which are considered to be one of the causes of the American

revolution (1775-1783).

In the 18th century a reaction to mercantilism began and the philosophy free trade

started to take root economists particularly Scottish economist Adam smith

argued against government regulation of the economy. Smith asserted that trade

with a colony was no more profitable than with an independent country. He

argued that political strategy might justify colonialism but economies could not.

By the 19th century tree trade policies were prompting European nations to pursue

informal empires or spheres of influence.

B. religious and strategic motives:

European countries also wanted to spread their religious beliefs and eliminate

other religions. Roman Catholic countries particularly Spain set out to convert

non Christian native peoples. Protestant countries also used religion as a motive

for expansion. Beginning in the 19th century Britain’s missionary movements

served as a significant reason for that country’s colonial efforts. The impact of the

colonizers religion on native societies varied. In parts of West Africa and southern

Africa very large proportions of the population converted to Christianity. In most

places the indigenous people combined the new religion with their existing beliefs

45

and culture as in Central America where the Maya people merged their native

practices with Christianity.

Sometimes colonies were important for strategic reasons for example the cape of

goof hope on the southern tip of Africa guarded European sailors southern route

to Asia also some countries occupied colonies in order to protect previous

investments. In Egypt a nationalist uprising in 1882 threatened the ruling

Egyptian powers with whom Britain had an informal agreement regarding the

Suez Canal of which the British government had purchased part ownership. When

Britain saw its investments in and its control of the canal in jeopardy it occupied

Egypt to control the situation.

Some European colonizing powers justified their colonial activities on what they

called humanitarian motives. In the 19th century Britain cited the African slave

trade as a reason to increase its control over areas in Africa. Of course the British

gad been leaders in the slave trade at its height in the previous century.

Neocolonialism:

Neocolonialism is a term used by post colonial critics of developed countries

involvement in the developing world. One common argument among postcolonial

intellectuals is that it is too simplistic to say that imperialism has ended and that

this occurred when the European empires relinquished their colonies during few

decades after the Second World War. The use of the term neocolonialism is one

such manifestation of this ongoing nature of imperialism. Yet it is in itself

extremely contentious because it is multifaceted and loosely used is often used as

a synonym for contemporary forms of imperialism and in a polemical way is used

in reaction to any unjust and oppressive expression of western political power.

Lying underneath all these various meanings of neocolonialism is a tacit

understanding that colonialism should be seen as something more than the formal

occupation and control of territories by a western metro pole. Hence while formal

methods of control like the implementation of administrative structures the

stationing of military forces and most importantly the incorporation of the natives

as subjects of the metropolitan government neocolonialism suggests an indirect

form of control through economic and cultural dependence. In this case

neocolonialism describes the continued control of former colonies through ruling

native elites compliant with neocolonial powers population that are exploited for

their labor and resources in order to feed an insatiable appetite for finished

physical or cultural commodities made by the metro pole.

There is some theoretical consensus and development of neocolonialism as well.

Scholars in postcolonial studies like Robert young bill Ashcroft Gareth Griffiths

and Helen Tiffin agree that in spite of the looseness of the term neocolonialism

originated with Kwame Nkrumah Ghana’s first post independence president. Part

46

of a burgeoning consciousness developing among post colonial elites in Africa

Nkrumah became aware that the gaining if independence and national sovereignty

by African states were purely token and in no substantial way altered the

relationship between the colonial powers and the colonized state. In effect the

formal granting of independence created a more Manichean system of

dependency and exploitation.

Neo colonialism is the worst form of imperialism for those who practice it mean

power without responsibility and for those who suffer from it means

exploitation without redress. In the days of old fashioned colonialism the

imperial power had at least explain and justify a home the actions it was taking

abroad. In the colony those who served the ruling imperia, power could at least

look to its protection against any violent move by their opponents with now

colonialism neither is the case.

In particular Nkrumah makes the following points about neocolonialism in 1965:

1. It continues to actively control the affairs of the newly independent state.

2. In most cases neocolonialism is manifested through economic and

monetary measures. For example the neocolonial territories become the

target markets for imports from the imperial centre(s).

3. While neocolonialism nay be a form of continuing control by state’s

previous formal colonial master these states may also become subjected to

imperial power by new actors. These new actors include the united stated

or may be international financial and monetary organizations.

4. Because of the nuclear parity between the superpowers the conflict

between the two takes place in the form of limited wars. Neocolonial

territories are often the places where these limited wars are waged.

5. as the ruling elites pay constant deference to the neocolonial masters the

needs of the population are often ignored leaving issues of living

conditions like education, development and poverty unresolved.

In more recent days there have been attempts to frame such reaction to new

forms of colonialism as simply irrational antipathy towards the west as a type

of resentment for the disparities between first world and third and also as a

way of explaining victimization. However Nkrumah’s views on

neocolonialism cannot be so easily explained because they more firmly

elaborate historical and possibly deterministic structures on a larger scale.

Particularly Nkrumah sought to develop the idea of imperialism advanced by

Lenin in imperialism: the highest stage of capitalism. In this case it makes no

sense to claim that imperialism sustains itself because if the continued lust for

power after power bur that there exists a higher logic driven on by capitalism

and the never ending need if accumulation and production now sustained in a

global scale. Nkrumah picks up on these Marxist themes by noting how

47

capitalism and its problems like class conflict occurring at the metropolitan

centers become transferred onto the peripheries.

While Nkrumah does not provide a solution to neocolonialism in

neocolonialism: the last stage of imperialism he makes a number tacit

suggestions including the need for pan African unity in making the task more

difficult for neocolonialism. But it is a number of allusions to Marxism that

Nkrumah expose his views on neocolonialism as a potentially self defeating

project. In some sense this would come through post colonial resistance and

revolt when neocolonialism reaches a culmination in the peripheries but more

indirectly destabilizes the neocolonial centre that practices it.

Apart from Nkrumah the idea of neocolonialism has also been used in other

context. Robert young for instance sees neocolonialism as being advanced

first through development and dependency theory and then through critical

development theory. At issue in development and dependency theory is the

difficulty for the third world states in escaping from the western notion of

development. Classification economic growth the ways economic output is

measured and the progressive linear model of development have been so

deeply entrenched that neo colonized stated have no other recourse but to be

part of that system. Subsequently dependency theorists depict a world made

up of developmental inequities noting that metropolitan centers in seeking to

be even more developed under develop the peripheries through trade

exploitation. More recently critical development theory goes beyond its

predecessor because the notion of neocolonial actions in the periphery can not

be so easily explained especially with the economic successes of the Asia. In

this regard development can no longer be theorized in purely economic terms

but has to incorporate other dimension like culture gender society and politics

as well. In variations of critical development theory like post development

theory young asserts that there has been a movement towards popular

development. This is the empowerment of usually non governmental civil

actors to address fundamental human needs hence an emphasis in sustainable

development self reliance and cultural pluralism and rights. A number of post

development theorists have even advocated development outside the

framework of the enlightenment logic and by so doing look towards

postcolonial politics as the future direction development theory could take. It

is at this juncture that young notes the potential convergence between

developmental theory and post colonialism.

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49

Chapter: 5

Elements of national power

National power:

The concept of power in international relations is clouded with two fallacies.

First it is often interpreted as military sense. Secondly it is assumed that the

power is measurable and quantifiable. The two fallacies are wrong power in

international relations consists of many elements. Secondly it is very difficult

to quantify and measure power accurately. The right valuation and true

judgment regarding power are very difficult because so many intangibles are

involved. Prof. William Ebenstein noted that in the field of international

relations the central problem of the strength of a nation is essentially national

power is more that the sum of totals of population raw materials and

qualitative factors. The alliance potential of a nation its civic devotion the

flexibility of its institution its technical know how its capacity to endure

privations these are but a raw qualitative elements that determine the total

strength of a nation.

Thus national power consists of several important elements described as a

capability of a nation only highlights the state’s political power. Joseph

Frankel underlines some factors that should be kept in mind for analyzing the

elements if national power.

First all power elements are relative to those possessed by other states.

Secondly mere quantities do not reveal true picture. Third any single element

plays its role in the complex totality of national power and its importance can

be assed only against such background.

Fourth capabilities may be used more or less efficiently. Fifth in the present

era of rapid technological change the relative saliency of different elements is

constantly changing. Sixth is comparing capabilities of different nations we

must apply statistics and estimates strictly comparable in times.

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Elements of national power:

Different authors have divided elements of national power in different ways.

E.H Carr divided it into three categories military power, economic power and

power over opinions. Organ ski made a decision between natural

determinations of power. The national determinants (geography, resource and

populations) are concerned with people the physical environments in which

they live and to which they must environments in which they live and to

which they must adapt themselves. Social determinants deal with the way in

which people of a nation organize themselves and the ways in which they

change their environments. Morgenthau distinguishes between two groups of

elements those which are relatively stable and those which are subject change.

He refers to geography, population, natural resources, raw materials, industrial

preparedness, national character, national morality, the quality of society and

government and the quality of leadership as elements of national power.

1. geography:

Morgenthau describes geography as the most stable element of national power.

Some thinkers belonging to the school of geography have attempted to explain

foreign policies and foreign relations of nations in aims of their geographical

settings. Three factors of geography are:

1. the size of the land

2. location

3. its climate

4. its topology

The land area of a state is itself an element of power. Size affects the course of

both defensive and effective warfare. A large area increases nation’s power in two

ways. First a large land area can contain a large population and a large supply of

natural resources. A large area may provide certain military advantages. Size also

renders it possible to locate vital elements of industry far from nation’s

international frontiers. Finally a large area difficult to conquer and control

especially if it is heavily populated.

Though size id important it is not always consistently correlated with power.

Britain with small land area played a certain role in world politics for a long

period of time.

2. Location:

The location of a state in the sense of spatial relationship to other areas and other

state affects a state’s economic and military power. Location often makes a state a

land power or naval power. Location also figures in the diplomacy and strategy of

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war. Certain regions of the world are inherently strategic. The small nations

situated on the borders of a great nation may find their power reduced in

consequence. Again a powerful nation surrounded by small and weak nations may

find its power increased by such location.

Climate:

The climate is another geographic feature that influences national power. Climate

has a direct eating on a health and energy of a people. Extreme heat or cold has

unfavorable effect on energy, productive capacity and national strength. It is not a

mere coincidence that the major center of power has flourished in the temperature

zone.

Topology:

Topology has a direct influence on national power. It determines the density

of a population which a region can support. Again very high mountain ranger,

ocean, wide rivers and desert may place barriers to political expansion. The

existence of any natural barrier demarcating national frontier may enhance

nation’s security. Topology has important bearing on a nation’s culture and

economy.

Population:

Population represents another significant element of national power. Both the

quantitative components of population must be taken into account.

It is obvious that a nation must have a population large enough for full

utilization of its natural resources. Both super powers possess vast manpower.

But large population can exert negative on national power as it is evident in

many over populated developing nations. The population growth in all those

countries has exceeded the economic growth rate. Consequently population

control is prime requisite for economic development.

Economic factors:

The economic conditions of a nation are crucial determinant of nation power.

Two economic elements can refer natural resources and industrial production.

Natural resources being a significant component of national power may be

described as gifts f nature of utility. These include food industrial crops raw

materials and minerals. A country being self sufficient in food production can

more independently formulate and pursue its foreign policy than a country

suffering from food scarcity. Food crisis is a source of permanent weakness.

Same holds equally good in regard to raw materials necessary for industrial

production and for conduction war. The two super powers are nearly self

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sufficient in the production of raw materials required for industrial production

or enjoy access to the source of materials they do not own. ( I fact there is a

surprising concentration of basic raw materials in the hands of a few nations.)

Frankel enumerates three types of strategically significant raw material fuels

(coal, oil, natural, gas and fissile materials) metals (iron, copper, chromium,

manganese and nickel, bauxite, lead, zinc, tin, titanium, silver) and

agricultural produce.

Military preparedness:

It is the military preparedness that gives actual importance to geography

natural resources and industrial capacity in terms of national power. The

correlation between national power and military preparedness is too obvious.

The military power of a nation depends on technological innovation

leadership and the quantity and quality of the armed forces.

Along with timely use of technological innovations the quality of military

leadership has a vital bearing on national power. The proportion of national

resources employed for military ends signifies the intensity of military effort.

The comparison of actual military strength is highly technical.

Government organization:

The national power of any country is heavily dependent on quality of its

government. The national power of a nation depends of efficient utilization of

potential elements of power. That depends to a great extent in quality of

government. The sudden change of government may bring change in the

power position of state. Hans Morgenthau notes that a good government

always tries to maintain a distance between material and human resources that

contribute to national power and it chooses that objectives and methods of

forting policies keeping in view the power available to support them. The

government must also bring different elements of national power into balance

with each other. The government must secure that approval and support of its

people for its foreign as well as domestic policies. It is nit enough for a

government to marshal national public opinion in favor of its own policies. It

must strive to gain support of public opinions of other countries in favor of its

domestic and foreign policies. The power of a nation not only depends on the

quality of diplomacy and armed force but also on the attractiveness of other

nations of the political particularly with regard to two super powers who

represent two different political philosophy system of government way of life

and compete with each other for gaining popular support of other nations in

favor of its political philosophies and social and economic systems. The

quality if civil service is no less important.

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National character:

National character is an intangible element of national power. There in no

denying the fact that stereotype views of national character may be highly

misleading. But different nations tend to have their own mode of thinking and

acting. Many nations have some distinct mental and moral qualities that make

their national reality. The improvement of the quality of government is a

prime requisite for improving national morale.

National prestige:

Joseph Frankel refers prestige as an element of national power. It helps the

state to secure necessary social response from other. “Prestige is built upon

the image formed by others of the state’s qualities.” The qualities enhancing

international prestige change from time to time. Military strength, especially

nuclear power and economic power is the basis of national prestige in

international arena. A state upholding human rights and social justice enjoy

greater international reputation. South Africa because of its apartheid policy

has faced universal condemnation. The international strategic position of a

state is also important in the measurement of national power. All the domestic

elements of power may be multiplied with the outside support. Thus

international support acts a s a kind of multiplier to domestic support. No state

not event the super powers are entirely self supporting. Each state depends

upon military allies on friends in diplomacy and on foreign states for market

and raw materials supply. Now both Soviet Union and USA compare with

each other to secure friendship and good will of third world countries. South

Africa and Israel feeling international condemnation has suffered loss of

power in global arena. There is no denying and excessive dependence on

foreign support may spell danger. Yet in the present age of increasing

international value of such support must be calculated carefully.

National morale:

National morale is more elusive less stable and yet important element of

national morale Morgenthau describes national morale as the degree of

determination with which a nation morale as the degree of determination with

which a nation lends support to its foreign policies. Frankel comments that’s

“morale describes the extent to which the people support their leaders believe

in the rightness of their cause.” It is dependent on many factions and

circumstances as well as quality of national leadership. The national morale is

put to a test during national crisis especially during war. National morale is

big. When the people closely identify themselves with objectives and

54

activities of government. The national morale of a country torn by severe

social and economic conflicts may be precarious state. Thus national unity and

solidarity are essential ingredients for high national morale.

Chapter: 6

Balance of power

Balance of power is the theory and policy of international relations that asserts

that the most effective check on the power of a state is the power of other

states. In international relations the term state refers to a country with a

government and a population. The term balance of power refers to the

distribution of power capabilities of rival states or alliances. For example the

United States and the Soviet Union maintained equivalent arsenals of nuclear

weapons in the 1970s and 1980s which helped sustain a military balance of

power.

Balance of power is the posture and policy of a nation or group of nations

protecting itself against another nation or group of nations by matching its

power against the power of the other side. States can pursue a policy of

balance of power in two ways by increasing their own power. As when

engaging in an armament race or n the competitive acquisition of territory or

by adding to their own power that of other states as when embarking upon a

policy of alliances.

The balance of power theory maintains that when one state or alliance

increases its power or applies it more aggressively threatened states will

increase their own power in response often by forming a counter balancing

coalition. For example the rise of German power before and during words war

I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945) triggered the formation of and

anti German coalition consisting of the Soviet Union Britain France the

United States and other countries.

Significance to international relations:

As a policy valance of power suggests that states counter any threat to their

security by allying with other threatened states and by increasing their own

military capabilities. The policy of forming a geographically based coalition

of states to surround and block an expansionist power is known as

containment. For example the United States followed a containment policy

towards the Soviet Union after World War II by building military alliance and

bases throughout Europe the Middle East and Asia.

As a theory balance of power predicts that rapid changes in international

power and status especially attempts by one state to conquer a region will

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provoke counterbalancing actions. For this reason the balancing process gelpf

to maintain the stability of relations between states.

A balance of power system can function effectively in two different ways.

First multiple states can form a valance of power when alliance are fluid that

is when they are easily formed or broken on the basis of expediency

regardless of values, religion, history or form of government. Occasionally a

single state plays a balancer role shifting its support to oppose whatever state

or alliance is strongest. Britain played this role in Europe in the 18 th and 19th

centuries particularly in its relations with France, Russia, and Germany.

Second two states can balance against each other by matching their increases

in military capability. In the cold war the Soviet Union and United States both

expanded their nuclear arsenals to balance against each other.

One weakness of the balance of power concept is the difficulty of measuring

power. Ultimately a state’s power derives from the size of its land mass,

population and its level of technology. But this potential power measured

roughly by a states gross domestic product (GDP) translates imperfectly into

military capability. The effective use of military force depends on such

elements as leadership, morale, geography and luck. Furthermore leaders’

misperceptions can seriously distort the calculation of power. During the

Vietnam War (1959-1975) for example US president consistently

underestimated the strength of the Vietnamese communists because by

conventional measures of power they were much weaker than the United

States.

Balance of power is a doctrine of equilibrium:

In international relations a balance of power exists when there is parity or

stability between competing forces. As a tem in international law for a just

equilibrium between the members of the family of nations it expresses the

doctrine intended to prevent any one nation from becoming sufficiently strong

so as to enable it to enforce its will upon the rest.

Balance of power is a central concept in neorealist theory. Within a balance of

power system a state many chooser to engage in either balancing or

bandwagon behavior. In a time of war the decision to balance or to

bandwagon may well determine the survival of the state.

A doctrine of equilibrium:

The basic principle involved in a balancing of political power as David Hume

pointed out in his essay on the balance of power is as old as history and was

perfectly familiar to ancient both as political theorists and as practical

statesmen. In its essence it is no more than a precept of commonsense born of

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experience and the instinct of self preservation; for as Polybius very clearly

puts it.

“Nor is such a principle to be despised nor should so great a power be allowed

to any one as to make it impossible for you afterwards to dispute with him on

equal terms, concerning your manifest rights.”

As Professor L. Oppenheim justly points out equilibrium between the various

powers which form the family of nations is in fact essential to the very

existence of any international law. In the absence of any central authority the

only sanction behind the code of rules established by custom or defined in

treaties known as international law is the capacity of the powers to hold each

other in check. If this system fails nothing prevents any state sufficiently

powerful from ignoring the law and acting solely according to its convenience

and its interests.

Historical perspective:

Preserving the balance of power as a conscious goal of forting policy though

certainly known in the ancient world resurfaced in post medieval Europe

among the Italian city states in the 15 th century. Francesco Sforza, duke of

Milan was the first ruler to actively pursue such a policy though historians

have generally and incorrectly attributed the innovation to the Medici rulers of

Florence whose praises were sung by the well known Florentine writers

Niccolo Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini.

Universalism which was the dominant direction of European international

relations prior to the peace of Westphalia gave way to the doctrine of the

balance of power. The term gained significance after the treaty of Utrecht in

1713, where it was specifically mentioned.

It was not until the beginning of the 17th century when the science of

international law assumed the discipline of structure in the hands of Grotius

and his successors that the theory of the balance of power was formulated as a

fundamental principle of diplomacy. In accordance with this new discipline

the European states formed a sort of federal community the fundamental

condition of which was the preservation of a balance of power i.e. such a

disposition of things that no one state or potentate should be able absolutely to

predominate and prescribe laws to the rest. And since all were equally

interested in this settlement it was held to be the interest the right and the duty

of every power to interfere even by force of arms, when any of the conditions

of this settlement were infringed upon or assailed by any other member of the

community.

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This balance of power principle once formulated became an axiom upon the

young Louis dc de Bourgogne. Frederick the great in his anti Machiavel

proclaimed the balance of power principle to the world. In 1806 Friedrich von

Gentz re stated it with admirable clarity in fragments on the balance of power.

The principle formed the basis of coalitions against Louis XIV and napoleon

and the occasion or the excuse for most of the wars which Europe experienced

between the Peace of Westphalia 1648 and the congress of Vienna 1814

especially from the British vantage point.

The term balance of power came into use to denote the power came into use to

denote the power relationships in the European state system from the end of

the Napoleonic wars to world war I. within the European balance of power,

Great Britain played the role of the “balance” or “holder of the balance.” It

was not permanently identified with the policies of nay European nation and it

would throw its weight at one time on one side at another time on another side

guided largely by one consideration the maintenance of the balance itself.

Naval supremacy and its virtual immunity from foreign invasion enabled great

Britain to perform this function which made the European balance of power

both flexible and stable.

The balance of power from the early 20th century onward underwent drastic

changes that for all practical purposes destroyed the European power structure

as it had existed since the end of the middle ages. Prior to the 20 th century the

political world was composed of a number of separate and independent

balance of power systems such as the European the American the Chinese and

the Indian. But World War I and its attendant political alignments triggered a

process that eventually culminated in the integration of most of the world’s

nations into a single balance of power system. This integration began with the

World War I alliance of Britain, France, Russia and the United States against

Germany and Austria Hungary. The integration continued in World War II

during which the fascist nations of Germany, Japan and Italy were opposed by

a global alliance of the soviet union the United States Britain and china.

World War II ended with the major weights in the balance of power having

shifted from the traditional players in western and central Europe to just two

non European ones the United States and the Soviet Union. The result was a

bipolar balance of power across the northern half of the globe that pitted the

free market democracies of the west against the communist one party states of

Eastern Europe. More specifically the nations of Western Europe sided with

the United States in the NATO military alliance, while the Soviet Union’s

satellite allies in central and Eastern Europe became unified under soviet

leadership in the Warsaw pact.

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Because the balance of power was now bipolar and because of the great

disparity of power between the two superpowers and all other nations the

European countries lost that freedom of movement that previously had made

for a flexible system. Instead of a series of shifting and basically unpredictable

alliances with and against each other the nations of Europe now clustered

around the two superpowers and tended to transform themselves into two

stable blocs.

There were other decisive differences between the postwar balance of power

and its predecessor. The fear of mutual destruction in a global nuclear

holocaust injected into the foreign policies of the United States and the Soviet

Union a marked element of restraint. A direct military confrontation between

the two superpowers and their allies on European soil was an almost certain

gateway to nuclear war and was therefore to be avoided at almost any cost. So

instead direct confrontation was largely replaced by 1. a massive arms race

whose lethal products were never used and 2. Political meddling or limited

military interventions by the superpowers in various third world nations.

During the greater part of the 19th century the series of national upheavals

which remodeled the map of Europe obscured the balance of power. Yet it

underlay all the efforts of diplomacy to stay or to direct the elemental forces

let loose by the French revolution. In the revolution’s aftermath, with the

restoration of comparative calm the principle once more emerged as the

operative motive for the various political alliances of which the ostensible

object was the preservation of peace.

In the late 20th century some third world nations resisted the advances of the

superpowers and maintained a nonaligned stance in international politics. The

breakaway of china from soviet influence and its cultivation of a nonaligned

but covertly anti soviet stance lent a further complexity to the bipolar balance

of power. The most important shift in the balance of power began in 1989-90

however when the Soviet Union lost control over its eastern European

satellites and allowed non communist governments to come to power in those

countries. The breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991made the concept of a

European balance of power temporarily irrelevant since the government of

newly sovereign Russia embraced the political and economic forms favored

by the United States and Western Europe. Both Russia and the United States

retained their nuclear arsenals however so the balance of nuclear threat

between them remained potentially in force.

From ancient times to world war II:

Historical examples of power balancing are found throughout history in

various regions of the world leading some scholars to characterize balance of

power as a universal and timeless principle. During the period of the warring

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states in china (403-221 BC) the development of large cohesive states

accompanied the creation of irrigation systems, bureaucracies and large

armies equipped with iron weapons. These Chinese states pursued power

through a constantly shifting network of alliances. In ancient Greece during

the Peloponnesian war (431-404 BC), the rising power of Athens triggered the

formation of a coalition of city states that felt threatened by Athenian power.

The alliance led by Sparta succeeded in defeating Athens and resorting a

balance of power among Greek cities.

In the 17th century the Hapsburg dynasty which ruled Austria and Spain

threatened to dominate Europe. During the thirty years war (1618-1648) a

coalition that included Sweden England France and the Netherlands defeated

the rulers of the Hapsburg Empire. Early in the 19 th century French emperor

napoleon I repeatedly made efforts to conquer large areas of Europe. A broad

coalition a European states including Britain Russia Austria and Prussia

defeated France in a series of major battles that climaxed with napoleon’s

defeat at the battle of waterloo in 1815.

The classical European balance of power system emerged thereafter in an

alliance known as the concert of Europe organized in 1815 by Austrian

statesman Klemens von Metternich. This loose alliance between Britain

Russia Austria Prussia and France ensured that a handful of great powers

would coexist with none able to dominate the others. Under this system sand

with Britain playing a balancer role peace largely prevailed in Europe during

the 19th century. During world war II Germany’s rising power aggressive

conquests and alliance with Italy and Japan triggered yet another coalition of

opposing states notably the capitalist democracies of Britain and the united

states and the communist soviet union.

In the nuclear age:

The cold war standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union shaped

the global balance of power after World War II. Although an actual war

between these two superpowers never occurred the balance of power process

instead took the form of a massive arms race in which each superpower

responded by adding to their military buildup. The possession of large

arsenals of nuclear weapons by both the United States and the Soviet Union

ensured that any potential war would prove disastrous for both. Because of the

threat to human survival posed by nuclear weapons military strategists often

referred to the balance of power as a balance of terror.

During the cold war the US policy of containment encircled the Soviet Union

with military and political alliances in Western Europe the Middle East and

Southeast Asia. The major UD and soviet military interventions of the cold

war in Korea Vietnam and Afghanistan took place in politically contested

60

regions of the world where both superpowers jockeyed for influence. Small

states sometimes benefited from the superpower competition. In the 1960s for

example relations soured between Cuba and the United States. At that time

Cuba allied itself with the Soviet Union and received large economic and

military subsidies.

Balance of power today:

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the world’s

sole superpower. Balance of power theory suggests that without the soviet

threat the United States as the dominant world power will face difficulties in

its relations with such states as china and the European powers. For example

key countries such as china Russia France and Germany all opposed the

United States invasion of Iraq in 2003 in diplomatic arenas such as the United

Nations. Yet this opposition did not stop the United States from acting

exposing the significant gap in military capability that now exists between the

United States and the rest of the world. Small states that fear the United States

are no longer able to join a counterbalancing coalition to protect their security.

Instead many are developing nuclear weapons in an attempt to dramatically

expand their military capability. For example North Korea claimed in 2003

that it was developing nuclear weapons to balance against US power.

The changing nature of power in the contemporary international system

further complicates the operation of the global balance of power.

Globalization, the internet, weapons of mass destruction and other

technological developments have made it possible for small states and even

non state groups to acquire significant power. These factors also dilute the

relative importance of military power. For example after the terrorist attacks

of September 11, 2001, the united states assembled a broad coalition to invade

Afghanistan using military force to topple the Taliban government and end the

Taliban’s support for Alqaeda terrorists. This application of military power

did not provoke a balancing coalition of other states but it also did not end the

terrorist threat to the United States. In the future the balance of power many

continue to operate among states engaged in prolonged disputes bur it is less

applicable to conflicts involving terrorists and other non state groups

Chapter: 7

Foreign policy

Foreign policy:

Foreign policy can be defined as relations between sovereign states. It is a

reflection of domestic politician interaction among sovereign states. It

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indicates the principles and preferences on which a country wants to establish

relations with another country.

No country today can think of a life independent of other nations. Every

country has to develop relations with other countries so as to meet its

requirements in economical industrial and technological fields. It is thus

necessary for every country to formulate a sound foreign policy. Pakistan

stage. It also has formulated her foreign policy keeping in mind its geography,

politics and economics.

Pakistan’s foreign policy in light of QUAID-E-AZAM words

The father of the nation QUAID-E-AZAM defined foreign policy towards

other countries of the world in 1948as follows:

The vase of foreign policy id the friendship and good will for all the nations of

the world. We do not cherish aggressive designs against any country or nation.

We believe in the policy of honesty and fair play in national and international

dealings and are prepared to make our utmost contribution to the promotion of

peace and prosperity among the nations of the world. Pakistan never be found

lacking in extending its material and moral support to the oppressed and

suppressed people of the world and in upholding the principles of the united

nations charter.

Basic goals of Pakistan's foreign policy

The basic goals of paksitan’s forting policy are:

1. Maintenance of territorial integrity.

2. Maintenance of its political independence.

3. Acceleration of social and economic development.

4. Strengthening its place on the globe.

5. Keeping cordial and friendly relations with all countries.

Guiding principles of paksitan’s foreign policy

Following are the basic principles of Pakistan’s forting policy:

1. protection of freedom and sovereignty:

Pakistan came into being after great sacrifices of millions of Muslims like any

other country it also considers with deep regard the need for preservation of its

independence and does not allow any country to harm its freedom. Therefore the

principle of protection of independence and sovereignty is the corner stone of

paksitan’s foreign policy.

2. Better relations with super powers:

Pakistan has keen interested in keeping the congenial and better relations with all

the big powers of the world as far as passive. But it also wants to keep itself away

from the politics of super powers. Experience shows that involvement in the

ideological and military conflicts between super powers has been always proved

harmful for developing countries.

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3. Cordial relations with Muslim countries:

Pakistan has always tried to establish cordial and friendly relation with Muslim

countries. It had regarded the problems of the Muslim world as its own problems

and has always offered help and co-operation to solve them. It has always moved

its concern against Israel, India and USSR capturing Palestine, Kashmir and

Afghanistan respectively. It has shouldered high responsibilities and used its

influence for safeguarding the rights of the Muslims. Pakistan is also active

member of the organization of Islamic conference.

4. Kashmir issue:

Pakistan in accordance with its foreign policy has been supporting the freedom

struggle in Kashmir due to which Pakistan has been facing the enmity of India

persistently. Pakistan has been supporting the right of self determination for

Kashmiris and will continue to support.

5. Non interference:

Pakistan has sought to establish normal and friendly relations with all countries

especially acknowledge the principle of national sovereignty, nonuse of force, non

interference in the internal affairs of states.

6. Implementation of UN charter:

Paksitan’s policy is to act upon UN charter and to support all moves by the UN to

implement it. Pakistan has been the member of UN since the year of its birth.

7. promotion of world peace:

Pakistan policy is to promote peace among nations. It has no aggressive designs

against any country. Neither does it support any such action. Pakistan has always

held that the international disputes should be settled through negotiations rather

than non battle field.

8. promotion of human rights:

Foreign policy of Pakistan is based on the principles that whatsoever human rights

are condemned an effective voice must be raised in high tone. For instance

Pakistan openly supported Afghanistan against Russian aggression.

9. non alignment:

Pakistan follows the policy of non alignment i.e. to keep away from alignment

with any big power bloc, and avoids taking sides any of them in the cold war. It

has also given up its association with CENTO and has joined non aligned

movement in 1979.

10. support for self determination and condemnation of racial discrimination:

Pakistan is a staunch supporter of the right of self determination and has been in

the fore front efforts to eliminate colonialism and racism. For instance it extended

unconditional assistance to the course of liberation and self determination in Asia,

Africa and Latin America.

11. regional cooperation:

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IT has been Pakistan’s endeavor to establish peaceful and mutually beneficial

relations with its neighboring countries. The country is firmly committed to the

south Asian association for regional cooperation (SAARC) and economic regional

cooperation (ECO) and has contributed meaningfully to the establishment,

institutionalization, and progress of these associations.

12. nuclear non proliferation and disarmament:

Pakistan is deeply conscious of the fact that international peace and security can

not be achieved and sustained in the world with arms. Disarmament is the

imperative condition for truly durable peace in the world. Pakistan has a vital

stake in promotion of disarmament both in the nuclear and conventional fields. It

is included in the principles of its foreign policy that a collective endeavor by

counties at the regional level to promote disarmament and enhance security at the

lowest possible level of armaments its an indispensable result to their advocacy of

global disarmament.

13. member of international organizations:

Pakistan had become the member of the British common wealth with the time of

its establishment. In addition it is the member of United Nation(UN), non aligned

movement (NAM), organization of Islamic conference (OIC), economic

cooperation organization(ECO), south Asian association for regional cooperation

(SAARC), association of south east Asian nations (ASEAN)and D-eight. Being a

member of international organizations the objectives of Pakistan are to struggle

for world peace, to unify the Muslim countries and to promote regional

cooperation.

14. global economic system:

One of the basic principles of foreign policy of Pakistan is to establish a global

economic system so that the developed countries could not exploit the developing

world.

Conclusion:

The guiding principles of Pakistan’s foreign policy are rooted in the country’s

Islamic ideology its rich cultural heritage and historical experience. As an Islamic

and non aligned country, Pakistan supports Islamic causes and firmly upholds the

above mentioned principles which hold out the promise of a just and equitable

world order in which nations can lice in peace and security.

Factors determining the foreign policy of Pakistan:

Some factors play important role to determine the foreign policy of country.

Following are those important factors.

1. Pakistan’s ideology:

Pakistan has an ideological basis. Pakistan was established with the sole objective

of providing the south Asian Muslims with a homeland where the could live with

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dignity and honor. Thus the Pakistan ideology demands that Pakistan should

establish friendly relations with all neighboring countries.

2. regional factors:

It is a natural factor that strategic importance of location of a country enhances its

role in international economy and politics. For example Pakistan is the most

important country of the region. Fall of the soviet empire brought about far

reaching changes in the world politics but even this change did not affect’s

Pakistan’s position.

3. Islamic identity:

Islamic ideology is identity of Pakistan. As a part of global Muslim community

Pakistan occupies a central place in the chain of Muslim countries stretching from

Africa to Far East. QUAID-E-AZAM attached great importance to Pakistan’s

relations with the Muslim countries. On the other side all Muslim countries of the

world, Arab and non Arab alike, look forward to Pakistan for guidance in their

cherished cause of establishing international Muslim brotherhood.

4. national benefits:

Foreign policy is determined considering national benefits. Pakistan also brings

changes in its foreign policy according to its national benefits. LIAQUALT ALI

KHAN’S visit in May 1950, close relations with western countries and

membership of SEATO and CENTO reveal that Pakistan’s main concern was its

security. Pakistan also became member of non aligned movement in September

1979 and maintained good relations with all super powers keeping national

benefits in its mind.

5. history:

History of the nation contributes much in framing the foreign policy of the

country. Similarly Pakistan’s relations with India are based on the history of sub

continent. It is the history of Pakistan movement which proves India as our worst

enemy. The general public thinks the same even though government policies are

being set to maintain good relations.

6. economy:

Economically independent countries are free to frame their foreign policy. They

have no pressures and black mailing of super powers. On the other hand

economically weak countries are dictated by the USA to frame their foreign

policy.

7. county politics:

Foreign policy depends upon the policy of the ruling party in democratic

countries. Usually all political parties frame foreign policy of Pakistan keeping in

view the interest of nation.

8. international politics:

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These days this world has become global village. International politics, pacts,

alliances, pressures, attitude of super powers are important factors of determining

foreign policy.

Chapter: 8

Diplomacy

Diplomacy practices and institutions by which nations conduct their relations with

one another.

Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between

representatives of groups or states. It usually refers to international diplomacy, the

conduct of international relations through the intercession of professional

diplomats with regard to issues of peace making, trade, war, economics and

culture. International treaties are usually negotiated by diplomats prior to

endorsement by national politicians.

The word stems from the Greek word “diploma”, which literally means “folded in

two”. In ancient Greece, a diploma was certificate certifying completion of a

course of study typically folded in two. In the days of Roman Empire the word

diploma was used to describe official travel documents, such as passports and

passes for imperial roads that were stamped on double metal plates. Later the

meaning was extended to covert other official documents such as treaties with

foreign tribes. In the 1700s the French called their body of officials attached to

foreign legations the corps “diplomatique”. The word “diplomacy” was first

introduced into the English language by Edmund burke in 1796, based on the

French word “diplomatie”.

In an informal or social sense, diplomacy is the employment of tact to gain

strategic advantage one set of tools being the phrasing of statements in a non

confrontational or polite manner.

Diplomats and diplomatic missions:

A diplomat is some one involved in diplomacy; the collective term for a group of

diplomats from a single country who are resident in another country is a

diplomatic mission. Ambassador ids the most senior diplomatic rank; a diplomatic

mission headed by an ambassador is known as an embassy. The collective body of

all diplomats of particular country is called that country’s diplomatic service. The

collective body of all diplomats assigned to a particular country is the diplomatic

corps.

Nature and purpose of diplomacy:

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Diplomacy id the established method of influencing the decisions and behavior of

foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other

measures short of war or violence. Modern diplomatic practices are a product of

the post renaissance European state system. Historically diplomacy meant the

conduct of official (usually bilateral) relations between sovereign states. By the

20th century, however the diplomatic practices pioneered in Europe had been

adopted throughout the world, and diplomacy had expanded to cover summit

meetings and other international conferences, parliamentary diplomacy, the

international activities of supranational and sub national entities, unofficial

diplomacy by non governmental elements and the work of international civil

servants.

The term diplomacy is derived via French from the ancient Greek “diploma”

composed of -diplo meaning folded in two, and the suffix –ma, meaning “an

object”. The folded document conferred a privilege often a permit to travel on the

bearer and the term came to denote documents through which princes granted

such favors. Later is applied to all solemn documents issued by chancelleries

especially those containing agreements between sovereigns. Diplomacy later

became identified with international relations, and the direct tie to documents

lapsed (except in diplomatics which is the science of authenticating old official

documents). In the 18th century the French term diplomate (diplomat or

diplomatist) came to refer to a person authorized to negotiate on behalf of a state.

Nature and purpose:

Diplomacy is often confused with foreign policy but the terms are not

synonymous. Diplomacy is the chief but not the only instrument of foreign policy

which is set by political leaders, though diplomats (in addition to military and

intelligence officers) may advise them. Foreign policy establishes goals,

prescribes strategies and sets the broad tactics to be used in their accomplishment.

It may employ secret agents, subversion, war or other forms of violence as well as

diplomacy to achieve its objectives. Diplomacy is the principal substitute for the

use of force or underhanded means in statecraft; it is how comprehensive national

power is applied to the peaceful adjustment of differences between states. It may

be coercive (i.e. backed by the threat to apply punitive measures or to use force)

but is overly nonviolent. Its primary tools are international dialogue and

negotiation, primarily conducted by accredited envoys (a term derived from the

French envoy meaning “meaning one who is sent”) and other political leaders.

Unlike foreign policy which generally is enunciated publicly most diplomacy is

conducted in confidence though both the fact that it is in progress and its results

are almost always made public in contemporary international relations.

The purpose of foreign policy is to further a state’s interests, which are derived

which are derived from geography, history, economics and the distribution of

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international power. Safeguarding national independence, security and integrity-

territorial, political, economic and moral is viewed as a country’s primary

obligation followed preserving a wide freedom of action for the state. The

political leaders, traditionally of sovereign states, who devise foreign policy,

pursue what they perceive to be the national interest, adjusting national policies to

changes in external conditions and technology. Primary responsibility for

supervising the execution of policy may lie with head of state or government, a

cabinet or a nominally non governmental collective leadership the staff of the

country’s leader, or a minister, who presides over the foreign ministry, directs

policy execution, supervises the ministry’s officials and instructs the country’s

diplomats abroad.

The purpose of diplomacy is to strengthen the state, nation, or organization it

serves in relation to others by advancing the interests in its charge. To this end,

diplomatic activity endeavors to maximize a group’s advantages without the risk

and expense of using force and preferably without causing resentment. It

habitually but not invariably strives to preserve peace’ diplomacy is strongly

inclined towards negotiation to achieve agreements and resolve issues between

states. Even in times of peace, diplomacy may involve coercive threats of

economic or other punitive measure or demonstrations of the capability to impose

unilateral solutions to disputes by the application of military power. However

diplomacy normally seeks to develop goodwill toward the state it represents

nurturing relations with foreign states and peoples that will ensure their

cooperation or failing that their neutrality.

When diplomacy fails war may ensue’ however diplomacy is useful even during

war. It conducts the passages from protest to menace, dialogue to negotiation,

ultimatum to reprisal and war to peace and reconciliation with other states.

Diplomacy builds and tends the coalitions that deter or make war. It disrupts the

alliances of enemies and sustains the passivity of potentially hostile powers. It

contrives war’s termination and it forms strengthens and sustains the peace that

follows conflict. Over the long term diplomacy strives to build an international

order conducive to nonviolent resolution of disputes and expanded cooperation

between states.

Diplomacy is the best means preserving peace which a society of sovereign

nations has offer but especially under the conditions of contemporary world

politics and of contemporary war, it is not good enough. It is only when nations

have surrendered to a higher authority the means of destruction which modern

technology has put in their hands destruction when they have given up their

sovereignty that international peace can be made as secure as domestic peace.

Diplomacy can make peace more secure than it is today and the world state can

make peace more secure than it would be it nations were to abide by the rules of

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diplomacy. Yet as there can be no permanent peace without a world state there

can be no permanent peace without a world state without the peace preserving and

community building processes of diplomacy. For the world state to be more than a

dim vision the accommodating processes of diplomacy mitigating and minimizing

conflicts, must be revived. Whatever one’s conception of the ultimate state of

international affairs may be in the recognition of that need and in the demand that

it be met all men of good will can join.

Diplomats are the primary bur far from the only practitioners of diplomacy. They

are specialists in caring messages and negotiating adjustments in relations and the

resolution of quarrels between states and peoples. Their weapons are words

backed by the power of the state or organization they represent. Diplomats help

leaders to understand the attitudes and actions of foreigners and to develop

strategies and tactics that will shape the behavior of foreigners, especially foreign

governments. The wise use of diplomats is a key to successful foreign policy.

Four tasks of diplomacy:

Diplomacy is an element of national power. The importance of diplomacy for the

preservation of international peace is but a particular aspect of that general

function. For a diplomacy that ends in war has failed in its primary objective: the

promotion of the national interest by peaceful means. This has always been so and

is particularly so in view of the destructive potentialities of total war.

Taken in its widest meaning, comprising the whole range of foreign policy, the

task of diplomacy is fourfold:

1. Diplomacy must determine its objectives in the light of the power actually

and potentially available for the pursuit of these objectives.

2. Diplomacy must assess the objectives of other nations and the power

actually and potentially available for the pursuit of these objectives.

3. Diplomacy must determine to what extent these different objectives are

compatible with each other.

4. Diplomacy must employ the means suited to the pursuit of its objectives.

Failure in any one of these tasks may jeopardize the success of foreign policy and

with it the peace of the world.

A nation that sets itself goals which it has not the power to attain may have to face

the risk of war on two counts. Such a nation is likely to dissipate its strength and

not to be strong enough at all points of friction to deter a hostile nation from

challenging it beyond endurance. The failure of its foreign policy may force the

nation to retrace its steps and to redefine its objectives in view of its actual

strength.

Yet it is more likely that, under the pressure of an inflamed public opinion such a

nation will go forward on the road toward an unattainable goal, strain all its

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resources to achieve it, and finally confounding the national interest with that goal

seek in war the solution to a problem that cannot be solved by peaceful means.

A nation will also invite war if its diplomacy wrongly assesses the objectives of

other nations and the power at their disposal. A nation that mistakes a policy of

the status quo will be the other nation’s policy entails. Its weakness will invite

attack and may make war inevitable. A nation that mistake a policy of the status

quo for a policy of imperialism will evoke through its disproportionate reaction

the very danger of war which it is trying to avoid. For as A mistakes Bs policy

imperialism, so B might mistake A’s defensive reaction for imperialism. Thus

both nations each intent upon forestalling imaginary aggression from the other

side, will rush to arms. Similarly the confusion of one type of imperialism with

another may call for disproportionate reaction and thus evoke the risk of war.

As for the assessment of the power of other nations, either to overrate to underrate

it may be equally fatal to the cause of peace. By overrating the power of B, A may

prefer to yield to B’s demands until finally A is forced to fight for its very

existence under the most unfavorable conditions. By underrating the power of

B ,a may become overconfident in its assumed superiority. A may advance

demands and impose conditions upon B which the latter is supposedly too weak

to resist. Unsuspecting B’s actual power of resistance, A may be faced with the

alternative of either retreating or conceding defeat of advancing and risking war.

A nation that seeks to pursue and intelligent and peaceful foreign policy cannot

cease comparing its own objectives and the objectives of other nations in the light

of their compatibility. If they are compatible no problem arises. If they are not

compatible nation A must determine whether its objectives are so vital to itself

that they must be pursued despite that incompatibility with the objectives of B. if

it is found that A’s vital interests can be safeguarded without the attainment of

these objectives, they ought to be abandoned. On the other hand if A finds that

these objectives are essential for its vital interests, a must then ask itself whether

B’s objectives, incompatible with its own are essential for B’s vital interests. If

the answer seems to be in the negative, A must try to induce B to abandon its

objectives offering B equivalents not vital to A. in other words through diplomatic

bargaining the give and take of compromise a way must be sought by which the

interests of A and B con be reconciled.

Finally, if the incompatible objectives of A and B should prove to be vital to

either side a way might still be sought in which the vital interests of A and B

might be redefined, reconciled and their objectives thus made compatible with

each other. Here however even provided that both sides pursue intelligent and

peaceful policies A and B are moving dangerously close to the brink of war.

It is the final task of an intelligent diplomacy intent upon preserving peace to

choose the appropriate means for pursuing its objectives. The means at the

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disposal of diplomacy are three: persuasion, compromise, and threat of force. No

diplomacy relying only upon the threat of force can claim to be both intelligent

and peaceful. No diplomacy that would stake everything on persuasion and

compromise deserves to be called intelligent. Rarely if ever in the conduct of the

foreign policy of a great power is there justification for using only one method to

the exclusion of the others. Generally the diplomatic representative of a great

power in order to be able to serve both the interests of his country and the

interests of peace must at the same time use persuasion hold out the advantages of

a compromise and impress the other side with the military strength of his country.

The art of diplomacy consists in putting the right emphasis at any particular

moment on each of these three means at its disposal. A diplomacy that has been

successfully discharged in its other function may well fail in advancing the

national interest and preserving peace if it stresses persuasion when the give and

take of compromise is primarily required by the circumstances of the case. A

diplomacy that puts most of its eggs in the basket of compromise when the

military might of the nation should be predominantly displayed, or stresses

military might when the political situation calls for persuasion and compromise,

will like wise fail.

History of diplomacy:

As soon as people organized themselves into separate social groups the necessity

of regularizing contacts with representatives of other groups became apparent.

Event the earliest civilizations had rules for interaction.

A. Early development:

The first civilization to develop an orderly system of diplomacy was ancient

Greece. Ambassadors and special missions were sent from city to city to deliver

messages and warnings to transfer gifts and to plead the cases of their own people

before the rules of other city states. These diplomatic missions however were

occasional and sporadic.

With the decline of Greece and the rise of the Roman Empire the Greek system of

diplomacy disappeared. As Rome expanded its diplomacy served the purposes of

conquest and annexation. The Romans were not inclined to coexist with other

states on the basis of mutual interests. Rome issued commands; it did not

negotiate.

For almost a thousand years after the fall of Rome, Europeans thought of

themselves not as member of separate nations but rather as members of smaller

groups vaguely bound to some feudal overlord. Although localities had relations

from time to time, no record exists of any formal diplomatic practices during the

middle ages.

B. Renaissance diplomacy:

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Modern diplomacy had its origins during the Italian renaissance. Early in the 15 th

century a group of city states developed in Italy, but none could dominate the rest

and all feared conquest by the others. The rulers of most of the city states gained

their positions through force and cunning. Because they could not count on the

loyalty of their subjects, these rulers hoped to maintain allegiance by seeking

foreign conquest and treasure. They sought opportunities to increase their power

and expand their domain and were always concerned about the balance of power

on the Italian peninsula.

Although renaissance diplomacy was especially vicious and amoral the Italian

city states developed a number of institutions and practices that still exist:

1. They introduced a system of permanent ambassadors who represented the

interests of their stated by observing, reporting and negotiating.

2. Each state created a foreign office that evaluated the written reports of the

ambassadors, sent instructions helped to formulate policies, and kept vast

records.

3. Together they developed an elaborate system of protocol, privileges and

immunities for diplomats. Ambassadors and their staffs were granted

freedom of access, transit and exit at all times. Local laws could not be

used to impede an ambassador in carrying out duties, but ambassadors

could be held accountable if they actually committed crimes such as theft

or murder.

4. The concept of extraterritoriality was established. Under this principle an

embassy in any state stood on the soil of its own homeland and anyone or

any thing with in the embassy compound was subject only to the laws of

its own country.

C. diplomacy in the European state system:

The rise of nation states in 17th century Europe led to the development of the

concepts of national interest and the balance of power. The former concept meant

that the diplomatic objectives of nations should be based on state interests and not

on personal ambition, rivalries, sentiment, religious doctrine or prejudice. For

example gaining access to raw materials was in the national interest. The balance

of power theory was based on a general interest in maintaining the state system by

seeking an equilibrium power among the most powerful nations. That diplomacy

could be used to pursue both sets of interests was soon apparent. Increasingly the

presence of the major powers became a staple in international politics. Although

small countries might disappear as Poland did when it was partitioned in the 18the

century the great powers sought to manage their relations without threatening one

another’s survival. At the same time European diplomats were becoming

increasingly professional and learned. The seamier side diplomacy the bribing,

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lying and deceiving was gradually replaced by a code of expected and acceptable

conduct.

The European system of diplomacy suffered its first shock when napoleon

attempted to conquer Europe in the early 19th century. After napoleon’s defeat the

European system was restored and no major wars occurred for the next hundred

years.

D. the new diplomacy:

in 1914 the countries of Europe were thrust into another violent confrontation.

The carnage of World War I brought the European system of diplomacy into

disrepute. US president Woodrow Wilson was the chief critic of the European

diplomatic system and the proponent of a new type of open diplomacy and

collective security. Wilson’s primary targets were the theory and practice of the

balance of power, the distinction between great and small powers, the pursuit of

national interests, secret agreements and treaties and professional diplomats.

In place of the old system Wilson offered a “new diplomacy” in his fourteen

points. Open covenants would be drafted in international conferences with great

and small countries participating on an equal basis. Peace would be maintained by

making national boundaries coincide with ethnic boundaries. All members of the

international community would pledge to fight for these boundaries against any

nation that used force to change them. Countries would pursue community

interests instead of national interests and submit their disputes with each other to

international arbitration for peaceful resolution.

Many of Wilson’s ideas were incorporated in to the 1919 treaty of Versailles (see

treat of Versailles) and the League of Nations. After the United States rejected the

league and returned to a policy of isolationism, however, the European stated

reverted to the balance of power system and the pursuit of national interests

through professional diplomats.

During world war II, the US president Franklin D. Roosevelt again sought to

establish a new type of diplomacy, but he and the British prime minister Winston

Churchill built the postwar international order on the basis of agreements with the

soviet leader Joseph Stalin that conformed more to the old European system than

to the new ideas embodied in the Atlantic charter and the united nations. Although

the United Nations remains a symbol of what a new diplomatic system might be

international politics since the end of World War II has adhered closely to the

European model and has in part returned to some of the worst aspects of

renaissance diplomacy.

Diplomatic machinery:

The conduct of relations with other countries has three requirements:

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1. An establishment in the home country to formulate policy and instruct

personnel sent.

2. An establishment abroad from which contact are made in the foreign

country.

3. And personnel to make the system work.

Over the centuries these three requisites for diplomacy became increasingly

professional and bureaucratic. By the 17th and 18th centuries domestic foreign

affairs establishments were fairly well developed. In the 19th century corps of

diplomats increasingly were chosen by competitive examinations. Although

ambassadors were often selected on a political basis they found highy

professional staffs waiting for them at their embassies abroad and they dealt with

other skilled staffs when they reported to their home offices.

A. departments of foreign affairs:

Government agencies that deal with foreign affairs are usually called the ministry

or department of foreign or external affairs. In the US foreign affairs if handled by

the department of state. Such department is headed by the foreign secretary (or in

the US by the secretary of state). In democracies the foreign secretary is always a

political appointee who is selected by the nation’s leaders. Drawing on the

expertise with the department and its establishments abroad, the secretary advises

the head of state on matters of foreign policy helps formulate and coordinate

policy and administers the agency over which he or she presides. At times the

foreign secretary is also directly involved in negotiations with other nations. A

small number of politically appointed undersecretaries and assistant secretaries

aid in running the department.

Departments of foreign affairs usually are divided into geographic and functional

divisions. The former consists of bureaus for major geographic areas that are then

broken down into smaller division and ultimately into country desks. Desks

officers are career diplomats who specialize in various aspects of the country to

which they are assigned. Instructions to and reports from embassies abroad are

handled first by the country desks. The functional division deals with problems or

issues that do no appropriately fall under the domain of any one country: trade,

international organization, human rights, intelligence, public information,

international law and passports and visas. Coordination of policy between

geographic and functional divisions is a continually perplexing problem.

Departments of foreign affairs also have an administrative section that is in charge

of running the agency. This section deals with internal matters such as budget

allocations, personnel recruitment and management, training and logistics.

In an age of interdependence and total diplomacy foreign affairs departments

must coordinate their activities with the foreign activities of other government

agencies. Treasury departments for example increasingly involved in negotiations

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over trade and money. Agricultural departments are concerned with foreign trade

and world food problems. Defense establishments are involved in supporting

foreign governments abroad and training their armed forces. Intelligence agencies

provide head of state with alternate sources of information about other countries.

In some cases a foreign minister has trouble merely keeping informed of all the

activities the nation is engaged in abroad.

B. foreign missions:

The embassy abroad or foreign mission is headed by an ambassador assisted by a

career diplomat who serves as deputy or first secretary. The deputy secretary

oversees and subordinates the work of the staff and assumes the responsibilities of

the mission as charge d’affaires when ever the ambassador is away or

incapacitated or is between ambassadorial assignments.

A mission is organized in to a series of functional sections that observe report and

deal with issues in their respective areas. Mist missions contain section for

political affairs, economic and commercial affairs, information and culture affairs,

consular affairs and administrative matters. In addition a mission usually includes

a number of attaches from other government departments. Military, air and naval

attaches have traditionally been assigned to forting missions but agricultural

commercial labor and cultural attaches are becoming increasingly common.

Missions are staffed largely b Foreign Service officers with the exception of the

attaches who are drawn from their respective agencies back home. The secretaries

and clerical staff come from a separate civil service corps. Citizens of the host

country may be hired as translators or for non sensitive jobs.

The activities of a diplomatic mission are extremely varied. They range from such

serious tasks as negotiating issues of great political significance and reporting and

commenting on important events in the foreign country to meeting with foreign

students, arranging itineraries of exhibits about life in the home country and

issuing visas.

In addition to their diplomatic and political chores missions are also in charge of

the consular work of the home government. Consular operations are concerned

with the economic and commercial relations between the nations; originally

diplomatic and consular chores were kept strictly separate because early theorists

felt that national matters. Thus two separate services diplomatic and combined

these two services and a single corps of professional civil servants serves in both

areas. Consular work involves a variety of activities. Consuls issue birth, death

and marriage certificates to citizens residing or traveling in the foreign country.

Consular officers also regulate shipping, aid their country’s citizens when they

travel on business or as tourists, and report on economic and business conditions

abroad. Activities are often carried out in consulates located in major trading and

commercial cities as well as in the capital city.

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C. the foreign service:

Today most nations staff their foreign services with career civil servants who are

selected on the basis of competitive examinations. Until recent times however

Foreign Service personnel were political appointees often from noble or wealthy

families who could afford the considerable expense that a life of diplomatic

activity entailed.

In the 1850s Britain and France instituted competitive examinations for posts in

the diplomatic corps but low salaries restricted the number of persons who could

afford to enter the service. In Britain all candidates had to guarantee a personal

income of ₤ 400 for at least the first two years. The examinations employed by the

European powers were extremely difficult requiring fluency in at least two

foreign languages. Since World War II salaries and allowances have been

increased so that persons of all means may enter the diplomatic service.

The spoils system dominated the US Foreign Service until 1924, when the Rogers

act combined the consular and diplomatic service, established difficult completive

examinations for entry into the Foreign Service and instituted a system of

promotion on merit. Each year approximately 25,000 people take the Foreign

Service examination about 250, 1percent pass it and are accepted in the service.

About 10,000 persons are in the Foreign Service some 2000 work in the US and

8000 serve in foreign countries or international organizations.

Although career officers dominate the diplomatic corps, there is usually room for

some non career personnel. In the united stated for example highly skilled

specialists may be recruited as Foreign Service reserve officers, although their

tenure may be limited to five or ten years.

Many nations appoint distinguished citizens who are not career officers to serve

as ambassadors. American administrations have long used ambassadorships in

leading countries as political rewards. Usually however ambassadors are

distinguished men and women from business, law, politics or academic life.

Career officers predominate numerically; in the US about two thirds of all

ambassadors are career diplomats.

Diplomatic conventions:

The modes and conventions of diplomacy are highly stylized and formal.

Language always tends toward understatement and emotion charged words are

taboo. The etiquette and manners of diplomatic meetings are carefully prescribed.

The privileges and immunities of diplomats are found in conventions and treaties

that have evolved over a long period. Whenever etiquette is breached a diplomatic

rebuff occurs. Although this formality and ceremony has an air of make believe it

server a practical purpose: it allows diplomats to deal with issues of war and

peace in a calm and unemotional manner. In the tense hours of crisis, a cool head

tact and good humor are necessary.

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A. protocol:

Detailed and universally accepted conventions exist concerning most of the

formal ways in which countries interact. In the early days of the nation state

system the departure of an ambassador was a ceremonial event as was the

ambassador’s reception by a head of state. Because ambassadors personally

represent the heads of their governments the relations among ambassadors with in

a country have always involved issues of prestige. Thus such details as where an

ambassador rode in a procession or which ambassador entered a room first

assumed great significance.

Such issues plagued European courts until they were resolved at the congress of

Vienna in 1815 and the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 and more recently at

the Vienna meetings to draft a convention on diplomatic relations in 1961. as a

result of these meetings diplomats were divided into three classes:

1. Ambassadors, legates and papal nuncios who are always accredited to

heads of state.

2. envoys, ministers and other persons accredited to heads of the state and

3. Charges d affairs who are accredited to ministers of foreign affairs.

Only members of the first class represent their nation’s leader. Precedence among

representatives in a capital is now based on seniority with in its diplomatic corps.

The most senior member of that corps is designated the doyen or dean. The doyen

usually represents the entire diplomatic corps at ceremonial functions and in

matters of diplomatic privileges and immunities. The most concise digest of the

protocol of the diplomacy is the Vienna convention on diplomatic relations,

consisting of 53 short articles completed under UN auspices.

B. privileges and immunities:

From the earliest times, privileges, and courtesies were extended to visiting

heralds and envoys. Currently the privileges and immunities of diplomats are

highly developed and universally accepted.

For centuries the territory on which a foreign mission stood was considered an

island of sovereignty of the home state. Under the Vienna convention of 1961 this

is no longer the case. The premises of missions are inviolable, however and host

states must accord full facilities to enable diplomatic missions to perform their

functions. Citizens of the host state may not enter a mission without the consent

of its senior official. Missions are immune from search, requisition and

attachment and nations have a special duty to protect any mission against

intrusion or damage. This long accepted principle was violated in Iran in

November 1979, when a group of Iranians invaded the US embassy and held

some 50 staff members hostage for 14 months.

Free communication between the mission and the host government must be

permitted. Diplomatic couriers may not be detained and diplomatic bags may not

77

be opened or detained. Host government must also secure these rights against

their own citizens if necessary.

Diplomatic agents and their staffs are not liable to any form of arrest or detention;

diplomats are immune from criminal laws and in most cases from civil and

administrative jurisdictions well. They are exempt from all direct taxes in the host

state. Immunity from the laws of a host state does not exempt diplomats from the

laws and jurisdiction of their home states, however. Those who commit crimes are

almost always sent home as personae-non-gratae. Diplomats enjoying their

privileges and immunities are duty bound to respect the laws and regulations of

the host state and to refrain from interfering in its internal affairs.

In the event of war the host state must grant facilities to enable diplomats from

belligerent nations to leave the country. If diplomatic relations broken off with

another nation the host state must still respect and protect the mission premises.

When relations are broken of the countries in question usually entrust the custody

of their missions and interest to some third party acceptable to both.

C. language of diplomacy:

Until the 17th century Latin was the language of diplomacy because it was the

universal language of all educated Europeans. From the 17 th century on however,

French increasingly became the language of diplomacy because of the

preeminence of France in Europe the precision of the language and its use as the

country language throughout Europe.

The US entry into World War I marked the rise of English as a second language

of diplomacy. During the interwar period the records of the League of Nations

were kept in English and French. After World War II the framers of the UN

sought to create a five language system. Simultaneous translations of French,

English, Russian, Spanish and Chinese take place at all meetings. Most UN

documents however are published only in French, English and Spanish. When

treaties or conventions are drafted the parties designate one language usually

French or English as the basis for any discussions about meanings or

interpretations.

D. diplomatic negotiations:

Although negotiations have traditionally been left to professional diplomats, very

important negotiations are increasingly being undertaken by specially selected

envoys or foreign ministers and by heads of state. Recent examples of this trend

were the shuttle diplomacy of the US secretary of state Henry Kissinger in the

Middle East and president jimmy carter’s personal involvement in negotiating a

peace treaty between the Egyptian president Anwar-al-Sadat and the Israeli Prime

Minister Menachem begin. Resident diplomats however still do almost all the day

to day negotiating and interacting with leaders of others states.

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The problem of deciding with practices and tactics are most effective in

negotiating is difficult. The German-American political scientist Hans. J

Morgenthau is his book politics among nations (1948) perhaps best summed up

ideal of modern diplomacy:

1. Diplomacy must be divested of its crusading spirit.

2. The objectives of foreign policy must be defined in terms of the national

interest and must supported with adequate power.

3. Diplomacy must look at the situation from the point of view of other

nation.

4. Nations must be willing to compromise on all issues that are not vital to

them.

5. The armed forces are the instrument of foreign policy not its master.

6. The government is the leader of public opinion not its slave.

Diplomacy and espionage:

Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or gathering of intelligence. Embassies

are bases for both diplomats and spies and some diplomats are essentially openly

acknowledged spies. For instance the job of military attaches includes learning as

much as possible about the military of the nation to which they are assigned. They

do not try to hide this role and as such are only invited to events allowed by their

hosts such as military parades or air shows. There are also deep cover spies

operating in many embassies. These individuals are given fake positions at the

embassy but their main task is to illegally gather intelligence usually by

coordinating spy rings of locals or other spies. For the most part spies operating

out of embassies gather little intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be

known by the opposition. If discovered these diplomats can be expelled from an

embassy but for the most part counter intelligence agencies prefer to keep these

agents in situ and under close monitoring.

The information gathered b spies plays an increasingly important role in

diplomacy. Arms control treaties would be impossible without the power of

reconnaissance satellites and agents to monitor compliance. Information gleaned

from espionage is useful in almost all forms of diplomacy everything from trade

agreements to border disputes.

Diplomatic resolutions of problems:

Various processes and procedures have evolved over time for handling diplomatic

issues and disputes.

A. arbitration and mediations:

Nations sometimes resort to international arbitration when faced with a specific

questions or point of contention in need of resolution. For most of history there

were no official or formal procedures for such proceedings. They were generally

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accepted to abide by general principles and protocols related to international law

and justice. Some times these took the form of formal arbitration and mediation.

In such cases a commission of diplomats might be convened to hear all sides of an

issue and to come some sort of ruling based on international law.

In the modern era much of this work is often carried out by the international court

of justice at The Hague or other formal commissions’ agencies and tribunals

working under the United Nations. Below are some examples.

B. conferences:

other times resolutions were sought through the convening of international

conferences. In such cases there are fewer ground rules, and fewer formal

applications of international law. However participants are expected to guide

themselves through principles of international fairness, logic and protocol.

Some examples of these formal conferences are:

A. Congress of Vienna (1815) after napoleon was defeated there were

many diplomatic questions waiting to be resolved. This included

the shape of the map of Europe, the disposition of political and

nationalist claims of various ethnic groups and nationalities

wishing to have some political autonomy and the resolution of

various claims by various European powers.

B. The congress of Berlin (June 13-july 13, 1878) was a meeting of

the European great powers and the Ottoman Empire’s leading

statesmen in Berlin in 1878. in the wake of the Russo Turkish war

1877-78 the meeting’s aim was to reorganize conditions in the

Balkans.

C. Sometimes nations convene official negotiation processes to settle an issue or

dispute between several nations which are parties to a dispute.

These are similar to the conferences mentioned above as there are

technically no established rules or procedures. However there are

general principles and precedents which help define a course for

such proceedings.

Some examples are.

A. Camp David accord convened in 1978 by president jimmy

carter of the United States at Camp David to reach an

agreement between Prime Minister Mecheem begin of Israel

and president Anwar Sadat of Egypt. After weeks of

negotiation agreement was reached and accords were signed

later leading directly to the Israel Egypt peace treaty of 1979.

B. Treaty of Portsmouth enacted after President Theodore

Roosevelt brought together the delegates from Russia and

Japan to settle the Russo Japanese war.

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Informal diplomacy:

Informal diplomacy (sometimes called track II diplomacy) has been used for

centuries to communicate between powers. Most diplomats work to recruit figures

in other nations who might be able to give informal access to a country’s

leadership. In some situations such as between the United States and the people’s

republic of china a large amount of diplomacy is done through semi formal

channels using interlocutors such as academic members of think tanks. This

occurs in situations where governments wish to express intentions or to suggest

methods of resolving a diplomatic situation but do not wish to express a formal

position.

Track II diplomacy is a specific kind of informal diplomacy in which non official

(academic scholars, retired civil and military officials, public figures, social

activists) engage in dialogue with the aim of conflict resolution or confidence

building. Some times governments may fund such track II exchanges. Sometimes

the exchanges may have no connection at all with governments or may even act in

defiance of governments; such exchanges are called track III.

Para Diplomacy:

Para diplomacy refers to the international relations conducted by sub national,

regional, local or non central governments. The most ordinary case of Para

diplomatic relation refers to cooperation between bordering political entities.

However interest of federal states, provinces regions etc., may extend over to

different regions or to issues gathering local governments world wide. Some non

central governments may be allowed to negotiate and enter into agreement with

forting central states.

Cultural diplomacy:

Cultural diplomacy is a part of diplomacy. It alludes to governmental and non

professional actors in the making of diplomacy. In the frame of globalization,

culture plays a major role in the definition of identity and in the relation between

people. Joseph Nye points out the importance of having a soft power besides a

hard power. When classical diplomacy fails a better knowledge can help bridging

the gap between different cultures. Cultural diplomacy becomes a subject of

academic studies based on historical essays on the United States, Europe and the

cold war.

Chapter: 9

International law: nature, origin and development

International law:

International law is basically principles rules and standards that govern nations

and other participants in international affairs in their relations with one another.

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International affairs in their relations with one another. International law is the

law of the international community. Mostly international law consists of long

standing customs, provisions agreed to in treaties and generally accepted

principles of law recognized by nations. Some international law is also created by

the rulings of international courts and organizations.

The purpose of international law:

The purposes of international law include resolution of problems of a regional or

global scope such as environmental pollution or global warming. Regulations of

areas outside the control of any one nation such as outer space or the high seas

and adaptation of common rules for multinational activities such as air transport

or postal international relations when possible and resolve international tensions

peacefully when they develop to prevent needless suffering during wars and to

improve the human condition during peacetime.

Enforcement of international law:

Enforcement of international law is often difficult because nations are sovereign

independent powers that may put their own interests ahead of those of the

international community. In addition the mechanisms of enforcement are young

and not well developed. Enforcement may be effectively achieved however

through the actions of individual nation’s agencies or international organizations

such as the United Nations UN and international courts. The United Nations

security council can authorize economic sanctions restore international peace and

security.

International law began as a system governing the relations among sovereign

states and states have always been the primary legal entities affected by

international law. As the global system has become more complex however

international law has come to recognize and regulate international organization,

business, non profit entities and individuals. The emergence of international

human rights law and more recently international criminal law reflects the fact

that individuals today are direct subjects of international law in certain respects.

Origin of international law:

The need for rules of conduct between independent political entities developed

along with the government in ancient times. Early civilizations established rules

governing the conduct of hostilities the making and observance of treaties and the

treatment of foreign traders’ travelers and diplomats. These rules were often based

on ritual and custom. The oldest known treaty preserved in an inscription on a

stone monument is a peace treaty between two city states of summer dating from

about 2500 BC. The empires of the ancient Middle East concluded a concerning

topics still debated today such as the extradition of fugitives and the creation of

military alliances.

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Later civilization further developed tenets of international law. Jewish law as set

forth in the Old Testament in the book of Deuteronomy contains prescriptions for

the mitigation of warfare notable prohibition against the killing of women and

children. The Greek city states had an elaborate treaty system governing many

aspects of their mutual relations. In Asia the political units of ancient India and

china during certain periods also developed and applied international law.

Beginning with the era of the roman republic (509 to 27 BC) the Romans made

significant contributions to the evolution of international law. They developed the

idea of a Jus-Gentium a body of laws designed to govern the treatment of aliens

non citizens subject to roman rule and the relations between roman citizens and

aliens. They recognized in principle the duty of a nation to refrain from engaging

in warfare without a just cause and originated the idea of a just war.

Modern international law began to develop with the rise of national states in

Europe after the 15th century when the basic ideas of national territory and

jurisdictions were established. In 1625 building on the work of previous legal

writers the Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius published his celebrated treatise de jure

Belli ac Pacis on the law of war and peace. Grotius argued that existing customs

governing the relation between nations had the force of law and were binding

unless contrary to natural justice or the law of nature natural law an immutable

higher law governing all human conduct. Grotius’s influence on international

affairs and t he settlement of wars was great and he is sometimes called the father

of modern international system as established by the peace of Westphalia (1648) a

treaty that ended the thirty years war.

Other scholars and statesmen further described and developed the basic rules of

international law; among them the dutch jurist cornelis van Bynkershoek and the

swiss diplomat emmerich de vattel. Vattel’s book, le droit des gens (1758 law of

nations) greatly influrnced the framers of the constitutiohn of the united stats with

its ideas of natural law governing the behavior of states. Over time scholars gave

increasing emphasis to the ideas of state sovereignty so that by the end of the 19 th

century the theorietical foundation of international law had shifted from natural

law to a strictly consensual approach known as natural law to a strictly consensual

approach known as positivism. Positivism claims that each nation is bound only

by the international rules that it freely accepts to limit its otherwise unlimited

freedom of action. The clash between positivists and adherents of natural law

continues today. Conflicts is mos proounced over the issue of whether there are

fundamental higher norms of international law a principle called jus cogens that

sovereign states are obliged to respect.

Modern international law:

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Modern international law stems from three main sources: treaties, customs and the

generally accepted principles of law derived from national legal systems

throughout the world. International organization plays an important role in the

formation of international law.

A. treaties:

Treaties are written agreements between two or more sovereign states.

International organization may also be given the capacity to make treaties either

with sovereign states or other international organizations. Treaties may be known

by other names for example: agreements, convention, protocol, pact and covenant

but the name chosen generally does not affect the legal status of the agreement.

As long as the parties intend the text to be binding it is a treaty. Treaties may

incorporate rules of custom or develop new law.

The present system of international law remains largely consensual and centered

on the sovereign state. It is with in the discretion of each state to participate in the

negotiation of or to sign or ratify any international treaty. Like wise each member

state of an international organization such as the UN is free to ratify any

convention adopted by that organization. Treaty law thus is created by the express

will of states.

Treaties and conventions were until 20th century usually bilateral between two

nations but some multilateral treaties resulted from international conferences held

in the 19th century before permanent international organizations were created.

Such conferences played an important part in the development of the international

legal system. Noteworthy examples include the congress of Vienna which through

its final act of 1815 reorganized Europe after the defeat of napoleon and also

contributed to the body of international law. It established rules for diplomatic

procedure and the treatment of diplomatic envoys. On the urging of Britain it also

included a general condemnation of the slave trade. The conference of Paris 1856

was convened to terminate the Crimean war. It also adopted the declaration of

maritime law that abolished privateering the use of private ships during war and

the letters of marquee licenses given to private citizen to arm ships and attack

enemy merchants modernized the rights of neutrals during maritime war and

required blockades to be effective. The declaration of Paris also initiated the

practice of allowing nations other than the original signatories to accede become a

party to an agreement.

In 1864 a conference convened in Geneva Switzerland at the invitation of the

Swiss government. The conference approved a convention for the proper

treatment of wounded soldiers on the battlefield and the protection of medical

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personnel; many nations subsequently accede to this convention the first Geneva

Convention. The peace conferences held in 1899 and 1907 in The Hague the

Netherlands resulted in a number of conventions designed to avoid or mitigate the

rigors of war. The 1899 conference adopted a convention for the pacific

settlement of international disputes which created the permanent court of

arbitration in The Hague to settle disputes between nations.

B. customary law:

Customary international law is unwritten and derives from the actual practices of

nations over time. To be accepted as the actual practices of nation over time. To

be accepted as law the custom must be long standing. Widespread and practiced

in a uniform and consistent way among nations. One example of customary

international law is a nation’s right to use the high seas for fishing, navigation,

over flight, and submarines.

Treaties represent another source of customary law. Although treaties generally

bind only those countries that ratify them customs may be deduced from the rules

and statements contained in treaties. These new customs may be considered

binding even on those states that did not sign and ratify the original treaty.

Whether or not they are embodied in a written treaty, customs become part of

international law because of continued acceptance by the great majority of

nations.

Some customary international law has been codified in recent years. For example

the Vienna convention on the law of treaties which was approved in 1969 and

took effect on 1980 codified the customary law that treaties between sovereign

states are binding on their signatories and must be followed in good faith.

C. general principles:

The phrase general principles of law appeared in the statute of the permanent

court of international justice established in 1921 three years after the end of world

war I (1914-1918). The court was directed to decide disputes broughy before it on

the basis of existing treaty law and customary international law. Some of the

iplomats and lawyers drafting the statute of the court feared however the disputes

might arise over new international issues for which there would be no settled

custom or applicable treaty. They decided and the nations voting for the statute

agreed to add a third source of law “ general principles of law recognized by

civilized nations.” To allow the court to draw upon widely recognized legal

principles in national law. In this way the court would not have to refuse to settle

a dispute because of the absence of international law. General principles that have

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been applied by the court and its successor the united nations international court

of justice include the clean hands doctrine it is improper to accuse someone of

misconduct that the accuser has also engages in the principle that individuals

should not be a judge in their own dispute and the principle of res judicata a case

that is decided can not be tried again.

D. international courts and organizations:

Judicial decisions rendered by international courts are important elements in

identifying and confirming international legal rules. The most important

international courts are the UN international court of justice which mainly handles

legal disputes between nations and the international criminal court which

prosecutes individuals for genocide war crimes and other serious crimes of

international concern. Resolutions and decisions of the UN and other international

organizations now also have a great impact on the views and practices of

sovereign states, sometimes leading to rapid formation of customary international

law. States have given a very few international organizations such as the

European Union and the UN Security Council the power to enacts directly

binding measures.

The first international organizations emerged in the 19th century. Technological

advances such as the telegraph and the telephone, together with a rise in

international trade created a need for permanent international institutions to

regulate problems that exceeded national boundaries. The earliest organizations of

this type were specialized bodies such as the international telegraphic union

(1865) and the universal postal union (1874).

After world war I, European countries created the league of nations an

organization with a general mandate to maintain peace and prevent ear. The

league’s covenant was part of the treaty of Versailles signed in 1919 to officially

end the war. Pursuant to provisions in the covenant the permanent court of justice

was established in 1921 as the world’s first international court. Its role was to

decide international disputes that were voluntarily submitted to the court by the

nations involved, and to issue advisory opinions s on disputes referred to it by the

league. Although the court helped to develop international law its judges were

hampered by the lack of universal agreement on many aspects of international

law.

The onset of World War II in 1939 proved the league of nation ineffective in

preventing hostilities. Equally unsuccessful was the pact of Paris also called the

Kellogg Briand pact, a multilateral treaty renouncing the use of war that had been

signed in 1928 and ultimately ratified by more than 60 nations including Germany

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and Japan. After World War II ended in 1945 the United Nations replaced the

League of Nations and the international court of justice succeeded the permanent

court of international justice.

The United Nations charter created elaborate machinery for maintaining peace

and security and for solving disputes among nations. It also specifically directed

the general assembly to encourage the progressive development and codification

of international law. To carry out this task the general assembly created two

subsidiary organs: the international law commission (1947) and the commission

on international trade law (1966). Over the years the international law

commission has prepared drafts of treaties codifying and modernizing a number

of important topics of international law, including the law of the sea diplomatic

relations consular relations law of treaties between nations, succession of states in

respect to treaties, law of treaties between nations and international organizations

immunity of states from the jurisdiction of other states and the law of

international fresh waters. The commission on international trade law drafts texts

on laws concerning international commerce and economic development. Upon

acceptance by the general assembly drafts from the commissions usually are

submitted to international conferences called by the UN for adoption of the

respective conventions.

In some instances the UN has organized conferences to discuss major

international issues or to negotiate treaties without prior proposal by the

international law commission the most important example was the third UN

conference on the law of the sea, which terminated its work in 1982. The

conference adopted a convention which came into force in 1994 governing all

aspects of the peaceful use of the oceans including territorial boundaries

navigational rights and economic jurisdiction see freedom of the seas. Another

example is the 1992 UN conference of environment and development held in Rio

de Janeiro, Brazil and informally known as the earth summit. The conference

produced two major treaties the convention on biological diversity which seeks to

preserve the world’s biological diversity and promote the sustainable use of its

components and the frame work convention on climate change which seeks to

limit industrial emission of gases leading to global warming. Sometimes the UN

convenes major conferences to assess progress and problems concerning a

specific topic without adopting a new agreement. Such conferences have been

held on human rights and on the status of women world wide.

A landmark in the development of international law occurred in 1998 at a UN

diplomatic conference in Rome, Italy when 120 centuries adopted a treaty to

establish the world’s first permanent international criminal court. Officially

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established in 2002, the international criminal court ICC operates independently

of the United Nations and has the power to initiate investigations and prosecutions

of war criminals including those accused of genocide crimes against humanity

and other serious crimes. Unlike previous war crimes tribunals such as those

created in response to atrocities in former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda the ICC’s

jurisdiction is not limited to specific conflicts.

International & national law:

Every nation is expected to obey international law. Some nations make

international law automatically part of the law of their land. The US constitution

designates ratified treaties along with the constitution itself and federal statutes

the supreme law of the land (article VI) and empowers congress to define and

punish offences against the law of nations (article I section 8). Customary

international law is automatically incorporated in to the IS legal system as federal

common or unwritten law.

In cases involving international law US state and federal courts presume that US

law conforms to international law; such an attitude has been urged consistently by

the supreme court of the United States. In some countries such as the United

Kingdom treaties do not become effective in national law until they are enacted

by parliament. In other countries a treaty or customary international law is given

constitutional status superior to national legislation. How a sovereign state adopts

and applies international law is generally left to its discretion so long as it

conforms to the law in the end.

Whatever the constitution or legal system of a nation it cannot use its domestic

law as an excuse to breach an international agreement or violate an international

rule. This was made clear during the war crimes trials held in Nurnberg,

Germany, following World War II. The Nurnburg tribunals rejected the defense

that certain acts such as the killing of prisoners of war were permitted under the

domestic laws of Nazi Germany. The tribunals held that such laws were null and

void because they contravened the generally valid rules of warfare. It also held

that the individuals responsible for issuing and executing such laws were

criminally responsible for grave breaches of international law. Today international

human rights courts often declare national laws incompatible with international

rules and may award compensation to those whose rights have been violated.

Scope of international law:

The scope of international law is vast. Nearly every matter of legal regulation

with in a nation has some international counterpart. Over the last century

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advances in communications, technology, growth in global trade and travel and

the advent of weapons of mass destruction have led to an enormous expansion in

the range of topics regulated by international law. In addition to the classic

matters of diplomacy war and peace trade and territorial boundaries international

law now covers matters as diverse as environmental protection human rights

nuclear testing war crimes outer space child custody recognition of wills and

testaments exchange of prisoners and protection of archeological sites and arts

treasures. This section discusses several major areas of international law,

including peace and security human rights the environment and the global

commons.

A. peace and security:

Among the central aims of the UN are the maintenance of peace and security and

the suppression of acts of aggression. The principles of UN charter prohibit the

use of force to settle disputes and bar intervention by a nation into the domestic

affairs of another nation. The charter also expressly includes among its objectives

the maintenance of respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other

sources of international law.

International law provides methods for the settlement of disputes by means other

than war. The UN charter directs disputants to engage in negotiation, conciliation,

arbitration or recourse to the international court of justice. When conflicts do arise

the UN Security Council may determine that there exists a threat to the peace or a

breach of the peace or that an act of aggression has been committed. The Security

Council may vote to deploy UN peacekeeping forces military personnel and

civilians volunteered by UN member governments to help implement peace

agreements monitor ceasefires provide emergency relief and perform other

functions essential to maintain peace. Over time the decisions of the Security

Council have created a body of law and policy on issues of peace and security

including the development of international criminal law to hold individuals

accountable for the most serious illegal acts of violence.

B. human rights:

since world war II the international community has become increasingly

concerned with the protection of human rights. Although concern for human

rights is expressed in the UN charter, the development of specific norms related to

human rights began in 1948 with the passage of two nonbinding declaration: the

American declaration of the rights and duties of man approved the organization of

American states and the universal declaration of human rights approved by the

UN. The universal declaration of human rights described a variety of person’ to

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freedom from slavery to freedom of conscience religion opinion expression

association and assemble to freedom from arbitrary arrest to a fair and impartial

trial: to privacy and to education. This document remains the cornerstone of

international human rights law and has been the basis of bills of rights in nearly

100 countries.

Other important international treaties related to human rights include the

convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide (1948); the

international convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination

(1965); the UN covenant on civil and political rights (1966) and its companion the

covenant on economic social and cultural rights (1966); the convention on the

elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (1979); the convention

against torture and other cruel inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment

(1984) and the convention on the rights of child (1989). These treaties have been

widely ratified the convention on the rights of the child for example has been

accepted by every country in the world except the united states and Somalia. The

treaties have been supplemented by three regional human rights agreements the

European convention for the protection of human rights and fundamental

freedoms (1950); the American convention on human rights (1969), and the

African charter on human and peoples rights. The regional agreements and many

of the UN treaties allow individuals to bring petitions to regional or global human

rights organizations for protection against acts by their governments that violate

their rights.

C. the environment:

in the late 1960s concern either the state of the world’s environment emerged as

an international issue. This occurred largely in response to several disastrous

spills by oil tankers that brought attention to high pollution levels and the threats

they pose to human health and biological diversity.

The UN convened its first environmental conference in 1972 in Stockholm,

Sweden from which emerged the declaration contains several legal principles that

have become the foundation for a vast network of international agreements. The

most importantly principle directs that each state has the sovereign rights to use

its natural resource s but also has the corresponding duty to ensure that its

activities do not cause harm outside its boundaries. Other principles link

environmental protection with human rights and emphasize the duty of each

person to safeguard the environment. Many modern environmental agreements

regulate specific areas (the Baltic Sea, Antarctica), specific species whales

migratory birds or specific hazards nuclear energy toxic wastes. In each case the

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legal obligation that emerges is to protect and preserve components of the

environment of foster sustainable development.

D. the global commons:

Large areas of the globe and beyond do not and legally can not belong to any

nation most of the oceans and their resources Antarctica earth’s atmosphere outer

space and the moon and other natural objects in space. These areas are known

collectively as the global commons. The absence of political sovereignty for these

areas means that international regulation is required to avoid conflict over them

and to protect them from overuse, pollution and other harm. International

agreements for these areas are generally accepted as providing the legal frame

work for all those who conduct activities in them. See aviation law; maritime law;

freedom of the seas.

E. other issues:

International law has no fixed content. New threats that can not be addressed or

resolved by a single nation constantly call for new international responses. For

example recent international agreements aim to combat terrorism the distribution

of illicit drugs across national boundaries and the spread of infectious disease.

The developments of new technologies such as the internet can also lead to the

creation to new international legal frameworks.

Chapter: 10

Economic aspects of international relations:

Political economy:

Political economy is the branch of social science that studies the relationships

between individuals and society and between markets and the state, using a

diverse set of tools and methods drawn largely from economics, political secience

and sociology. The term political economy is derived from the greek polis

meaning city or state and oikonomos meaning one who manages a household or

estate. Political economy thus can be understood as the study of how a country the

public’s household is managed or governed taking into account both political and

economic factors.

Economics and political economy:

The relationship between political economy and the contemporary discipline of

economics is particularly interesting is part because both disciplines claim to be

the descendants of the ideas of smith Hume and john Stuart mill. Whereas

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political economy which was rooted in moral philosophy was from the beginning

very much a normative field of study economics sought become objective and

value free. Indeed under the influence of Marshall economists endeavored to

make their discipline like the 17th century physics of sir Isaac Newton (1642-

1727); formal precise and elegant and the foundation of a broader intellectual

enterprise. With the publication in 1947 of foundations of economic analysis by

Paul Samuel son, who brought complex mathematical tools to the study of

economics the bifurcation of political economy and economics was complete.

Mainstream political economy had evolved into economic science, leaving its

broader concerns far behind.

The distinction between economics and political economy can be illustrated by

their differing treatments of issues related to international trade. The economic

analysis of tariff policies for example focuses on the impact of tariffs on the

efficient use of scare resources under a variety of competition several small

suppliers monopoly one supplier monospony on buyer and oligopoly few

suppliers. Different analytic frameworks examine the direct effects of tariffs as

well as the effects on economic choices in related markets. Such a methodology is

generally mathematical and is based on the assumption that an actor’s economic

behavior is rational and is aimed at maximizing benefits for himself although

ostensibly a value free exercise such economic analysis often implicitly assumes

that policies that maximize the benefits accruing to economic actors are also

preferable from a social point of view.

In contrast to the pure economic analysis of tariff policies, political economic

analysis examines the social political and economic pressures an interest that

affect tariff policies and how these pressures influence the political process,

taking into account a range of social priorities international negotiating

environments, development, strategies and philosophical perspectives. In

particular political economic analysis might take into account how tariffs can be

used as a strategy to influence the pattern of national economic growth neo

colonialism or biases in the global system of international trade that may favour

developed countries over developing ones neo Marxist analysis. Although

political economy lacks a rigorous scientific method and an objective analytic

framework its broad perspective affords a deeper understanding of the many

aspects of tariff policy that are not purely economic in nature.

International political economy:

International political economy studies problems that arise from or are affected by

the interaction of international from or are affected by the interaction of

international politics, international economics and different social systems (e.g.

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capitalism and socialism) and societal groups (e.g. farmers at the local level

different ethnic groups in a country immigrants in a region such as the European

union and the poor who exist transnationally in all countries). It explores a set of

related questions problematique that arise form issues such as international trade,

international trade, international finance, relations between wealthier and poorer

countries the role of multinational corporations and the problems of hegemony the

dominance either physical or cultural of one country over part or all the world

along with the consequences of economic globalization.

International political economy has a major role in determining international

relations. Analytic approaches to international political economy tend to vary with

the problem being examined. Issues can be viewed from several different

theoretical perspectives, including the mercantilist, liberal and structuralist

(Marxist or neo Marxist) perspectives. Mercantilists are closely related to realists

focusing on competing interests and capabilities of nation states in a competitive

struggle to achieve power and security. Liberals are optimistic about the ability of

humans and states to construct peaceful relations and world order. Economic

liberals in particular would limit the role of the state in the economy in order to let

market forces decide political and social outcomes. Structuralist ideas are rooted

din Marxist analysis and focus on how the dominant economic structures of

society affect (i.e. exploit) class interests and relations. Each of these perspectives

is often applied to problems at several different levels of analysis that point to

complex root causes of conflict traced to human nature (the individual level),

national interests (the national level) and the structure of the international system

which lacks a single sovereign to prevent war. For example analysis of U.S policy

regarding migrants from Mexico must take into consideration pattern of trade and

investment between the two countries and the domestic interests on both sides of

the border. Similarly domestic and international interests are linked by trade,

finance, and other factors in the case of financial crises in developing countries

such as Thailand and Argentina. The distinction between foreign and domestic

becomes as uncertain as the distinction between economics and politics in a world

where foreign economic crises affect domestic political and economic interests

through trade and financial linkages or through changes in security arrangements

or migrant flows.

Contemporary international political economy appeared as a subfield of the study

of international relations during the era of cold war rivalry between the soviet

union and the on international security but later came to include economic

security and the role of market actors including multinational corporations,

international banks, cartels (e.g. OPEC) and international organizations (e.g. the

IMF) in national and international security strategies. International political

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economy grew in importance as a result of various dramatic international

economic events, such as the collapse of the Brettom woods international

monetary system in 1971 and the oil crisis of 1973-74.

During the early period of the cold war political scientists emphasized the realist

or power politics dimension of US soviet relation, while economists tended to

focus on the Bretton woods system of the international economy that is the

institution and rules that beginning in 1945 governed much of the international

economy. During the Vietnam War, however a growing decrease in the value of

the US dollar and large deficits for the United States in its balance of trade and

payments weakened the ability of the united stats to conduct and pay for the war,

which thereby undermined its relationship to its north Atlantic treaty organization

allies. During the OPEC oil crisis the realist oriented US secretary of state henry

A Kissinger found himself unable to understand the issues without the assistance

of an economist. These events led to a search for a multidisciplinary approach or

outlook that borrowed different theories concepts and ideas from political science

and international relations as well as from economics and sociology to explain a

variety of complicated international problems and issues. It didi not so much

result in the development of a new school of political economy as emphasize the

continued relevance of the older more intergrated type of analysis which

explicitly sought to trace the connections between political and economic factors.

Following the end of the cold war international political economy became focused

on issues raised by economic globalization including the viability of the state in

an increasingly globalized international economy the role of multinational

corporations in generating conflict as well as growth in the new global econmomy

and various problems related to equity justice and fairness (e.g. low wage rates in

developing countries and the dependency of these countries on markets in

wealthier countries). In the 1950s and 60s American economists development

made popular the argument that after a period of tension disorder and even chaos

with a developing country that had been exposed to the west the country world

eventually take off and development would occur. In the late 196s and continuing

into the 1990s many development experts from a structuralist point of view

including many Marxists and neo Marxists posited a variety of explanations as to

why many developing countries did not seem to develop or change much. For

example the German born economist andre gunder frank made popular idea that

when developing countries connect to the west, they become underdeveloped.

Social theorist and economist Immanuel wallerstein whose works have made a

ladting impact on the study of the historical development of the world capitalist

system argued that development does occur but only for a small number of

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semiperipheral states and not for those peripheral states that reamin the providers

of natural resources and raw materials to the developed industrial core states.

Such themes were evident in the 1990s and the early 21st century when a number

of politically and economically powerful and mostly western multinational

corporations were accused of exploiting women and children in unsanitary and

unsafe working conditions in their factories in developing countries. These cases

and other like them were seen by some structuralists as evidence of a race to the

bottom in which in order to attract investment by international businesses many

developing countries relaxed or eliminated worker protection laws and

environmental standards.

Main characteristics of the economy of Pakistan:

Islamic republic of Pakistan is a developing country. The characteristics of the

economy of Pakistan are almost the same of the economy of any developing

country. The main characteristics of the economy of Pakistan are as follows.

1. burden of international debt:

Most of the developing countries are dependent on foreign economic assistance to

meet the short fall in domestic savings and for quickening the pace of economic

development as the year pass the amount of foreign loans increase. The liability of

debt servicing has increase manifold. In Pakistan debt service payments amount to

42 billion dollars in 2007 which is a heavy burden.

2. low per capita income:

Major the people living in developing countries are poverty ridden. Poverty is

reflected in low per capita income. People live in unsanitary conditions. Services

like health, education, expand very slowly. In short mostly the people in LDCs

less developed countries are ill fed, ill clothed, ill hosed and ill educated. People

here are involved n misery go round. In Pakistan the per capita income at current

market prices in rs.18320 in 1996-97,470 dollars.

3. agriculture the main occupation:

The developing countries two third or even more of the people e live in rural

areas. Their main occupation is agriculture which is in a backward stage. The

average land holding and the yield per acre is low. The peasants mostly live at a

subsistence level. As far as Pakistan is concerned agriculture contributes 25% of

GDP.

4. dualistic economy:

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the economies of developing countries are characterized by dualism. Dualism

refers to economic and social division in the economy. For instance, in the

developing countries one is the market economy ad the other is the subsistence

economy. Both the economies exist side by side. In and around the city there is a

market economy which is well developed. Ultra modern facilities of life are

available here. But in rural areas the economy is primitive backward and

agricultural oriented similarly industrial sector uses capital intensive techniques

and produces variety of capital goods. The rural sector produces commodities

mainly with traditional techniques. The standard of living of the people living in

market economy is high but that of their brothers living in subsistence sector is

low. The dualistic nature of the economy is not conductive to healthy economic

progress.

5. under utilization of natural resources:

An important characteristic of the developing countries is that their natural

resources either main un-utilized or under utilized or mis-utilized. Most of the

countries are rich in resources but they remain unutilized or under utilized due to

lack capital, primitive techniques of production, limited size of the market and

sluggish nature of the people.

6. high rates of population growth:

Almost all the developing countries are having a high population growth rate and

a declining death. The development made with low per capita incomes and low

rates of capital formation here is swallowed up by increased population. As a

result there is no or very slow improved in the living standards of the people. In

Pakistan the rate of increase in populations estimated about 2.77% per annum.

This high growth rate is offsetting all achievements of developments.

7. Unemployment and disguised unemployment:

Another notable feature of developing countries is vast unemployment and

disguised unemployment both in the rural and in the urban areas. The

unemployment in increasing with the spread of education and urbanization.

8. low level of productivity:

In developing countries people are economically backward. The main causes of

backwardness are low labor efficiency, immobility of labor due to joint family

system cultural and psychological factors leading to low level of productivity.

9. lack of enterprise and initiative:

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the less developed countries LDCs lack dynamic leadership. The enterprise and

initiative of entrepreneurs is hampered due to multiple factors such as small size

of the market lack of capital lack of infrastructural facilities, technological

backwardness etc.

10. deficiency of capital:

deficiency of capital is another common sign in all the developing countries of the

word. The capital deficiency is mainly due to:

1. low per capita income.

2. low rate of saving.

3. low rate of investment.

4. inequalities of wealth.

5. adoption of consumption pattern of advanced countries.

6. higher level expenditure on consumption etc.

11. backward state of technology:

All the developing countries are in the backward state of technology. The

technological backwardness is due higher cost of production despite low money

wages, deficiency of capital, predominance of unskilled and untrained workers,

dualism and misallocation of resources etc. these are the major hurdles in the

spread of techniques in the LDC’s.

12. low capital formation:

the underdeveloped countries are capital poor economies. These countries are not

only capital deficient but the current rate of capital formation is also vary low.

The low level of capital formation is due to both the weakness of

i. inducement to invest and to

ii. low propensity and capacity to save.

13. dependence on export of primary products:

The LDC’s are still relying on the 19th century pattern of external trade. They are

mainly producing and exporting primary commodities to the developed countries

and importing finished goods and machinery from them.

14. influence of feudal lords:

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in Pakistan like many other developing countries the poor are under the hard grip

of feudal lords an d tribal heads. It is in the interest of the feudal lords that the

poor should remain poor.

15. low self esteem and limited freedom:

the under developed countries are mostly influenced from external influence and

dominance. They have limited freedom of choice in trade technology education

etc. the people in these countries have low esteem. They are used by others for

their own ends.

Chapter: 11

The concept of war and peace in international relations:

War:

War, in international law is an armed conflict between two or more governments

or states. When such conflicts assume global proportion they are known as world

wars. War between different parts or factions of the same nation is called civil

war.

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War is in the popular sense a conflict among political group involving hostilities

of considerable duration and magnitude. In the usage of social science certain

qualifications are added. Sociologists usually apply the term to such conflicts only

if they are initiated and conducted in accordance with socially recognized forms.

They treat war as an institution recognized in custom or in law. Military writers

usually confine the term to hostilities in which the contending groups are

sufficiently equal power to render the outcome uncertain for a time. Armed

conflicts of powerful states with primaitve peoples are usually called pacifications

military expeditions or explorations; with small states they are called

interventions or reprisals; and with internal groups rebellions or insurrections.

Such incidents if the resisitance is sufficiently strong or protracted may achieve a

magnitude that entitles them to the name war.

A rebellion is not legally considered a war to entitle the armed forces of the rebels

to the rights and privileges of belligerents the government they serve must be

organized so as to be in a position to meet duties resting on belligerents that is

they must have the power to maintain law and order within the regions occupied

by them and to carry on war on a large scale by land sea or air.

International hostilities sometimes continue for long periods of time without being

acknowledged as wars. The Korean war was regarded by the US government as a

police action. Conflicts or wars in which major powers purposely refrain from

employing all their armed strength ore often known as limited wars. Short of

peace, such limited wars are now recognized as a preferable alternative to the

specter of nuclear war.

International wars are generally terminated by treaty and civil wars by a peace

proclamation. The usages customs and treaties of nations have formed a system of

laws of war.

In all ages war has been important topic of analysis. In the latter part of the 20 th

century in aftermath of two world’s wars and in the shadow of nuclear biological

and chemical holocaust more has been written on the subject than ever before.

The various schools of theorists are generally aware of the profound influence

they can exercise upon life and their writings usually include a strong normative

element for when accepted by politicians their ideas can assume the

characteristics of self fulfilling prophecies.

The analysis of war may be divided into several categories. Philosophical,

political, economic, technological, legal, sociological and psychological

approaches are frequently distinguished. These distinctions indicate the varying

focuses of indicate the varying focuses of interest and the different analytical

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categories employed by the theoretician but most of the actual theories are mixed

because war is an extremely complex social phenomenon that cannot be explained

by any single factor or through any single approach.

Evolution of theories of war:

Reflecting changes in the international system theories of war have passed

through several phases in the course of the past three centuries. After the ending

of the wars of religion about the middle of the 17 th century wars were fought for

the interests of individual sovereign and were limited both in their objectives and

in their scope. The art of maneuver became decisive and analysis of war was

couched accordingly in terms of strategies. The situation changed fundamentally

with the outbreak of the French revolution, which increased the size of forces

from small professional to large conscript armies and broadened the objectives of

war to the ideals of the revolution ideals that appealed to the masses who were

subject to conscription. In the relative order of post Napoleonic Europe the

mainstream of theory returned to the idea of war as a rational limited instrument

of national policy. This approach was best articulated by the Prussian military

theorist Carl von Clausewitz in his famous classic on war (1832-37).

World War I which was total in character because it resulted in the mobilization

of entire population and economies for a prolonged period of time did not fir into

the Clausewitzian pattern of limited conflict and it led to a renewal of other

theories. These no longer regarded war as a rational instrument of state policy.

The theorists held that war in its modern total form if still conceived as a national

state instrument should be undertaken only if the most vital interests of the state

touching upon its very survival are concerned. Otherwise warfare serves broad

ideologies and not the more narrowly defined interests of a sovereign or a nation.

Like the religious wars of the 17th century war becomes part of grand designs such

as the rising of the proletariat in communist eschatology or the Nazi doctrine of a

master race.

Some theoreticians have gone even further denying war any rational character

whatsoever. To them war is a calamity and a social disaster, whether it is afflicted

by one nation upon another or conceived of as affliction humanity as a whole. The

idea is not new in the aftermath of the Napoleonic wars it was articulated for

example by Tolstoy in the concluding chapter of war and peace (1865-69). In the

second half of the 20th century it gained new currency in peace research a

contemporary form of theorizing that combines analysis of the origins of warfare

with a strong normative element aiming at its prevention. Peace research

concentrates on two areas: the analysis of the international system and the

empirical study of the phenomenon of war.

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World War II and the subsequent evolution of weapons of mass destruction made

the task of understanding the nature of war even more urgent. On the one hand

war has become an intractable social phenomenon the elimination of which seems

to be an essential precondition for the survival of mankind. On the other hand the

use of war as an instrument of policy in calculated in an unprecedented manner by

the nuclear superpowers the United States and the Soviet Union. War also

remains a stark but rational instrumentality in certain more limited conflicts such

as those between Israel and the Arab nations. Thinking about war is consequently

becoming increasingly more differentiated because it has to answer questions

related to very different types of conflict.

Clausewitz cogently defines war as a rational instrument of foreign policy an act

of violence intended to compel our opponent to fulfill our will. Modern

definitions of war such as armed conflict between political units generally

disregarded the narrow legalistic definitions characteristic of the 19 th century

which limited the concept to formally declared war between states. Such a

definition includes civil wars but at the same time excludes such phenomena as

insurrections, banditry or piracy. Finally war is generally understood to embrace

only armed conflicts on a fairly large scale usually excluding conflicts in which

fewer than 50,000 combatants are involved.

The causes of war:

War arises because of the changing relations of numerous variables technological,

psychic, social, and intellectual. There is no single cause of war. Peace is

equilibrium among many forces. Change in any particular force trend movement

or policy may at one time make for war but under other conditions a similar

change may make for peace. A state may at one time promote peace by armament

at another time by disarmament at one time by insistence on its rights at another

time by spirit conciliation. To estimate the probability of war at any time

involves, therefore an appraisal of the effect of current changes upon the complex

of inter group relationships throughout the world.

Wright 1965:1284

For war to occur between two states they must have some contact and salience,

some awareness of each other. They must also have some opposing interests,

something to fight about and capabilities to fight.

1. disturbed balance of power:

There can be no security without balance of power.

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Henry Kissinger

Balance of power is the stability of political system in a particular area.

Disturbance is balance of power is one of the objective or cause of war. To show

strength of any state to her rivalry can lead to war.

For example the balance of power was disturbed after the disintegration of Russia.

Now USA is the only super power left and is supposed to be the leader of the

world.

2. national and separatism:

Nationalism is the emotional feelings that exist in nation and separatism in the

final stage of nationalism i.e. formation or independence of a state. These two

factors greatly affect people’s life and this is one of the main causes of war.

For example in the 1930’s Hitler based many of his claims on the right of

Germans to live together in one state. The wars in Korea the middle east,

Bangladesh and Cyprus had strong national components.

3. communication failure:

Lack of communication between rival groups may lead to war. This usually

happens when none of the states compromises for a talk. By this tension increases

to its peak and chances of war become more visible. If this state just solves their

problem through communication other than war rare of mankind can be saved

from war’s destruction. For example USA and USSR the tension between these

two super powers reached to height but was solved by opening hot line services

through out the two states.

4. military industrial complex:

these complexes become threat to their own government as well their rivals. They

become threat to their own government by selling it to their rivals on that amount

which its own state is not willing to give. They just want to have a market for

their products.

5. human nature:

it drives to live, to propagate and to dominate are common to all men.

The causes of war are to be found in human nature. The problem is aggression

that is that human beings fight after all animals do too. The problem is that human

beings gift to the death. They kill their own species and most animals do not. It is

not our lacto of humanity bur our lack of Animality that causes our troubles.

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6. troublemakers:

Power groups, merchant of death, wicked states are trouble makers.

Throughout recorded human history initiators of war were individuals and groups

who held powers.

Theodore Abel

That specific individual and power groups which are the main cause of this

approach is Adolph Hitler, entitled one his chapter, “Hitler’s war, 1939”in the

1930’s. many in the manufacturers were responsible for US participations in the

world war I. they were responsible for US participations in the world war I. they

were popularly known as the merchants of death and sometimes the trouble maker

is identified as an entire state.

7. loss of control:

according to this approach operation which has been carried out with the fair

calculation but due to untoward and unfavorable circumstances things start

running against which causes loss of control over the situation. For example

America sent its forces to Vietnam for capture the Vietnam but with the time they

loss control and were defeated.

8. misperception:

The misperception between two states is to be favored in the cause of war. If a

state is overestimated about his power and underestimated about the power of the

rival state the war could start.

In my point of view Kargil war is an example of misperception.

9. political issues:

due to some political issues war could be started because sometimes government

diverts attention from serious political issues to international border to save his

own government. For example Clinton did missile attack on Iraq to divert the

attention of government from Monica’s issues.

10. armed forces:

If you want peace, prepare for war.

States may engage in arms reasons that have little do with the objective of

preventing war but unfortunately it is difficult to answer the question. Do arms

races make war less or more likely?

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One scholar claims that of 84 wards ending between 1820 and 1929 only 10 were

preceded by arms race. This suggests that arm races are not the only cause of

wards. On the other hand on investigation of serious international disputed

between major powers from 1815 to 1965 found that in 28 cases where disputes

was accomplished by an arms race, war resulted 23 times in 71 cases where only

3 times. This research suggests that arms races are more likely to promote war

than likely to promote war than inhabit it.

Types of war:

There seven types of wars which are as follows:

1. total war:

Modern war is called the total war. War today is not limited only to armed forces,

but the total population of the state is affected. According to Prof Morgenthau the

modern war is a total war is in the sense of being:

A. War of total populations.

B. War by total populations.

C. War against total populations.

D. War for total stakes.

Modern war is a war of total population in the sense that is emotionally involves

the total population and they identify themselves fully in its emotions and

convictions with the war of its nation. It is war by total populations because it

mobilized total populations and the participations of the populations and the

participations of the populations in the war is correspondingly enlarged. Not only

able bodied men are conscripted but in totalitarian countries women’s and

children as well. All the productive forces and the entire manpower of the nation

are put to the purposes to war. Every section of the population in whatever

positions it is placed has to make its contributions to war efforts. The government

can also acquire the private property by law for the war purposes. Total war is

also war against total population, because every body is prospective victim of the

war. The older distinction between the combatants and non combatants has

disappeared.

The modern war in snot aimed at destroying the enemy’s armed forces alone but

also attacking the civilian population and this destroying the nations will the

resist. Every body by some way or the other is affected by the war. Total war is

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also fought for total stakes. Older wards were fought only for limited purpose and

limited objectives.

2. unlimited nuclear war:

Nuclear war may be both limited and unlimited. The purpose of the unlimited war

is to inflict utmost loses on the enemy. Besides military installations, civil

populations and non military installations are also made the target of attack. The

purpose of the war is direct towards the complete disruption of the civilian life of

the enemy nation. It aims at infliction maximum of the loses in the minimum of

the time so that the nations will to resist is destroyed and the enemy nation yields

without prolonging the war further.

3. limited nuclear war:

The purpose of the limited nuclear war is only to destroy the military power of the

enemy by means of nuclear weapon. The military installations along are made the

target of attack and not the civilian population and the non military installation.

But it becomes difficult to distinguish between military and non military

installations, during the actual operation. Any limited nuclear war can therefore

turn into unlimited nuclear war.

4. limited war:

The purpose to the limited war is to inflict calculated loses on the enemy. It has

limit purpose and is confined to limited objectives. Limited war is possible only if

the war is kept confined to the conventional weapons. Incase of the use of nuclear

weapons the loses caused to the enemy can not be kept. In practice however it is

difficult to draw a dividing line whether or not a particular war is a limited war.

5. pre-emptive war:

If in the anticipation of an attack by the enemy the other party without being

attacked takes itself the initiative of war the war is called as pre emptive war. The

purpose of such war is to deprive the enemy of such gains which it could have in

the event of attacking first. It aims to frustrate the war intentions of the enemy.

Israel waged a pre emptive war against Egypt in 1967.

6. guerilla war:

guerilla war is an armed conflict which is carried out by the persons who do not

form part of an organized army due to inadequacy of military power and weapons,

guerillas conduct there warfare in the secret manner and avoid open battles. They

adopt hit and run tactics and when they themselves are attacked the retreat.

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7. civil war:

a civil war is a war with in a state between two or more groups. In such a war one

of the groups is the lawful government of the country and another group consists

of those who try to wrest power from the legitimate government. A situation

under which a large part of the population of a country stands in revolt against the

legitimate government can also be called a civil war.

Control of war:

The international environment with in which states and the people with in them

operate is regarded by many theorists as the major factor determining the

occurrence and the nature of wars. War remains possible as long as individual

states seek to ensure self preservation and to promoters their individual interests

and tin the absence of a reliable international agency to control the actors of other

states rely on their own efforts. It is no accident threat reforms of the international

system figure prominently in many prescriptions for the prevention of war.

Whereas the reform of human propensities or of the state is bound to be a long

drawn out affair, if it is at all possible relatively straightforward partial reforms of

the international system may produce significant restraints upon resorting to war,

and a thorough reform could make war impossible.

Some theorists , being more optimistic about the nature of states concentrate upon

the removal of the fear and suspicion of other states which is characteristic of the

present as well as of all historical political systems; others restraints upon the

behavior of states. The underlying reasoning of both parties is generally similar. If

individual states in competitive situation are governed by a short term conception

of their interests’ acute conflicts between them will occur and will show a strong

tendency to escalate. Thus one state erects a tariff barrier to protect its industry

against the competition of a trade partner, and the partner retaliates the retaliatory

interaction being repeated until the two countries find themselves in a trade war.

Armaments races show a similar tendency to escalate particularly so in an age of

rapid technological change. The economic and the scientific efforts necessary to

avoid falling behind rivals in the invention and development of rapidly improving

weapons of mass destruction have already reached unprecedented heights.

And yet neither trade wars nor arms races necessarily end in violent conflict there

seem to be operating some restraining and inhibiting factors that prevent an

automatic escalation. Much of the theory of war concerns itself with the

identification, improvement, and development of these restraining factors.

Diplomacy:

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The outcome of starkly competitive behavior leading to wars is clearly against the

interests of states and it is rational for them to seek more desirable outcomes. If

competitive behavior is dangerous theorists seek for alternative methods of

cooperative behavior that world not jeopardize the interests of the state through

exposing it to the possible less cooperative behavior of others. Some theorists

concentrate upon improving the rationality of the decision making of individual

states through a better understanding of the international environment though

eliminating misperception and irrational fears and through making clear the full

possible costs of engaging in war and the full destructiveness of an all out war,

possible in our age.

The relative paucity of wars and their limited nature throughout the century

following the Napoleonic wars (1815-1914) have stirred great theoretical interest

in the nature of the balance of power system of that period that is in the process

by which the power of competing groups of states tended toward a condition of

equilibrium. Contribution to the successful operation of the balance of power

system of 19th century were relatively slow technological change great

diversionary opportunities for industrial and colonial expansion and the

ideological and cultural homogeneity of Europe. Pursuit of a balance of power is a

wary of conducting foreign policy that is perhaps less prone to war than other

types of policy because, instead of indiscriminately increasing their power, states

increase it only moderately so as not to provoke others and instead of joining the

strongest they join the weaker side in order to ensure balance. States in a balance

of power system must however be ready to abide by constrainers upon their

behavior in order to ensure stability of the system.

The application to international relations of a branch of mathematics game theory

that analyzes the strategy of conflict situations has provided a new tool of

analysis. In state interaction as in any game situation one side’s strategy generally

depends upon that side’s expectations of the other side’s strategy. If all sides in a

game are to maximize their chances of a satisfactory outcome, it is necessary that

some rational rules of behavior be conceptualized and agreed upon and this idea

of a set of rational rules can be applied to cooperating states in the international

system. Game theorists distinguish antagonistic situation called zero sum games

in which one state’s gain can be only at the expense of another states because the

payoff is fixed. Even then a mutually acceptable distribution of gains can be

rationally reached on the basis of the minimax principle the party in a position of

advantage satisfies itself with the minimum acceptable gain because it realizes

that the other parties in a position of disadvantage wouold yield on the basis of its

distribution even more to its detriment. In other situations called non zero sum

games, the payoff is not constant but can be increased by a cooperative approach

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the gain of one participant is not at the cost of another. The contestants however

have to agree about the distribution of the gain which is the product of their

cooperation.

The theory of games is the foundation of theories of bargaining that analyze the

behavior of individual states in interaction. Diplomacy based upon such theories

is less likely to lead to war. Policymakers pursuing such strategies will conduct

conflicts of the zero sum type so that war is avoided. More than that with some

skill such situations introducing additional benefits accruing from cooperation in

other interactions and also more generally by eliminating the likelihood of war

and consequently by reducing the costs of preparing for one.

Regional integration:

Because wars within states have been eliminated through the establishment of

suitable political structures such as central governments that hold a monopoly of

coercive power many theories concentrate upon the establishment of parallel

structures with in the international context. Regional integration cooperation in

economic social and political affairs and for example with in the European

economic community did the establishment of security communities such as the

north Atlantic treaty organization have made much greater advances than attempts

at the reform of the entire global intentional system.

Because conflicts among neighbors tend to be frequent regional integration is an

important advance toward reducing the incidence of war. Even if it were to

become generally successful however regional integration would simply shift the

problem of war to a different level there would be fewer possibilities of war

because intraregional conflicts would be contained but interregional conflicts

could still give rise to wars of much greater scope and severity. The phenomenon

of war must therefore be analyzed at the universal level.

International law:

Some of the most influential thinking about war and the international system has

come from specialists in international law. All of them postulate that there exists

an international society of states that accepts the binding force of some norms of

international behavior. These norms are referred to as international law, although

they differ fundamentally from municipal law because no sovereign exists who

can enforce them. Most international lawyers realistically accept that international

law is consequently among rather than above stats. If is according to legal

doctrine binding on states but unenforceable.

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International law concerns itself largely with two aspects of war: its legality and

its regulation. For the regulation of warfare, see war law of. As far as the legality

of war is concerned, there has arisen in the 20th century a general consensus

among states, expressed in several international treaties, including the covenant of

the league of nations, the Kellogg-Briand pact of 1928 and the charter of the

united nations that resort to armed force, except in certain circumstances, such as

self defense is illegal. Such a legalistic approach to the prevention of war however

remains futile in the absence of a means of enforcement. The enforcement

provisions of the covenant of the League of Nations and those of the United

Nations charter which entail the application of military and economic sanctions

have never been applied successfully, owing to political disagreement among the

major powers. This underlines the fact that legal norms to be effective norms to

be effective must reflect an underlying political reality.

The United Nations:

The United Nations is charged with the maintenance of international peace and

security. The several approaches to peace outlined in its charter and developed in

its practice are based upon and clearly reflect the cumulative development of the

relevant theories of war.

Drawing heavily upon the experience of the league of nations, the charter

develops three interrelated approaches; first pacific settlement of disputes which

would leave nations with nothing to fight about; second collective security which

would confront aggressors with too much to fight against and third disarmament

which would deprive them of anything substantial with which to fight.

Pacific settlement of disputes:

Is based upon the assumption that war is primarily a technique for settling

purposes, such as allaying fears and seeking status. Further assumptions are that

war frequently comes about because of the unawareness of decision makers of the

possibility of settling disputes peacefully to the mutual advantages of both sides

unawareness due to mere ignorance, pride, lack of imagination or selfish and

cynical leadership. It is thus the prevention of wars by devising and

institutionalizing alternative, peaceful techniques for the settlement of disputes

and by persuading the states to use them.

The scope of this approach is limited for states are notoriously reluctant to abide

by impartial findings on matters they regard as being of vital importance. Hence

what the procedures really offer is a means of slowing down the progression of a

dispute toward war, giving reason a chance to prevail.

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Collective security:

Is an approach to peace involving an agreement by which states agree to take

collective action against any state defined as an aggressor. Leaving aside the

problems of settling disputes or enforcing law or satisfying justice, it concentrates

upon forestalling violence by bringing to bear an overwhelmingly superior

international force against any aggressor. Although collective security in some

what different forms played a prominent part in the League of Nations covenant

and is embodied in the United Nations charter it has completely failed in both

cases. Failing an international government capable of ultimately determining the

issues nations have not managed to agree on an unequivocal definition of

aggression have not in practice accepted the principle that aggression must be

acted against independently of the identity of the perpetrator, and therefore have

not established the international collective security force envisaged in the charter.

Disarmament:

Disarmament and limitation of armaments are based upon the theory that states

are inclined to strive for dominance in arms over any potential rivals and that this

leads to arms races that tend to end in war. The major besetting sin of this theory

is that it often tends to confuse cause with effect. Although arms races develop

momentum of their own they are themselves the result of political tensions

leading to war. In short it is the tension that causes war, not the arms races. To

hold otherwise is to mistake a symptom for a cause. Hence, reducing the levels of

armaments does not necessarily reduce these tensions furthermore it is the

instability of strategic balances rather than their level that leads to war;

agreements about disarmament of limitation of armaments may easily disturb the

existing precarious balance and therefore be actually conducive to war.

As these major approaches to peace envisaged in its charter have not proved very

fruitful the United Nations has developed two new procedures aiming at the

limitation of wars. First preventive diplomacy largely comprising the diplomatic

initiatives of the secretary general and the stationing of peacekeeping forces has

served to contain local conflicts and to prevent escalation especially the

involvement of the super powers. Second although the general assembly’s

recommendations have no legal binding force, they have become increasingly

influential, for by the mid 1970’s the assembly was becoming an important

agency for what has been called the collective legitimization of state policies.

Resort to war becomes more costly when a state is faced with the prospects of a

collective condemnation. This new restraint upon war does not however act upon

conflicts that the assembly may favorably regard as wars of colonial liberation.

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Nor could the assembly’s disapproval be relied upon to deter states from waging

ear in pursuit o fan interest they deemed to be truly vital.

World government:

Both the shortcomings and the limited practicability of all the approaches to the

elimination of war through the reform of the international system have driven

many thinkers to accept the idea that war can only be abolished by a full scale

world government. No midway solution between the relative anarchy of

independent individual states and a world government with the full paraphernalia

of legislative powers and of an overwhelming military force would provide a

sufficiently stable international framework for the nations to feel that wars would

not break out and thus stop them from behavior that is often conducive to wars. In

an age faced with the danger of a war escalating into a general extermination of

mankind, the central importance of preserving peace is obvious and is generally

accepted. But here the thinkers divide. Some press on from this analysis to the

logical conclusion that mankind must and therefore will establish a world

government and they advance ideas how best to proceed in this direction. Others

regard the world government as completely utopian, no matter how logical and

desirable it may be. Yet in terms of actual policies the adherents of the two

schools do not agree that the complex phenomenon of war represents a potential

calamity of such a magnitude that all theorists must endeavor to understand it and

to apply their understanding to prevention and mitigation of war with all the

means at their disposal.

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Chapter: 12

New phenomenon and concepts in international relations

General assembly:

The only body in which all UN members are represented the general assembly

exercises deliberative supervisory financial and elective functions relating to any

matter within the scope of the UN charter. Its primary role however, is to discuss

issues and make recommendations, though it has no power to enforce its

resolutions or to compel state action. Other functions include admitting new

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members; selecting members of the economic and social council the non

permanent members of the Security Council and the trusteeship council;

supervising the activities of the other UN organs from which the assembly

receives repots; and participating in the election of judges to the international

court of justice and the selection of the secretary general. Decisions usually are

reached by a simple majority vote. On important questions however such as the

admission of new members’ budgetary matters, and peace and security issues a

two thirds majority is required.

The assembly convenes annually and in special sessions electing a new president

each year from among five regional groups of states. At the beginning of each

regular session the assembly also holds a general debate in which all members

may participate and raise any issue of international concern. Most work however

is delegated to six main committees:

1. Disarmament and international security.

2. Economic and financial.

3. Social, humanitarian and cultural.

4. Special political and decolonization.

5. Administrative and budgetary.

6. Legal.

The general assembly has debated issues that other organs of the UN have either

overlooked or avoided including decolonization the independence of Namibia,

apartheid in South Africa, terrorism and the aids epidemic. The number of

resolutions passed by the assembly each year has climbed to more than 350 and

many resolutions are adopted without opposition. Nevertheless there have been

sharp disagreements among members on several issues such as those relating to

the cold war, the Arab Israeli drawn public attention to major issues, thereby

forcing member governments to develop positions on them and it deal with

important global problems.

The large size of the assembly and the diversity of the issues it discusses

contributed to the emergence of regionally based voting blocs in the 1960’s.

During the cold war the Soviet Union and the countries of Eastern Europe formed

on e of the most cohesive blocs and another bloc comprised the United States and

its western allies. The admission of new countries of the southern hemisphere in

the 1960’s and 70’s and the dissipation of cold war tensions after 1989

contributed to formation of blocs based on north south economic issues i.e. issues

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of disagreement between the more prosperous industrialized countries of the

northern hemispheres and the poorer less industrialized developing countries of

the southern hemisphere. Other issues have been incorporated into the north south

divide including northern economic and political domination economic

development the proliferation of nuclear weapons and support for Israel.

Security Council:

The un charter assigns to the security council primary responsibility for the

maintenance of international peace and security. The Security Council originally

consisted of 11 members five permanent and six non permanent elected by the

general assembly for two year terms. From the beginning, non permanent

members of the Security Council were elected to give representation to certain

regions or groups of states. As membership increased however this practice ran

into difficulty. An amendment to the un charter in 1965 increased the council’s

membership to 15 including the original five permanent members plus 10

nonpermanent members. Among the permanent members the people’s republic of

china replaced the republic of china (Taiwan) in 1971, and the Russian federation

succeeded the Soviet Union in 1991. After the unification of Germany debate

over the council’s composition again arose and Germany, India and Japan each

applied for permanent council seats.

The non permanent members are chosen to achieve equitable regional

representation five members coming from Africa or Asia one from Eastern

Europe two from Latin America and two from Western Europe or other areas.

Five of the 10 permanent members are elected each year by the general assembly

for two year terms and five retire each year. The presidency is held by each

member in rotation for a period of one month.

Each Security Council member is entitles to one vote. On all procedural matters

the definition of which is sometimes in dispute decision by the council are made

by an affirmative vote of any nine of its members. Substantive matters such as the

investigation of a dispute or the application of sanctions also require nine

affirmative votes, including those of the five permanent members holding veto

power. In practice however a permanent member may abstain without impairing

the validity of the decision. A vote on whether a matter is procedural or

substantive is itself a substantive question. Because the Security Council is

required to function continuously each member is represented at all times at the

UN’S headquarters in New York City.

Any countries even if it is not a member of the UN ay bring a dispute to which It

is a party to the attention of the security council. When there is a complaint the

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council first explores the possibility of a peaceful resolution. International

peacekeeping forces may be authorized to keep warring parties apart pending

further negotiations. If the council finds that there is a real threat to the peace a

breach of the peace or an act of aggression as defined by article 39 of the un

charter it may call upon un members to apply diplomatic or economic sanctions.

If these methods prove inadequate the UN charter allows the Security Council to

take military action against the offending country.

During the cold war continual disagreement agreement between the united states

and the soviet union coupled with the veto power of the security council’s

permanent members made the security council an ineffective institution. Since the

late 1980’s however the council’s power the prestige have grown. Between 1987

and 2000 it authorized more peacekeeping operations than at any previous time.

The use of the veto has declined dramatically though disagreements among

permanent members of the Security Council most notable in 2003 over the use of

military force against Iraq have occasionally undermined the council’s

effectiveness. To achieve consensus comparatively informal meetings are held in

private among the council’s permanent members a practice that has been

criticized by nonpermanent members of the Security Council.

In addition to several standing and ad hoc committees the work of the council is

facilitated by the military staff, committee, sanctions committees for each of the

countries under sanctions, peacekeeping forces committees and an international

tribunals committee.

Secretariat:

The secretary general the principal administrative officer of the united nation is

elected for a five year renewable term by a two thirds vote of the general

assembly and by the recommendation of the Security Council and the approval of

its permanent members. Secretaries general usually have come from small neutral

countries. The organs entrust to the secretariat he also oversees the preparation of

the UN’S budget. The secretary general has important political functions, being

charged wit h bringing before the organization any matter that threatens

intentional peace and security. Both the chief spokesperson for the UN and the

UN’S most visible and authoritative figure in world affairs the secretary general

often serves as a high level negotiator. Attesting to the importance of the post two

secretaries general has been awarded the noble prize of peace: dag hmmarskjold

in 1961 and Kofi Annan, co recipient with the un in 2001.

The secretariat influences the work of the united nations to a much greater degree

than indicated in the un charter. It is responsible for preparing numerous reports,

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studies and investigations in addition to the major tasks of translating,

interpreting, providing services for large numbers of meetings and other work.

Under the charter the staff is to be recruited mainly on the basis of merit through

there has been a conscious effort to recruit individuals from different geographic

regions. Some members of the secretariat are engaged on permanent contracts but

others serve on temporary assignment from their national governments. In both

cases they must take an oath of loyalty to the United Nations and are not

permitted to receive instructions from member government. The influence of the

secretariat can be attributed to the fact that the some 9000 people on its staff are

permanent experts and international civil servants rather than political appointees

of member states.

The secretariat is based in New York, Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi Kenya and other

locals. It has been criticized frequently for poor administrative practices though it

has made persistent efforts to increase the efficiency of its organization and

administration>> subsidiary organs.

The United Nations network also includes subsidiary organs created by the

general assembly and autonomous specialized agencies. The subsidiary organs

report to the general assembly or ECOSOC or both. Some of these organs are

funded directly by the UN others are financed by the voluntary contributions of

governments or private citizens. In addition ECOSOC has consultative

relationships with NGO’S operating in economic, social, cultural, educational,

health, and related fields. Ngo’s have played an increasingly important role in the

work of the peacekeeping refugee issues and human rights.

Organization and administration>> specialized agencies

The specialized agencies report annually to ECOSOC and often cooperate with

echo the rand with various UN organs. However they also have their own

principles, goals and rules which at times may conflict with those of other UN

organs and agencies. The specialized agencies are autonomous insofar as they

control their own budgets and have their own boards of directors who appoint

agency heads independently of the general assembly or secretary general. Major

specialized agencies and related organs of the UN include the international labor

organization.

ILO, the food and agriculture organization of the United Nations FAO the United

Nations educational, scientific and cultural organization UNESCO and the world

health organization WHO. Two of the most powerful specialized agencies, which

also are the most independent with respect UN decision making are the world’s

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bank and the intentional monetary fund IMF. The United Nations along with its

specialized agencies is often referred to collectively as the United Nations system.

Economic and social council:

Economic and social council ECOSOC one of the six principal organs of the

United Nations composed of representatives of 54 countries. Each year 18

members are elected by the un general assembly for 3 years terms. ECOSOC’S

early activities were directed toward providing aid to war ravaged countries of

Europe and Asia. Today the problems of developing nations are its major concern.

The council carries out studies on international economic, social, humanitarian,

cultural, educational and related matters an d coordinates the activities of the

UN’S specialized agencies in these areas. ECOSOC operates mainly through its

various standing committee’s functional commissions and regional commissions.

The decisions reached at council meetings, where each member has one vote and

a simple majority rules are sent as recommendations to the general assembly.

Designed to be the UN’S main venue for the discussion of international

economic and social issues the economic and social council ECOSOC directs

and coordinates the economic social humanitarian and cultural activities of the

UN and its specialized agencies. Established by the UN charter EOSOC is

empowered to recommend international action on economic and social issues

promote universal respect for human rights and work for global cooperation

on health, education and cultural and related areas. ECOSOC conducts

studies; formulates resolutions, recommendations and conventions for

consideration by the general assembly and coordinates the activities of various

un programs and specialized agencies. Most of ECOSOC’S work is performed

in functional commissions on topics such as human rights, narcotics,

population, social development, statistics, the status of women and science

and technology the council also oversee regional commission for Europe Asia

and the pacific western Asia Latin America and Africa.

The six functional commissions deal with problems relating to social

development, human rights the status of women narcotic drugs population d

national and international statistics. There are also five standing committees

and assorted expert bodies that deal with such matters as natural resources

development of science and technology and crime prevention.

Five regional commissions are currently in operation within the council. They

are modeled after the parent body and reflect the geographic diversity of

resources and needs. Each one is headed by an executive secretary. The

economic commission for Europe headquartered in Geneva has 42 members

and the economic and social commission for Asia and the pacific

headquartered in Bangkok has 45 full members and 8 associate members; both

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were established 1947. The economic commission for Latin America and the

Caribbean with 41 full members and 6 associate members was set up in 1948

in Santiago, Chile. In 1958 the economic commission for Africa was

established at Addis Ababa Ethiopia it has 52 participating member nations

and 2 associate members. The economic commission for western Asia with 13

members was organized in 1973 in Beirut Lebanon its headquarters was

subsequently moved to Baghdad Iraq, because of the war in Lebanon.

A regional commission may make recommendations to any member

government but can act only with the consent of that government. Regional

cooperation has stimulated progress in agriculture, industry, education,

housing, electric power, trade, transportation and environmental protection

issues.

Trusteeship council:

The trusteeship council was designed to supervise the government of trust

territories and to lead them to self government or independence. The

trusteeship system like the mandate system under the leaguer of nations, was

established on the premise that colonial territories taken from countries

defeated in war should not be annexed by the victorious powers bur should be

administered by a trust country under international supervision until their

future status was determined. Unlike the mandate system the trusteeship

system invited petitions from trust territories on their independence and

required periodic international missions to the territories. 1945 only 12 league

of nations mandates remained: Nauru, New Guinea, Ruanda Urundi, Togo

land and Cameroon (French administered) Togo land and Cameroon (British

administrated) the pacific islands (Caroline, Marshall and Marianas) Western

Samoa, south West Africa, Tanganyika and Palestine. All these mandates

became trust territories except south West Africa now Namibia, which South

Africa refused to enter into the trusteeship system. The trusteeship council

which met once each year consisted of states administering trust territories,

permanent member s of the security council that did not administer trust

territories and other un member selected by the general assembly. Each

member had one voter and decisions were taken by a simple majority of those

present. With the independence of Palau the last remaining trust territory in

1994 the council terminated its operations. No longer required to meet

annually the council may meet on the decision of its president or on a request

by a majority o fits members, by the general assembly or by the Security

Council. Since 1994 new role for the council have been proposed including

administering the global commons (e.g. the seabed and outer space) and

serving as a forum for minority and indigenous peoples.

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International court of justice:

International court of justice also known as world court principal judicial

organ of the United Nations UN. It was created in 1945 under the un charter

as the successor to the permanent court of international justice under the

league of nations. The court functions in accordance with its won statute,

which forms an integral part of the un charter. The tasks of the court are to

decide legal cases between nations and to provide advisory opinions to the UN

and its agencies on questions of international law. Neither private individuals

nor international organizations may bring cases before the court. The curt has

its headquarters in The Hague, the Netherlands.

All members of the UN are automatically parties to the court’s statute. A

nation that is not a un member may become a party to the stature or use the

court if it accepts conditions set by the un and agrees to contribute the

expenses of the court.

Activities:

Disputes may be brought before the court in two ways. The first is by a special

agreement between the parties in which they consent to submit the matter to

the court. The second is by a unilateral application by one party in the dispute;

this can occur for example if the applicant believes that its adversary is

obliged by the terms of a particular treaty to accept the jurisdiction of the

court in case of a dispute.

Alternatively, nations that parties to the statute may declare in a chance their

automatic acceptance of the courts jurisdiction for certain or all types of legal

disputes. This declaration is known as accepting compulsory jurisdiction. If

the parties to a dispute have filed such declarations and if the dispute between

them falls with in the bounds of the declaration then either party may bring the

case before the court. In 1985 United States President Ronald Reagan

formally with drew the long standing un declaration accepting the compulsory

jurisdiction of the court. The United States remains a party to the statute

however and continues to participate in cases submitted by special agreement

or brought pursuant to a treaty to which it is a party.

The court renders judgments by applying international law as derived from

treaties, wide spread practices accepted as law customs and the general

principle is of law found in the major legal systems of the world. The court

may also refer to past judicial decisions and the writings of experts in

international law. The judgment of the court which must contain the reasons

for the decision is final and binding and no appeal may be made. The UN

Security Council is empowered to take measurers to enforce the decisions of

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the escort if the parties to the dispute fail to enforce it themselves. The

Security Council has never been asked to enforce a judgment however

because states generally comply either judgments although not always quickly

or wholeheartedly.

The court gives advisory opinions on legal questions to the un general

assembly the security council and other un organs and specialized agencies

that have been authorized by the general assembly to ask for such opinions or

whose constitutions so permit. An example is the judgment of the court in

1962 that peacekeeping expenses in the republic of the Congo now the

Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Middle East constitutes expenses

of the organization to be paid by member states as apportioned by the general

assembly.

The judges:

The court has 15 judges each elected by an absolute majority of the security

council and the general assembly voting independently of each other .the

judges are elected for nine years and may be reelected no two may be

nationals of the same country. A judge may be removed from the court only

by unanimous vote of the other judges. They do not represent their countries

but are elected on the basis of their knowledge of international law. The

composition of the court is supposed at all times to reflect the main forms of

civilization and the principal legal systems of the world. In any dispute if no

judge is of the nationality of a party the case, that counts may choose a judge

to sit on the case. Nine judges constitute a quorum the minimum number

necessary to decide a case and question before the court are decided by a

majority of judges present. The court elects its own officers and appoints it

registrar and other officials.

Specialized agencies:

The specialized agencies report annually to ECOSOC and often cooperate

with each other and with various UN organs. However they also have their

own principles goals and rules which at times may conflict with those of other

un organs and agencies. The specialized agencies are autonomous insofar as

they control their own budgets and have their own board of directors who

appoint agency heads independently of the general assembly or secretary

general. Major specialized agencies are related organs of the UN include the

intentional labor organization ILO. The food and agriculture organization of

the United Nations FAO the United Nations educational scientific and cultural

organization and the world health organization UNESCO. Two of the most

powerful specialized agencies which also are the most independent with

respect to un decision making are world bank and the international monetary

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fund. The United Nations along either its specialized agencies ifs often

referred to collectively as the United Nations system.

United nation as a peace maker organization:

United nation is an international organization established on October 24,

1945. The United Nations was the second multipurpose international

organization established in the 20th century that was worldwide in scope and

membership. Its processor the League of Nations was created by the treaty of

Versailles in 1919 and disbanded in 1946. Headquartered in New York City,

the UN also language are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and

Spanish.

According to its charter the un aims:

To save succeeding generation from the scourge of war the reaffirm faith in

fundamental human rights to establish conditions under which justice and

respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of

international law can be maintain and to promote social progress and better

standards of life in larger freedom.

However the main function of the united nation is to preserve international

peace and security. Chapter 6 of the charter provides for the pacific settlement

of disputes, through the intervention of the Security Council by means such as

negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and judicial decisions. The Security

Council may investigate any dispute or situation to determine whether it is

likely to endanger international peace and security. At any stage of the

disputer the council may recommend appropriate procedures or methods of

adjustment and if the parties fail to settle the dispute by peaceful means the

council may recommend terms of settlement.

The goal of collective security whereby aggression against one member is met

with resistance by all underlies chapter 7 of the charter, which grants the

security council the power to order coercive measures ranging from

diplomatic, economic, and military sanctions to the use of armed force in

cases where attempts at a peaceful settlement have failed. Such measures were

seldom applied during the cold war, however because tension between the

United States and the Soviet Union prevented the Security Council from

agreeing on the instigators of aggression. Instead actions to maintain peace

and security often took the form of preventive diplomacy and often took the

form of preventive diplomacy and peacekeeping. In the post cold war period

appeals to the UN for peacekeeping and related activities increased

dramatically and new threats to international peace and security were

confronted, including aids and international terrorism.

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Notwithstanding the primary role of the Security Council, the UN charter

provides for the participation of the general assemble and non member states

in security issues. Any state whether it is a member of the UN or or not may

bring any dispute or situation that endangers international peace and security

to the attention of the Security Council or the general assembly. The charter

authorized the general assembly to discuss any questions relating to the

maintenance of intentional peace and security and to make recommendation

with regard to any such questions to the state or states concerned or to the

Security Council or to both. This authorization is restricted by the provision

that while the security council is exercising in respect of any in respect of any

dispute or situation the functions assigned to it in the present charter the

general assembly shall not make any recommendation with regard to that

dispute or situation unless the security council so requests. By the uniting for

peace resolution of November 1950, however the general assembly granted to

itself the power to deal with threats to the peace if the Security Council fails to

act after a veto by a permanent member. Although these provisions grant the

general assembly a broad secondary role the Security Council ca n make

decisions that bind all members, whereas the general assembly can make only

recommendations.

Peacekeeping, peacemaking and peace building:

International armed forces were first used in 1948 to observe cease fires in

Kashmir and Palestine. Although not specifically mentioned in the un charter,

the use of such forces as a buffer between warring parties pending troop

withdrawals and negotiations a practice known as peacekeeping missions have

taken many forms, though they have in common the fact that they are

designed to be peaceful, that they involve military troops from several

countries and that the troops serve under the authority of the un security

council. In 1988 the un peacekeeping forces were awarded the Nobel prize for

peace.

During the cold war, so-called first generation or classic peacekeeping was

used in conflicts in the Middle East and Africa and in conflicts stemming from

decolonization in Asia. Between in 1948 and 1988 the UN undertook 13

peacekeeping missions involving generally lightly armed troops from neutral

countries other than the permanent members of the Security Council most

often Canada, Sweden, Norway, Finland, India, Ireland, and Italy. Troops in

these missions the so called value helmets were allowed to use force only in

self defense. The missions were given and enjoyed the consent of the parties

to the conflict and the support of the Security Council and the troop

contributing countries.

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With the end ot the cold war the challenges of peacekeeping became more

complex. In order to respond to situations in which internal order had broken

down and the civilian population was suffering, second generation

peacekeeping was developed to achieve multiple political and social

objectives. Unlike first generation peacekeeping, second generation

peacekeeping often involves civilian’s experts and relief specialists as well as

soldiers. Another difference between second generation and first generation

peacekeeping is that soldiers in some second generation missions are

authorized to employ force for reasons other than self defense. Because the

goals of second generation peacekeeping can be variable and difficult to

define however much controversy has accompanied the use of troops in such

missions.

In the 1990’s second generation peacekeeping missions were undertaken in

Cambodia (1992-93), the former Yugoslavia (1992-95), Somalia (1992-95)

and elsewhere and included troops from the permanent members of the

security council as well as form the developed and developing world (e.g.

Australia, Pakistan, Ghana, Nigeria, Fiji, India). In the former Yugoslav

province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the security council created safe areas to

protect the predominantly bosniac (Bosnian Muslim) population from Serbian

attacks and un troops were authorized defend the areas with force. In each of

these cades the un reacted to threats to peace and security with in states

sometimes taking sides in domestic disputes and thus jeopardizing its own

neutrality. Between 1988 and 2000 more than 30 peacekeeping efforts were

authorized, troops representing 77 countries were deployed on missions

throughout the world. In the first years of the 21st century annual un

expenditures on peacekeeping operations exceeded $2 billion.

In the addition to traditional peacekeeping and preventive diplomacy in the

post cold war ere the functions of the un forces were expanded considerably to

include peacemaking and peace building. For example since 1990 UN forces

have supervised elections in many parts of the world, including Nicaragua,

Eritrean and Cambodia: encouraged peace negotiations in EI Salvador,

Angola and western shares; and distributed food in Somalia. The presence of

un troops in Yugoslavia during the violent and protracted disintegration of

that country renewed discussion about the role of un troops in refugee

resettlement. In 1992 the un created the department of peacekeeping

operations DPKO which provides administered and technical support for

political and humanitarian missions and coordinates all mine clearing

activities conducted under un auspices.

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The UN’S peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peace building activities have

suffered from serious logistical and financial difficulties. As more missions

are undertaken the costs and controversies associated with reimburses

countries for the use of equipment these payments have been limited because

of the failure of many member states to pay their un dues.

Sanctions and military action:

By subscribing to the charter all members undertake to place at the disposal of

the Security Council armed forces and facilities for military sanctions against

aggressors or disturbers of the peace. During the cold war, however no

agreements to give this measure effect were concluded. Following the end of

the cold war the possibility of creating permanent un forces was revived.

During the cold war the provisions of chapter 7 of the un charter were invoked

only twice with the support of all for permanent security. Council members

against southern Rhodesia in 1966 and against south Africa in 1977. after

fighting broke out between north and south Korea in June 1950, the united

states obtained a security council resolution authorizing the use of force to

support its ally, south Korea and turn back north Korean forces. Because the

soviet union was at the time boycotting the security council over its refusal to

seat the people’s republic of china, there was no veto of the US measure. As a

result a us led multinational fore fought under the un banner until a cease fire

was reached on July 27, 1953.

The security council again voted to use un armed forces to repel an aggressor

following the august 1990 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. After condemning the

aggression and imposing economic sanctions on Iraq, the council authorized

member states to use all necessary means to restore peace and security to

Kuwait. The resulting Persian gulf war lasted six weeks, until Iraq agreed to

comply with un resolutions and withdraw from Kuwait. The un continued to

monitor Iraq’s compliance with its resolutions, which included the demand

that Iraq eliminated its weapons of mass destruction. In accordance with this

resolution the Security Council established a UN special mission UNSCOM to

inspect and verify Iraq’s implementation of cease fire terms. The United

States however continued to bomb Iraqi weapons installation from time to

time citing Iraqi violations of no fly zones in the northern and southern

regions of the country the targeting of us military aircraft by aircraft by Iraqi

radar and the obstruction of inspection efforts undertaken by UNSCOM.

The preponderant role of the united states in initiating and commanding un

actions in Korea in 1950 and the Persian gulf in 1990-91 prompted debate

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over whether the requirements and spirit of collective security could ever be

achieved apart form the interests of the most powerful countries and without

us control. The continued US bombing of Iraq subsequent to the gulf war

created further controversy about whether the raids were justified under

withdraw her tribesmen. But Pakistan held that the accession of Kashmir had

been brought about by force. The government requested the security council

to arrange a ceasefire and asked both the tribesmen and the Indian troops to

withdraw so that a free and impartial plebiscite could be held to ascertain the

wishes of the people of Kashmir.

Indo-Pakistan war 1948 and United Nations involvement:

While the Kashmir issue was still on the table the Indian troops launched a

full scale attack and drove the tribesmen right back to the Pakistani border.

Pakistan rushed her regular troops into Kashmir and a full scale war with

India ensued. She took control of the Azad Kashmir army but the security

council on august 13, 1948, called for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal

of all Pakistani and Indian troops and holding of plebiscite under united

nations supervisions. Both the Indian and Pakistani governments accepted the

resolution.

In January 1949, the resolution began to be implemented. In July 1949 the

ceasefire line was demarcated. Pakistan’s side of Kashmir consisted of some

parts of Jammu, Poonch, some areas of western Kashmir, Gilgit and a great

chunk of Ladakh territory near the Chinese border in the north India kept the

valley of Kashmir, Jammu and the remainder of Ladakh territory near the

Tibet border. The cease fire has remained in existence since 1949. no

plebiscite has been held and thus the Kashmir issue still remains disputed

unresolved.

The 1965 war:

In April 1965, a lash between border patrols erupted into fighting in the Rann

of Kutch, a sparsely inhabited region along the south western indo Pakistani

border. When the Indians withdrew, Pakistan claimed victory. Later full scale

hostilities erupted in September 1965, when India alleged that insurgents

trained and supplied by Pakistan were operating in India controlled Kashmir.

Hostilities ceased three weeks later, following mediation efforts by the un and

interested countries. In January 1966, Indian and Pakistani representatives met

in Tashkent, USSR and agreed to attempt a peaceful settlement of Kashmir

and their other differences.

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The 1971 war:

Indo Pakistani relations deteriorated again when civil war erupted in Pakistan

army against east Pakistanis demanding autonomy and independence. In

December India invaded East Pakistan in support of the east Pakistani people.

The Pakistani army surrendered at Dhaka and its army of more than 90,000

became Indian prisoners of war. East Pakistan became the independent

country of Bangladesh on 6th December 1971 indo Pakistan conflict, president

zulfiqar ali Bhutto and Indian prime minister indira Gandhi met in the

mountain town of shimla, India, in July 1972. They agreed to aline of control

in Kashmir resulting from the December 17, 1971 ceasefire and endorsed the

principle of settlement of bilateral disputes through peaceful means.

Indian troops and siachen glacier 1984:

India’s nuclear test in 1974 generated great uncertainty in Pakistan and is

generally acknowledged to have been the impetus for Pakistan’s nuclear weapons

development program. In 1983 the Pakistani and Indian governments accused

each other of aiding separatists in their respective countries, i.e. shikhs in India’s

Punjab state and sidhis in Pakistan’s sindh province. In April 1984 tensions

erupted after troops were deployed to the siachen glacier, a high altitude desolate

ceasefire agreement (Karachi agreement) signed by Pakistan and India in 1949.

Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became prime ministering November

1984 and after a group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial by Pakistan in March

1985. In December 1985, president zia and Prime Minister Gandhi pledged not to

attack each other’s nuclear facilities. In early 1986 the Indian and Pakistani

governments began high level talks to resolve the siachen glacier border dispute

and to improve trade.

Kashmir insurgency 1990:

Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri militants began a

campaign of violence against Indian government authority in Jammu and

Kashmir. Subsequent high level bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between

India and Pakistan, but relations worsened again after the destruction of the

ayodhya mosque by Hindu extremists in December 1992 and terrorist bombings

in Bombay in March 1993. Talks and terrorist between the foreign secretaries of

both countries in January 1994 resulted in deadlock.

Diplomatic push 1996-97:

In the last several years the indo Pakistani relationship has veered sharply

between rapprochement and conflict. After taking office in February 1997, Prime

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Minister Nawaz sharif moved to resume official dialog with India. A number of

meetings at the foreign secretary and prime ministerial level took place with

positive atmospherics but little concrete progress. In a speech at the UN the

Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz sharif offered to open talks on a non aggression

pact with India proposing that both nations strike a deal to restrain their nuclear

and missile capabilities.

Effects on 9/11 on Kashmir:

If the world and the United States changed after September 11 the center of that

change is the region where Pakistan is located. When it came to begin the war

against terrorism Pakistan did not hesitate to do whatever it takes to fight against

terrorism. United States of America appreciated the efforts of Pakistan which did

not please India. So India blamed Pakistan based groups for the December 13,

2001 attack on the Indian parliament. In reply general pervez mushrraf’ s speech

of January 12, 2002 which even India’s hawkish home minister lal Krishna advani

termed four days later as path breaking India was caught on the back foot.

National Kashmir committee:

It is in this context that Pakistan launched a new political initiative on Kashmir to

reaffirm its ling standing policy of supporting the right of self determination for

the people of Kashmir that is enshrined in India. Musharraf announce the

formation of a national Kashmir committee headed by a veteran Kashmiri

politician and its charter made clear the purposes behind the initiative. The

challenge before the government is to promote confidence among the people in

Pakistan and Kashmir regarding Pakistan’s efforts to project the Kashmir cause as

a popular and indigenous struggle internationally.

Having addressed international concerns regarding terrorism and extremism in

mushrraf’s January 12 speech the united states in now more receptive to

Pakistan’s plea and ins anxious to see a dialogue on al the issues of Kashmir.

Peace in south Asia and the Kashmir dispute:

Pakistan believes that the establishment of durable peace in south Asia hinges on

the resolution of the Kashmir dispute in light of the Security Council resolutions

and the wishes of Kashmiri people. On March 17, 2004 Prime Minister Mir

zafarullah khan jamali said the Kashmir dispute remains the core issue between

India and Pakistan. The two south Asian nations have fought three wars, two of

which were over the disputed Kashmir region. In January this year the two

leaderships made a decision to open the dialogue process in a bid to resolve all

disputes between the two sides.

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The dialogue process:

Pakistan always showed seriousness and sincerity towards resolution of the core

issue of Kashmir by adopting several confidence building measures CBMs. World

community time and again has advised India to decrease the number of its forces

in occupied Kashmir and release illegally detained Kashmiri leadership. India

never hesitated from leveling baseless allegation against Pakistan of infiltration

and also did not stop massive human rights violation in Kashmir. The need is to

initiate vigorous efforts from both sides in resolving the Kashmir issue. The basic

important dispute between the two countries is Kashmir issue and with its

resolution all the other outstanding issues would be settled very easily. Prime

Minister Mir zafarullah khan jamali said the Kashmir dispute should be resolved

according to the united nation s resolutions and with active participation of the

Kashmiris.

Year 2005 toad to peace:

The prime minister said that there were many difficulties on the road to peace but

emphasized the need to take measures to promote mutual trust and fund new

avenues for a peaceful resolution of the lingering Kashmir dispute. The first

formal visit of a faction of the separatist all parties hurriayat conference APHC

and the jammu and Kashmir liberation front JKLF to Pakistan occupied Kashmir

PoK and subsequently though unsanctioned by Indian authorities to Pakistan

between June 2-16, 2005 was thus projected as a major event and development on

the process of solving the Kashmir issue. Indeed the visit strongly reiterated the

fact that the APHC contends to be a faithful Pakistani proxy. After his meeting

with the president musharaf, mirqaiz umar farooq declared that, “we want

Kashmir to be divided on geographical grounds we don’t want Kashmir to lose its

identity we support his president musharraf approach.” During their meeting with

president musharraf the APHC leaders once again were assured full political

diplomatic and moral support.

This tour has been helpful in understanding the viewpoint of Kashmiri leaders.

Their quest for a free hand to decide their future is valid. They have been living

under brutal Indian occupation since 1948. Despite promised justice by the UN 57

years ago, they have been denied their right of self determination. It was in fact

the denial of justice and unabated Indian state terrorism perpetrated against

Kashmir.

The recent visit of the APHC leader s was a significant development which can be

termed as a milestone in the process of resolving the core disputer of Kashmir

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between Pakistan and India peacefully. We wish both the governments to show

courage boldness and flexibility in settling the issue.

Multinational cooperation:

Multinational cooperation is any corporation that is registered and operated in

more than one country at a time. Generally the corporation has its headquarters in

one country and operates wholly or partially owned subsidiaries in other

countries. Its subsidiaries report to the corporation’s central headquarters.

Multinational Corporation MNCs sometimes called transnational corporation or

International Corporation, business that produces or distributes products or

services in one or more foreign countries by establishing a branch or affiliate

there. A branch is a part of a company that is located in another country. An

affiliate is a company partially or entirely owned by another company. MNCs

engage in foreign direct investment FDI that is investment in one country by

citizens of another. Sometimes such investment involves acquiring an existing

company. In other cases MNCs undertake what is known as green field

investment by creating new facilities or activities.

In economic terms a firm advantages in establishing a multinational corporation

include both vertical and horizontal economies of scale (i.e. reduction in cost that

result from and expanded level of output and a consolidation of management) and

increased market share. Although cultural barriers can create unpredictable

obstacles as companies establish offices and production plants around the world a

form’s technical expertise, experiences personnel and proven strategies usually

can be transferred form country to country. Critics of the multinational

corporation usually view it as an economic and often political means of foreign

domination. Developing countries with a narrow range of exports (often of

primary goods) as their economic base are particularly vulnerable to economic

exploitation. Monopolistic practices, human right abuses, and disruption of more

traditional means of economic growth are among the risks that face host

countries.

Before world war II (1939-1945), most MNCs established foreign operations to

secure sources of raw materials and developing countries were the largest recants

of world wide FDI. After World War II the foreign activities of large corporations

increased significantly. In the 1950s and 1960s large numbers of United States

corporations began investing in Europe mainly in manufacturing. Investment in

other nations by European and Japanese businesses soon followed. During the

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1980s and 1990s investment in the service sector by MNCs rose considerably.

These postwar changes in the nature of MNCs investment have changed where

MNCs operate. Before World War II the share of FDI going into developing

countries was around 60 percent. In the 1970s and 1980s it dropped to around 25

percent. By the mod 1990s it had risen to about 40 percent due to improving

economic conditions in some developing countries.

Most MNCs are very large corporations based in developed countries. About half

of the 600 largest MNCs have headquarters in the United States; about a sixth is

based in Japan and about a tenth is in the United Kingdom. In the 1980s and

1990s a decreasing number of smaller corporations expanded their production

activities abroad. Similarly and increasing number of MNCs now originate form

the newly industrialized developing areas, including Hong Kong and South

Korea. These developments have been aided by technological improvements in

transportation, communications and production processes.

The tremendous growth and spread of MNCs has sparked controversy. Some

people believe that MNCs contribute to unemployment in the country where they

are based by hiring foreign workers for overseas branches or affiliate. Some

people also believe MNCs exploit the people and resources of other countries.

However others argue that MNCs create more jobs than they eliminate and what

MNCs bring capital and technology to areas that need it.

Pollution:

Pollution is contamination of earth’s environment with materials that interfere

with human health, the quality of life or the natural functioning of ecosystems

(living organisms and their physical surroundings). Although some environmental

pollution is a result of natural causes such as volcanic eruptions most is caused by

human activities.

There are two main categories of polluting materials, or pollutants. Biodegradable

pollutants are materials such as sewage that rapidly decompose by natural

processes. These pollutants become a problem when added to the environment

faster than they can decompose. Non degradable pollutants are materials that

either don’t decompose or decompose slowly in the natural environment. Once

contamination occurs it is difficult or impossible to remove these pollutants from

the environment.

Non degradable compounds such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT),

dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and radioactive materials can reach

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dangerous levels of accumulation as they are passed up the food chain in the

bodies of progressively larger animals. For example, molecules of toxic

compounds may collect on the surface of aquatic plants without doing much

damage to the plants. A small fish that grazes on these plants accumulates a high

concentration of the toxin. Larger fish or other carnivores that eat the small fish

will accumulate even great possibly life threatening concentrations of the

compound. This process is known as bioaccumulation.

Impacts of pollution:

Because humans are at the top of the food chain, they are particularly vulnerable

to the effect of non degradable pollutants. This was clearly illustrated in the 1950s

and 1960s when residents living near mina Mata bay, Japan developed nervous

disorders, tremors and paralysis in a mysterious epidemic. More then 400 people

died before authorities discovered that a local industry had released mercury into

mina Mata bay. This highly toxic element accumulated in the bodies of local fish

and eventually in bodies of people who consumed the fish. More recently research

has revealed that many chemical pollutants such as DDT and PCBs mimic sex

hormones and interfere with the human body’s reproductive and developmental

functions. These substances are known as endocrine disrupters.

Pollution also has a dramatic effect on natural resources. Ecosystems such as

forests, wetlands, coral reefs and rivers perform many important services for

earth’s environment. They enhance water and air quality; provide habitat for

plants and animals and provide food and medicines. Any or all of these ecosystem

function s may be impaired or destroyed by pollution. Moreover, because of the

complex relationships among the many types of organisms and ecosystems,

environmental contamination may have far reaching consequences that are not

immediately obvious or that are difficult to predict. For instance, scientists can

only speculate on some of the potential impacts of the depletion of the ozone

layer, the protective layer in the atmosphere that shields earth from the sun’s

harmful ultraviolet rays.

Another major effect of pollution is the tremendous cost of pollution cleanup and

prevention. The global effort to control emissions of carbon dioxide, a gas

produced from the combustion of fossil fuel such as coal or oil, or o other organic

materials like wood, is one such example. The cost of maintaining annual national

carbon dioxide gross domestic product for developed countries.

In addition to its effects on the economy, health and natural resources, pollution

has social implications. Research has shown that low income populations and

minorities do not receive the same protection from environmental contamination

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as do higher income communities. Toxic waste incinerators, chemical plants and

solid waste dumps are often located in low income communities because of a lack

of organized, informed community involvement in municipal decision making

processes.

Types of pollution:

Pollution exists in many forms and affects many different aspects of earth’s

environment. Point source pollution comes from specific, localized and

identifiable sources such as sewage pipelines or industrial smokestacks. Non-

point sources pollution comes from dispersed or uncontained sources such as

contaminated water runoff from urban areas or automobile emissions.

The effects of these pollutants may be immediate or delayed. Primary effects of

pollution occur immediately after contamination occurs, such as the death of

marine plants and wildlife after an oil spool at sea. Secondary effects may be

delayed or may persist in the environment into the future. Perhaps going

unnoticed for many years.

DDT, a non degradable compound seldom poisons birds immediately but

gradually accumulates in their bodies. Birds with high concentrations of this

pesticide lay thin shelled eggs that fail to hatch or produce deformed offspring.

These secondary effects, publicized by Rachel Carson in her 1962 book, silent

spring threatened the survival of species such as the bald eagle and peregrine

falcon and aroused public concern over the hidden effects of non degradable

chemical compounds.

A. air pollution:

Human contamination of earth’s atmosphere can take many forms and has existed

since humans first began to use fire for agriculture, heating, and cooking. During

the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, however, air pollution

became a major problem. As early as 1661 British author and founding member

of the British royal society john Evelyn reported of London in his treatise

fumifugium, “…… the weary traveler, at many miles distance, sooner smells,

than sees the city to which he repairs. This is that pernicious smoke which full yes

all her glory, super inducing a sooty crust of fur upon all that its lights……”

Urban air pollution is commonly known as smog. The dark London smog that

Evelyn wrote of is generally a smoky mixture of carbon monoxide and organic

compounds from incomplete combustion (burning) of fossil fuels such as coal,

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and sulfur dioxide from imputities in the fuels. As the smog ages and reacts with

oxygen, organic and sulfuric acids condense as droplets, increasing the haze.

Smog developed into a major health hazard by the 20 th century. In 1948, 19

people died and thousand were sickened by smog in the small us steel mill town

of Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1952, about 4,000 Londoners died of its effects.

A second type of smog, photochemical smog, began reducing air quality over

large cities like loss Angeles in the 1930s. this smog is caused by combustion in

car, truck and airplane engines, which produce nitrogen oxides and release

hydrogen from unburned fuels. Sunlight causes the nitrogen oxides and

hydrocarbons to combine and turn oxygen into ozone, a chemical agent that

attacks rubber, oxidized into materials that condense and form a visible, pungent

haze.

Eventually most pollutants are washed out of the air by rain, snow, fog or mist but

only after traveling large distances,, sometimes across continents. As pollutants

build up in the atmosphere, sulfur and nitrogen oxides are converted into acids

that mix with rain. This acid rain falls in lakes and on forests, where it can lead to

the death of fish and plants, and damage entire ecosystems. Eventually the

contaminated lakes and forests may become lifeless. Regions that are downwind

of heavily industrialized areas, such as Europe and the eastern united states and

Canada are the hardest hit by acid rain. Acid rain can also affect human health and

man made objects; it is slowly dissolving historic stone statues and building

facades in London, Athens and Rome.

One of the greatest challenges caused by air pollution is global warming an

increase in earth’s temperature due to the buildup of certain atmospheric gases

such as carbon dioxide. With the heavy use of fossil fuels in the 20 th century

atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide have risen dramatically. Carbon

dioxide and other gases, known as green hose gases, reduce the escape of heat

form the planet without blocking radiation coming from the sun. Because of this

green house effect, average global temperatures are expected to rise 1.4 to 5.8

Celsius degrees (2.5 to 10.4 Fahrenheit degrees) by the year 2100. although this

trend appears to be a small change the increase would make the earth warmer than

it has been in the last 125,000 years, possibly changing climate patterns, affecting

crop production, disrupting wild life distributions and raising the sea level.

Air pollution can also damage the upper atmospheric region known as the

stratosphere. Excessive production of chlorine containing compounds such as

chlorofluorocarbons CFCs (compounds formerly used in refrigerators, air

conditioners and in the manufacture of polystyrene products) has depleted the

stratospheric ozone layer, creating a hole above Antarctica that lasts for several

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rays has damaged aquatic and terrestrial wild life and threatens human health in

high latitude regions of the northern and southern hemispheres.

B. water pollution:

The demand for fresh water rises continuously as the world’s population grows.

From 1940 to 1990 with drawls of fresh water Form Rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and

other sources increased fourfold. Of the water consumed in the United States in

1995, 39 percent was used for irrigation, 39 percent was used of electric power

generation and 12 percent was used for other utilities; industry and mining used 7

percent and the rest was used for agricultural livestock and commercial purposes.

Sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers and

pesticides are the main causes of water pollution. The us environmental protection

agency EPA reports that about 37 percent of the country’s lakes and estuaries and

36 percent of its rivers are too polluted for basic used such as fishing or

swimming during all or part of the year. In developing nations, more than 95

percent of urban sewage is discharged untreated into rivers and bays creating a

major human health hazard.

Water runoff a non point source of pollution carries fertilizing chemicals such as

phosphates and nitrates from agricultural fields and yards into lakes, steams and

rivers. These combine with the phosphates and nitrates form sewage to speed the

growth of algae, a type of plantlike organism. The water body may then become

choked with decaying algae, which severely depletes the oxygen supply. This

process called eutrophication can cause the death of fish and other aquatic life.

Can cause of death of fish and other aquatic life. Agricultural runoff may be to

blame for the growth of a toxic form of algae called pfiesteria piscicida, which

was responsible for killing large amounts of fish in bodies of water from the

Delaware bay to the gulf of Mexico in the late 1990s. Runoff also carries toxic

pesticides and urban and industrial wastes into lakes and streams.

Erosion the wearing away of topsoil by wind and rain also contributes to water

pollution. Soil and silt (a fine sediment) washed from logged hillsides, plowed

fields or construction sites can clog water ways and kill aquatic vegetation. Even

small amounts of silt can eliminate desirable fish species. For example when

logging removes the protective plant cover form hillsides, rain may wash soil and

silt into streams covering the gravel beds that trout or salmon use of spawning.

The marine fisheries supported by ocean ecosystems are an essential source of

protein, particularly for people in developing countries. Yet pollution in coastal

bays, estuaries and wetlands threatens fish stocks already depleted by over

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fishing. In 1989, 26,000 barrels of oil spilled form the soil tanker Exxon Valdez

into Alaska’s Prince William Sound a pristine and rich fishing ground. In 1999

there were 8,539 reported spills in and around us waters involving 4.4 billion

liters (1.2 billion gallons) of oil.

C. soil pollution:

Soil is a mixture of mineral plant and animal materials that forms during a long

process that may take thousands of years. It is necessary for most plant growth

and is essential for all agricultural production. Soil pollution is a buildup of toxic

chemical compounds, salts, pathogens (disease causing organisms), or radio

active materials that can affect plant and animal life.

Unhealthy soil management methods have seriously degraded soil quality caused

soil pollution and enhances erosion. Treating the soil with chemical fertilizers,

pesticides and fungicides interferes with the natural processes occurring with in

the soil and destroys useful organisms such as bacteria, fungi and other

microorganisms. For instance, strawberry farmers in California fumigate the soil

with methyl bromide to destroy organisms that may harm young strawberry

plants. This process indiscriminately kills even beneficial microorganisms and

leaves the soil sterile and dependent upon fertilizer to support plant growth. This

result in heavy fertilizer use and increases polluted runoff into lakes and streams.

Improper irrigation practices in areas with poorly drained soil may result in salt

deposits that inhibit plant growth and may lead to crop failure. In 2000 B.C the

ancient Sumerian Mesopotamia depended in thriving agriculture. By 1500 B.C

these cities had collapsed largely because of crop failure due to high soil salinity.

The same soil pollution problem exists today in the Indus valley in Pakistan, the

Nile valley in Egypt, and the Imperial Valley in California.

D. solid waste:

Solid wastes are unwanted solid materials such as garbage, paper, plastics and

other synthetic materials, and wood. Billions of tons of solid waste are thrown out

annually. The United States alone produces about 200 millions metric tons of

municipal solid waste each year. A typical American generates and average of 2

kg (4 lb) of solid waste each day. Cities in economically developed countries

produce far more solid waste per capita than those in developing countries.

Moreover, waster from developed countries typically contains a high percentage

of synthetic materials that take longer to decompose than the primarily

biodegradable waste materials of developing countries.

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Areas where wastes are buries, called landfills are the cheapest and most common

disposal methods for solid wastes word wide. But landfills quickly become

overfilled and may contaminate air, soil, and water. Incineration or burning of

waste reduces the volume of solid waste but produces dense ashen wastes (some

of which become airborne) that often contain dangerous concentrations of

hazardous materials such as heavy metals and toxic compounds. Composting,

using natural biological processes to speed the decomposition of organic garbage

and produces a material that can be used as a natural fertilizer. Recycling,

extracting and reusing certain waste materials, has become and important part of

municipal solid waste strategies in developed countries. According to EPA, more

than one fourth of the municipal solid waste produces in the United States I s now

recycled or composted. Recycling also plays a significant, informal role in solid

waste management for many Asian countries such as India, where organized

waste pickers comb streets and dumps for items such as plastics which they use or

resell.

Expanding recycling programs world wide can help reduce solid waste pollution

but the key to solving severe solid waste problems lies in reducing the amount of

waste generated. Waste prevention or source reduction such as altering the way

products are designed or manufactured to make them easier to reuse, reduces the

high costs associated with environmental pollution.

E. hazardous waste:

Hazardous wastes are solid, liquid or gas waste that may be deadly or harmful to

people or the environment and tend to be persistent or non degradable in nature.

Such wastes include toxic chemicals and flammable or radioactive substances,

including industrial wastes from chemical plants or nuclear reactors, agricultural

wastes such as pesticides and fertilizers, medical wastes, and household hazardous

wastes such as toxic paints and solvents.

About 400 millions metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The

United States alone produces about 250 millions metric tons- 70 percent from the

chemical industry. The use, storage, transportation, and disposal of these

substances pose serious environmental and health risks. Even brief exposure to

some of these materials can cause cancer, birth defects, nervous system, disorders

and deaths. Large scale releases of hazardous materials may cause thousands of

deaths and contaminate air, water and soil for many years. The world’s worst

nuclear reactor accident tool place near Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986. the accident

killed at least 31 people, forced the evacuation and relocation of more than

200,000 more and sent a plume of radioactive material into the atmosphere that

contaminated areas as for way as Norway and the united kingdom.

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Until the mina Mata bay contamination was discovered in Japan in the 1960s and

1970s most hazardous wastes were legally dumped in solid waste landfills, buried

or dumped into lakes, rivers and oceans. Legal regulations now restrict how such

material s may be used or disposed, but such laws are difficult to enforce and

often contested by industry. It is not uncommon for industrial firms in shipments

of solid and hazardous wastes, a practice that has become known as the waste

trade. Moreover cleaning up the careless dumping of the mid 20th century is

costing billions of dollars and progressing very slowly, if at all. The United States

has an estimated 217,000 hazardous waste dumps that need immediate action.

Cleaning them up could take more than 30 years and cost $187 billions.

Hazardous wastes of particular concern are the radioactive wastes form the

nuclear power and weapons industries. To date there is no safe method for

permanent disposal of old fuel elements form nuclear reactors. Most are kept in

storage facilities at the original reactor sites where they were generated. with the

end of the cold war, nuclear warheads that are decommissioned, or no longer in

use also pose storage and disposal problems.

F. noise pollution:

Unwanted sound or noise such as that produces by air planes, traffic or industrial

machinery is considered a form of pollution. Noise pollution is at its worst in

densely populated areas. It can cause hearing loss, stress, high blood pressure,

sleep loss, distraction and lost productivity. Sounds are produce by objects that

vibrate at a rate that the ear4 can detect. This rate is called frequency and is

measured in hertz or vibrations per second. Most humans can hear sounds

between 20 and 20,000 hertz, while dogs can hear high pitched sounds up to

50,000 hertz. While high frequency sounds tends to be more hazardous and more

annoying to hearing than low frequency sounds most noise pollution damage is

related to the intensity of the sound or the amount of energy it has. Measured in

decibels noise intensity can range form zero the quietest sound the human ear can

detect to over 160 decibels, Conversation takes place at around 40 decibels a

subway train is about 80 decibels and a rock concert is from 80 to 100 decibels.

The intensity of nearby jet taking off is about 100 decibels. The threshold for pain

tissue damage and potential hearing loss in human is 120 decibels. Long lasting,

high intensity sounds are the most damaging to hearing the produce the most

stress in humans.

Solutions to noise pollution include adding insulation and sound proofing to

doors, walls, and ceiling; using ear protection, particularly in industrial working

areas; planting vegetation to absorb and screen out noise pollution; and zoning

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urban areas to maintain a separation between residential areas and zones of

excessive noise.

History:

Much of what we know of ancient civilizations comes from the wastes they left

behind. Refuse such as animal skeletons and implements from Stone Age cave

dwellings in Europe, china and the Middle East helps reveal hunting techniques,

diet, clothing, tool usage and the use of fire for by archaeologists in coastal areas

of north America reveal information about the shellfish diet and eating habits of

native Americans who lived more than 10,000 years ago.

As humans developed new technologies, the magnitude and severity of pollution

increased. Many historians speculate that the extensive use of lead plumbing for

drinking water in Rome caused chronic lead poisoning in those who could afford

such plumbing. The mining and smelting or ores that accompanied the transition

from the Stone Age to the metal age resulted in piles of mining wastes that spread

potentially toxic elements such as mercury, copper, lead and nickel throughout the

environment.

Evidence of pollution during the early industrial revolution is widespread. Sample

of hair from historical figures such as Newton and napoleon show the presence of

toxic elements such as antimony and mercury. By the 1800s certain trades were

associated with characteristic occupational diseases; chimney sweeps contracted

cancer of the scrotum the external sac of skin enclosing the testes, of reproductive

glands form hydrocarbons in chimney soot; hatters became disoriented, or mad

form nerve destroying mercury salts used to treat felt fabric and bootblacks

suffered liver damage form boot polish solvents. By the 21st century, pollution had

evolved form a mainly localized problem to one of global consequences in which

pollutants not only persisted in the environment, but changed atmospheric and

climatic conditions. The mina Mata bay disaster was the first major indication that

human would need to pay more attention to their waste products and waste

disposal practices, in particular hazardous waste disposal. In the years that

followed, many more instances of neglect or carelessness resulted in dangerous

levels of contamination. In 1976 an explosion at chemical factory in sereso, Italy,

released clouds of toxic dioxin into the area, exposing hundreds of residents and

killing thousands of animals that ate exposed food. In 1978 if was discovered that

the love canal housing development in New York State was built on a former

chemical waste dump. The development was declared uninhabitable. The world’s

worst industrial accident occurred in Bhopal, India in 1984. a deadly gas leaked

from American chemical plant, killing more than 3800 people and injuring more

than 200,000.

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The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident demonstrated the dangerous

contamination effects of large, uncontained disasters. In an unprecedented action,

pollution was used as a military tactic in 1991 during the confliction the Persian

Gulf. The Iraqi military internationally released as much as 1 billion liters (336

million gallons) of crude oil into the Persian Gulf and set fire to more than 700 oil

wells, sending thick, black smoke into the atmosphere overt the Middle East.

Controlling pollution:

Because of the many environmental tragedies of the mid 20th century many

nations instituted comprehensive regulations designed to repair the past damage

of uncontrolled pollution and prevent future environmental contamination. In the

United States, the clean air 1970 and its amendments significantly reduced certain

types of air pollution such as sulfur dioxide emission. The clean water act 1977

and safe drinking water act 1974 regulated pollution discharges and set water

quality standards. The toxic substances control act 1976 and the resources

conservation and recovery act 1976 provided for the testing g and control of toxic

and hazardous wastes. In 1980 congress passed the comprehensive environmental

response, compensation and liability act CERCLA also known as superfund, to

provide funds to cleanup the most severely contaminated hazardous waste sites.

These and several other federal and state laws helped limit uncontrolled pollution

but progress has been slow and many severe contamination problems remain due

to lack of funds for cleanup and enforcement.

International agreements have also played a role in reducing global pollution. The

Montréal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer 1987 set

international target dates of reducing the manufacture and emission of chemicals,

such as cfcs, known to deplete the ozone layer. The Basel convention on the

control of Tran boundary movements of hazardous wasted and their disposal 1989

serves as a framework for the international regulation of hazardous waste

transport and disposal.

Since 1992 representatives from more than 160 nations have met regularly to

discuss methods to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In 1997 the Kyoto protocol

was devised, calling for industrialized countries to reduce their gas emissions by

2012 an average 5 percent below 1990 levels. The Kyoto protocol went into force

in February 2005 with more than 130 countries having ratified it. Under the

administration of President George W. Bush, however the United States a major

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producer of greenhouse gases, refused to submit the treaty for ratification. In 2006

the global carbon project reported that carbon dioxide emissions were increasing

at an annual rate of 2.5 percent in the first five years of the 21st century compared

with an annual increase of 1 percent in the 1990s.

Regulations and legislations have led to considerable progress in cleaning up

some air and water pollution in developed countries. Vehicles in 21st century emit

fewer nitrogen oxides than those in the 1970s did; power plants now burn low

sulfur fuels; industrial stacks have scrubbers to reduce emissions; and lead has

been removed from gasoline. Developing countries however continue to struggle

with pollution control because they lack clean technologies and desperately need

to improve economic strength, often at the cost of environmental quality. The

problem is compounded by developing countries attracting foreign investments

and industry by offering cheaper labor, cheaper raw materials, and fewer

environmental restrictions. The maquiladoras, assemble plants along the Mexican

side of Mexico us border, provide jobs and industry of Mexico but are generally

owned by non Mexican corporations attracted to low wage labor and including the

Rio Grande, Is one of the most heavily disaster and increased poverty, developing

countries will require aid and technology form outside nations and corporations,

community participation in developments initiatives and strong environmental

regulations.

Nongovernmental citizen groups have formed at the local, national and

international level to combat pollution problems world wide. Many of these

organizations provide information and support for people or organizations

traditionally not involved in the decision making process. The pesticide action

network provides technical information about the effects of pesticides on farm

workers. The citizen’s clearing house of or hazardous waste, established by

veterans of love canal controversy provides support for communities targeted for

hazardous waste installations. A well organized, grassroots, environmental justice

movement has arisen to advocate equitable environmental protections.

Greenpeace is and activist organization that focuses international attention on

industries and governments known to contaminate land, sea, or atmosphere with

toxic or solid wastes. “Friends of the Earth International” is a federation of

international organizations that fight environmental pollution around the world.

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