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INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL LAW
THE WORK ON A COMMON CONTRACT LAW
University of Oslo
Ass.Prof. Giuditta Cordero Moss
A Common Contract Law?
• Globalisation, Regionalisation• Common regulation of sectors• Contract law not harmonised• Mechansims that permit cross-border contracts• Vision: a common contract law• EU action plan• Does vision solve the percieved problems?
Contract law is not harmonised -I
• Tender for construction in Italy
• Norwegian contractor makes a bid
• Bid based on local sub-contractors’ prices
• Contractor is awarded the contract
• Tender for construction in England
• Norwegian contractor makes a bid
• Bid based on local sub-contractors’ prices
• Contractor is awarded the contract
The subcontractors’ offer
• ”This offer is binding on the offeror and cannot be revoked before 30 days have elapsed from the date hereof”
• Subcontractor revokes the offer before the term (but after the the contract was awarded)
Consequences
• Italian law:
– Firm offer cannot be revoked before the term
– Subcontractor is legally bound
• English law:
– Firm offer is not binding unless there is consideration
– Subcontractor is not bound
Contract law is not harmonised -II
• Norwegian producer purchases components from Italian supplier
• Force Majeure circumstance reduces supplier’s capacity
• Supplier has delivery obligations towards plurality of creditors
• At reduced capacity supplier can meet obligations towards only one creditor
• Norwegian producer purchases components from Italian supplier
• Force Majeure circumstance reduces supplier’s capacity
• Supplier has delivery obligations towards plurality of creditors
• At reduced capacity supplier can meet obligations towards only one creditor
Force majeure clause
• ”Non performance by a party hereto of its obligations hereunder is excused if such party was prevented from fulfilling its obligations by an event beyond such party’s control, that was not foreseeable and that could not be prevented or overcome by the prevented party using reasonable efforts.”
Consequences
• Italian law– Supplier’s obligations
are reduced pro rata with the capacity reduction
– Purchasers can demand delivery pro rata with the other creditors
• English law– ”Frustration kills the
contract”– Impossibility to deliver
is deemed to be a consequence of supplier’s own fact
– Purchasers can demand whole delivery
Mechanisms for cross-border contracts
• Conflict rules determine the law of what country governs
• Conflict rules are part of each country’s own law
• EU has harmonised conflict rules
• Norway has own conflict rules
Mechanisms for cross-border contracts, cont.
• Judge applies his own conflict rules
• First step: identify forum
• Then: apply conflict rule
• So: conflict rule determines what country’s substantive law governs the contract
Application of conflict rules
FIRM OFFER
• Forum: Lugano convention, art. 2 or 5.1
• Governing Law:– Italian subcontractor:
Italian law– English subcontractor:
English law
FORCE MAJEURE
• Forum: Lugano convention, art. 2 or 5.1
• Governing Law:– Italian supplier: Italian
law– English supplier:
English law
Vision: A common (European) contract law• Assumption:
– Plurality of systems is confusing– Conflict rules are complicated– Domestic legal system are meant for domestic
transactions
• Vision:– An international system deriving from the
parties’ own practice
From lex mercatoria to general contract principles
• ”Principles rooted in the good sense and common practice of the generality of civilised nations”
• Contractual practice
• Model laws, conventions
• Standard contracts
• Private codifications
• Restatements
Restatements
• To improve lex mercatoria’s weaknesses:– Difficult to determine– Not systematic– Too vague
• 1994, UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts– Not a codification of existing principles– Systematic set of principles based on consensus
among international academics
Principles of European Contract Law
• ”Commission on European Contract Law”• 1995-2002: PECL I,II and III:http://www.cbs.dk/departments/law/staff/ol/
commission_on_ecl/• Aim of PECL
– Binding for all EU public contracts– Binding for private contracts, if referred to by
parties– Long term: binding for all contracts
Commission’s Communication
• Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on European Contract Law – COM (2001) 398 final, 11.7.2001
• Requests comments on four alternatives:– Leave it to market forces– Through research establish general European
principles– Improve coherence of existing European law– Enact a European code
The answers to the Communication
• 181 answers• Each alternative has been supported and
criticised• Working groups established to develop each
alternative (especially 2 and 4)• In some academic circles focus on answer from:
– Commission on European Contract Law and Study Group on a European Civil Code (PECL)
The Commission’s Action Plan
• A more coherent European contract law – An action plan – COM (2003) 68 final, 12.2.2003:– Continue sector-based approach– Increase coherence of existing European law
(CFR)– Support development of European standard
contracts (webpage)– Examine possibility of general measures,
such as “an optional instrument”
Action plan’s effect
• Common Frame of Reference for Acquis Comunitaire– Does not cover general contract law
• EU Standard contracts– Must be referred to– Do not solve interpretation problems
• Optional Instrument– Must be referred to– Does not help if vacuum– Does not totally exclude application of national law
PECL and firm offer
• Italian Law:– Offer is binding until term
expires
• English law:– Offer is not binding until it
has been accepted (or there is a consideration)
• PECL, art. 2:202:– Offer is not binding until it
has been accepted, but cannot be revoked if it contains a term
• PECL, art. 1:103:– PECL can derogate from
mandatory rules, if governing law allows it
– PECL cannot derogate from internationally mandatory rules
– Consideration?
PECL and Force Majeure
• Italian law:– Purchasers are
entitled to delivery pro rata with each other
• English law:– Purchasers are
entitled to whole delivery
• PECL, art. 8:108:– No specific regulation
• PECL, art. 1:106 (2):– If regulation lacks,
underlying principles shall be applied. If this is not possible, governing law shall be applied
Conclusion
• Comparative law as a tool towards unification?– Unification is not exhaustive– Even unified wording is interpreted in light of
interpreter’s own legal background
• Different legal systems will continue to survive long after unification (if any)