British Journal of Educational Technology V O ~ 27 NO 2 1996 84-91

Interactive video and group learning: two action enquirg based evaluations

Chris Cloke, Margaret Farren and Janette Barrington

Chris Cloke is 11 Lecturer in Edircatiori at the University of Bath with a special interest in the educational ccpplicatiotis of Irlfornintiori Technology: Margaret Farren and Janette Barrington were full-time Masters students at the University. Address for correspondence: University of Bath. School of Educatiori. Claverton Down. Bath. BA2 7 A Y U K

Abstract Two evaluations of Interactive Programmes are presented. Both studies involved groups of learners interacting with each other and with LaserVi- sion software. However, the contexts of the programmes are different: one concerns counselling skills for student teachers, the other is a geography simulation programme. The evaluations identified the power of the medium to present powerful images. The issues of programme structure and group interaction are discussed. Although structures of these programmes are simple, there appears to be merit in them if they are managed well by teachers.

The purpose of this paper is to describe two evaluations that were conducted into interactive video (IV). The two studies addressed common themes. Both involved gathering data from groups of learners interacting with Laservision materials. Both studies involved the researcher as the facilitator of the learning that took place within the context of a role play. But the two studies involved quite different courseware.

One study made use of materials produced as part of the Computers in Teaching Initiative (Gardner, 1990) by Derek Shanks at Aberdeen University. It was designed to be part of a training course for counsellors and was strongly influenced by the counselling theories of Egan (1986). The learners were a group of five Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) students who expressed an interest in the field and were willing to take part in the study.

The second study involved a simulation called North Polar Expedition. As its name implies, this was a simulation of an expedition to the North Pole, intended to bring out inter-personal skills of team members and develop some geography concepts. The learners were a group of five girls from a local independent girls’ school. The school

lnteractive video and group learning: two action enquiry based evaluations 8 5

had acquired the equipment as part of a wider study of interactive video being conducted by the school’s Information Technology co-ordinator.

Interactive video through Laservision has a limited life span. It is unlikely that much more material will be developed in this medium even though Wright (1991) has shown that there is a future using bar code readers and Laservision players. In the future compact disc technologies will be able to offer similar environments. This, therefore does not detract from the work described below. The key educational issues addressed are relevant whatever the interactive technology. They concern the role that an interactive medium can play in facilitating group interaction and role play activities. It is in this spirit that the findings of these studies are presented.

Key issues Clearly, the two key technical features of IV are that it is interactive and that it presents the learner with high quality video images. Laurillard (1987) points out that IV ’combines the existing technologies of video and CAL’. However, there are different levels of interactivity. Salpeter (1986) informs us that the bulk of the videodisc programmes which are available are either archival or tutorial. The archival videodisc provides a high quality, compact and convenient visual database of images and/or live film footage. Individuals or small groups can browse through the contents using it as a research tool. Tutorial discs are also designed for individual or small group use. They consist of video sequences followed by questions that take the user back to selected segments of the disc. The distinguishing feature of IV is that photographs or video can be presented to the learner as well as text and computer graphics.

There have been a number of claims about the effectiveness of IV. Laurillard (1987) and O’Neill (1987). for example, claim that it enables the learner to be active. Bork (1 987) believes that interactive video offers the opportunity to treat students as unique individuals through interactive learning. However, the structure of many IV programmes can be very limiting. Interactive video can give the illusion of control over content but the content is fixed and learning operates within the limits of the design (Plowman, 1988). Further, she points out that many examples make use of multiple choice methods of selecting paths through the programme.

Few evaluations of the effectiveness of IV have been carried out. The evaluation of the Interactive Video in Schools (IVIS) project (Norris, 1990) supports this view. It also supports some of the above claims from its limited evidence. The IVIS discs represented a range of styles with many of them moving away from a highly didactic pedagogy to one which gave more control to learners. The discs proved to be highly motivating with pupils and teachers finding them to be powerful tools for learning. The main findings from the project seemed to highlight the potential of IV but also the great difficulties involved in creating, piloting and properly evaluating IV discs.

In our evaluative studies the main issues which emerged were:

0 How does IV facilitate group interaction and dynamics?

86 British ~ourrinl of Educational Technology Vol 27 N o 2 1996

0 What is the degree of control which learners can exercise and how does it affect their learning;

Methodology Kemmis. Atkin and Wright ( 1'1x7) propose an evaluation approach which justifies the value of using educational software based on its distinctive qualities in encouraging student learning appropriate in a given curriculum context. They hold that the evaluator must provide a detailed description of students interacting with the learning programme. and a structural analysis of the individual learning processes they engage in, as well a s a study of the curriculum context for which the innovative material is in tended.

This method. known as an idiographic approach. combines an intensive study of individual learning processes with a consideration of the learning milieu. Kemmis cJt ti1

compare it to a nomethetic approach. which they say focuses solely on test perfor- mance within an isolated area of the curriculum.

In both cases within this study an idiographic approach was used. In both studies a questionnaire was administered to the groups beforehand. This questionnaire pro- vided background information about the learners and their interest in the subject of the interactive video. The sessions were recorded both by video and by audio tapes. In each of the studies, the researcher was present as a participant-observer recording notes during the sessions. Details of the sessions are given in the discussion of the studies below. Both studies followed the procedures set out in McNiff ( 1988) for action research. 'This process begins with an identitication of the 'concerns' of the study and the appropriate methods needed to gather evidence about them. From the evidence collected. the researchers were then able to make judgements about the 'concerns'. Both studies focused upon the interactions within the group of students and the interactivity of the programme itself.

Outcomes Co t i t tsc Ili ti</

The counselling video consisted of video clips of nine clients presenting their particular problems :is they might do in the early stages of a counselling session. At an appropriate moment. the video was halted and the users were asked what they would do next according to a limited number (usually two) of choices. The con- sequences of their choices was then displayed on video. The programme proceeded in this manner until the counselling session was finished. At the end of a session with a client the programme printed out a commentary on the performance of the user as a counsellor.

Five students on our secondary PGCE course worked with the programme in two groups (one of two and the other of three). Each group viewed the programme for approximately 2 hours. Of the nine clients presented in the programme. five were highly relevant to student teachers. The students worked through these examples in

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two sessions lasting about 2 hours in each case. The interaction between the participants was observed and recorded.

Although the acting was not seen as brilliant. students found the visual effect of the video very helpful. The situations were sufficiently realistic for them to relate the material to their teaching practices, and for them to develop a sensitivity towards such things as family situations and using adult language. The added facility of a computer programme provided the opportunity for students to make mistakes, to see the consequences of their errors enacted. and then to rethink their strategy. The ability to explore alternatives and to learn by their mistakes encouraged curiosity in some students. who followed alternatives they realised were inappropriate to see what response they would get.

Most students had felt prior to the experience that counselling in a school environment involved building a relationship of trust and understanding with pupils and being able to communicate and associate with them. Even though students only worked through two or three straightforward interviews, they soon grasped the principle of building trust by identifying with a person's feelings. The visual effect of seeing a pupil turn away powerfully demonstrated the emotional response to a supportive or challenging skill inappropriately used.

All students at some point changed their initial reaction of stepping in with their own solution to the problem. They also developed a sensitivity to clarifying a situation before challenging with another perspective. This could be interpreted as a change in attitude towards helping. A shift from the 'doing for' approach to the 'doing with' approach. reflecting a modest attitude built on respect for the individual and trust in the potential for selfdevelopment.

A problem with the programme is that students did not seem to identify with the role of counsellor. One reason for this might be because there is no opportunity for a personalised response. As one student pointed out. you can see something of the child's body language but you have no way of having an impact on that with your own non-verbal behaviour. which is very important in a proper role-play, and even more so in a counselling scenario.

The distinctive feature of the programme evaluated is that it provides a best interview as a role model for students to learn from. Students can see how a more appropriate way of responding in a given situation can lead to a more productive outcome. The developers had intended that the commentary on their performance would encourage students to reflect on their own abilities. However. when asked about the feedback they had received, responses from the students were vague. They quoted specific learning about the role of a counsellor, but not about themselves.

It is evident that students learned as much from each other as they did from the programme. The high quality of discussion was apparent after analysing transcripts.

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Students listened to each other’s reasoning, supported or challenged that reasoning, clarified issues, and shared their own experiences. By communicating their own understanding of a situation, they helped others understand. They had the opportu- nity to learn from others’ mistakes as well as from their own. By sharing personal experiences, they triggered memories in each other.

A major disadvantage of the collaborative experience was that, for the most part, decisions were group decisions rather than individual ones. This may have been one of the reasons why students did not ‘own‘ the feedback in the commentaries. The groups were small enough to include everyone in discussions, and there is some evidence that individual learning needs and learning styles were accommodated. However, an independent learning experience may have promoted more personal learning.

In summary, with interactive video technology the nature of learning can become a process of self-correction. When learning personal skills through this medium, the impact of seeing the consequence of an incorrect response on another person’s behaviour can, potentially, help students correct an inappropriate attitude towards helping. However, for learning to take place at this level, feedback on performance would need to prompt self-reflection. Students would also need guidelines on how to prepare for and learn from a role-play experience.

The nature of the teacher-student relationship can also evolve when using this medium. Rather than focusing attention on instructing, the teacher can focus instead on facilitating learning. By arranging for students to work through a programme individually but in small groups, students can learn from each other. They can discuss their reasons for choosing one alternative over another, as well as how the material relates to their previous learning and experiences. Students can also be given the opportunity to plan when and how they will use the programme, and to consolidate their personal learning in a reflective written assignment.

In the context of initial teacher training, an interactive video on counselling skills could exemplify the qualities of a good tutor. These qualities include balancing discipline and help with a sense of freedom. Perhaps more importantly, it involves identifying and responding to those feelings, like worry and fear, that can obstruct learning. Furthermore, this type of personal skills learning has the potential to encourage students to analyse and learn from their mistakes, thus reinforcing a commitment to self-improvement.

North Polar expedition The programme simulates a journey to the North Pole through use of film and slides. The students act as a group with each member taking on a role. Roles include team leader, medic, mechanic, navigator, radio operator and controller. Some of the roles can be combined. The programme starts with a multiple choice quiz for each of the team members. The scores achieved determine their supplies and morale necessary for a successful journey. During the expedition, students make progress through decisions

Iritcractive video und group learning: two action enquiry based evaluations 89

offered in multiple choice format. A log of their progress is kept and the students can record their comments on it. Five female students from the school worked through the programme during lunch breaks. They had three sessions each of one hour. Before the sessions and afterwards. the students were asked to complete a questionnaire. They were video taped as they worked through the programme.

The first task which the students undertook was to select a leader. The observer acted as facilitator. The students did indicate on their initial questionnaire that they had little experience with the IV system. The observer was able to ensure that any technical difficulties which the student had were quickly solved. Once the students had received initial instruction, they worked through the programme themselves.

The students commented that they found the moving images very real, and they felt part of the 1V programme. The following comment was made by the group, as a frost- bitten hand flashed on the screen 'Oh. it's horrid'. The Pilot remarked how she had never experienced anything like IV before. The others made similar comments during the evaluation. The Navigator remarked afterwards that 'It made you feel as if you were really there.'

However, the video was not always consistent. At one stage, the Pilot remarked that she found it difficult to understand that when the team were running short of food, the log book showed bad visibility and high winds, and yet when they went ahead and ordered food the video showed the plane flying under sunny weather conditions.

The programme appeared to offer very little learner control. Perhaps this is due to the narrative structure of the programme, in that the team are trying to arrive at the North Pole. However, it is in conflict with the aims set out in the programme guide, which state that reaching the Pole is not important, the programme is designed to stimulate group discussion. The Medic's remark that 'it would lose its sense of adventure if one could recap' may hold some truth. However, later, she pointed out that 'the programme does not allow you to do anything on your own. if you had to choose a route of your own, it would be better.' The group said that the quality of feedback from the programme was poor, and should have been more explanatory. The Pilot's remark sums this up: 'you got your answer but it didn't tell you if you were right.'

Hannafin (1985). states that without learner control, you are imposing a lesson structure on the learner, which may cause a schema conflict. The Leader, when asked if she felt that the programme came under programme or learner control. did not hesitate and replied: 'we didn't have control, it told us things that happened, things that you had done which you had no control over.'

Bork (1987) and Laurillard (1987) both maintain that the best type of interaction relies on the pupils own input, not on multiple-choice questions. Multiple-choice formats could have allowed the students to consider other options, and to correct the

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wrong choices. However. North Polar Expedition was linear in structure, and did not allow the group the opportunity to recap on any question, and move from the wrong answer to the correct one. It didn’t appear to match the pupils’ thinking. The Land/Sea Base Controller suggested, in her written evaluation, that: ‘Somewhere in the programme, the learner could ask questions, which interest them, about trying to reach the North Pole. This would broaden their knowledge of the subject.’

The programme was very motivating in that it held the students’ attention. After the students had worked on the programme, they were asked what they liked most about it. Their views were mixed, between the video element which showed movement, and the fact that each person had a role to play in the programme. The role-play allowed for interactivity, the fact that each pupil had a role to play in the programme did enhance their learning experience as they all had something special to do. The Navigator remarked: ‘It was so much better that a question was directed to each member of the team, rather than the questions being directed to the team leader only.’

The main learning outcome of the programme was that students were beginning to learn to work co-operatively together as a team. They believed that they did not learn much content. This was felt to be mainly due to the programme design. The programme is a highly structured simulation and suffers from it. It gives little freedom to explore, and find out new things. The active learning through discussion was seen by the students to be effective. They believed that they could challenge each other, clarify ideas, help each other and question each other.

Conclusions The responses of learners to these programmes will originate principally from their particular content and structure. However, there are some general conclusions which can be drawn. Both programmes had similar strengths and weaknesses. Both had essentially simple structures derived from programmed learning approaches. These types of programmes have received much criticism over the years (eg O’Shea, 1983). Laservision and its successor CD-ROM may only be bringing images to these old discredited approaches to programme design. The closed questioning and narrow learning frameworks are still to be found in much software produced today. It is. therefore, doubtful whether such products earn the description of being interactive.

Our case studies reflect the reservations with this approach. However, they do show that these programmes can be powerful stimuli to learning despite the drawbacks. The learners in both studies were attracted to the visual images which they found powerfully motivating. Laservision has the advantage over CD-ROM of providing high quality visual images. Vivid images such as the sight of a client ‘turning away’ or of a ‘frost-bitten hand’ brought a sharp sense of reality to role plays. This is, of course, a strong argument for video images but not of interactive video per se. More is needed in order to justify the interactive nature of the medium and the role of the computer (as opposed to the bar code reader, or fast forward button).

Interactive video and group learning: two action enquiry based evaluations 91

In our examples, interaction seemed to take place as much if not more between the learners than between the learners and the programme. Recently published research seems to support this notion and suggests that this arises not by chance but by the way in which groups of learners 'develop a framework of structured interdependence together with individual autonomy' (Hoyles, 1994). The role of the teacher as facilitator is crucial in ensuring that such structures are achieved. The CAL pro- gramme itself may also be able to sustain these structures by the way it facilitates the role play and interacts with the various participants. Complexity of structure may, therefore, not be the only criterion for success. Simple IV programmes which are able to support effective group interaction and allow learners to explore alternatives can be powerful learning tools if used in appropriate environments by skilled teachers. It is only through evaluations of the kind described above that we will be able to develop ways of making effective use of such resources.

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