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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FEM 3002, CREDIT HOUR = 3(2+1)FACE TO FACE 1, FEBRUARY 2015
Instructor: Siti Nor Binti YaacobDepartment of Human Development and
Family StudiesFaculty of Human EcologyUniversiti Putra Malaysia
Contact #: 012-284-1844
Email: [email protected]
LECTURE 1
COURSE OBJECTIVESFEM 3002 is a compulsory course for the Bachelor Science (Human Development) programme. At the end of this modul students will be able to:
discuss the philosophy of research, and the concepts of science and the scientific methods.
describe the research design in human development describe the steps in preparing and conducting a
research project analyze and interpret research data and prepare a
research report.
Introduction to research design and analysis in Human Development. Meaning of science, scientific research and its application in Human Development. Research planning process, data analysis and interpretation, report writing and presentation of research findings.
(Pengenalan kepada rekabentuk dan analisis penyelidikan di dalam Pembangunan Manusia. Pengertian Sains, penyelidikan saintifik dan penggunaannya di dalam Pembangunan Manusia. Perancangan dan proses penyelidikan, analisis dan interpretasi data, penulisan dan penyampaian hasil penyelidikan).
COURSE OBJECTIVES
COURSE EVALUATIONNo. Item %
1. COURSEWORK 70
i) Test 1 20
ii) Assignment 1 (Individual task): Anatomy of research article
15
iii) Assignment 2 (Individual task): SPSS output (5%) and proposal (15%)
25
iii) Quiz 10
2. FINAL EXAM (Comprehensive) 30
Total 100
1. Beins, B. C. (2003). Research methods: A tool for life. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
2. Charles, S. (2007). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (3rd. ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Miffin Co.
3. Creasey, G. L. (2006). Research methods in lifespan development. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
4. Devlin, A. S. (2006). Research methods: Planning, conducting and presenting research. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth
5. Gravetter, F. J. (2006). Research methods for the behavioral sciences. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth
6. McBurney, D. H. (2004). Research methods (6th ed.). Australia: Thomson/Wadsworth
7. Trochim, William M. (2006). The Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2nd Edition. Internet WWW page, at URL: <http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/>
REFERENCES
Test & Exam Structure:
Objective and Subjective
OUTLINE
I. What is Research?II. Definition of Research by Past ScholarsIII. Philosophy of ResearchIV. Why do we do Research? V. Characteristics of Research
I. WHAT IS RESEARCH?
RE
SEARCH
Old French word “cerchier”, meaning to search or seek.
The word “re” means again.
So, the search is done many times.
Why Re? Why do so many times?
To be sure ……To be certain ……
…………that something really occur…………that something really happen…………that a phenomena really exist
Through repetitive experiments:
Madame Curie discovered radium.Alexander Graham Bell --- telephone.Wright Brothers --- aeroplane.Other examples?
Basicly, the word research means:
StudyExplorationExaminationInvestigationInquiry
What is Research?
Research is a / an ……….……. seeking activity investigation facts finding discovering activity solving problem activity data collection activity establishing empirical evidence structured activity using the scientific
method
Research Concept
II. DEFINITION OF RESEARCH BY PAST SCHOLARS
Scholar Meaning Kerlinger (1973) An effort to analyze data using the scientific method
in a formal and systematic way. Its purpose is to find answers to questions or problems.
Grosof & Sardy (1985) Proces, prosedure, or strategy using the scientific method.
Touliatos and Compton (1988)
An effort in discovering new ideas, describing situations and events, as well as describing phenomena.
Ahmad Mahdzan(1992) Systematic method used by humans to increase knowledge.
Salkind (1994) A process of discovering new knowledge.
Barbie (2001) An investigation using the scientific method that is frequently used by human to describe/predict events or future happenings.
III. PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH
PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH
The term philosophy derives from a combination of the Greek words
philos = lovesophia = wisdom
Nature of knowledge and belief.
In research the concerned is on the investigation of what distinguishes mere belief from knowledge.
SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE
1. INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE2. AUTHORITATIVE KNOWLEDGE3. LOGICAL KNOWLEDGE4. EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE
1. Intuitive Knowledge belief, faith, intuition, etc. based on feelings, not hard, cold "facts."
2. Authoritative Knowledge information from people, books, a
supreme being, etc. Its strength depends on the strength of
these sources.
3. Logical Knowledge based on reasoning from "point A" (which is generally
accepted) to "point B" (the new knowledge).
4. Empirical Knowledge based on demonstrable, objective facts
(gathered thro’ observation and/or experimentation).
Research often makes use of all four of these ways of knowing:
1. INTUITIVE (when coming up with an initial idea for research)
2. AUTHORITATIVE (when reviewing the professional literature)
3. LOGICAL (when reasoning from findings to conclusions)
4. EMPIRICAL (when engaging in procedures that lead to these findings)
The empirical knowledge, is what most modern research acquisition aims at establishing, which is known as empirical research.
IV. WHY DO WE DO RESEARCH?
WHY DO WE DO RESEARCH?
To discover new information.
To expand existing knowledge.
To investigate specific questions or problems
To validate past information
To investigate existing phenomena.
To determine new uses of, and applications for, existing goods and services.
It provides answers for questions like what, where, when, how and why.
Brings out information that might not be discovered in ordinary course of life
It contributes to theory and generalizations Verifies existing theories and facts.
May enable us to predict events Helps in establishing inter-relationships and derive
explanations Helps developing new tools, concepts and
theories to study phenomenon.
Research essential for Advancement of scientific knowledge and/or development of newer technologies improvement of quality of life
‘Today’s research is for tomorrow's advancement’
For students in social science, research is directed toward
finding, applying & interpreting data
that can promote betterment in individual and family life, and of the society.
V. RESEARCH CHARACTERISTICS
RESEARCH CHARACTERISTICS Originates with a question or problem. Requires clear articulation of a goal. Follows a specific plan or procedure. Often divides main problem into subproblems. Guided by specific problem, question, or
hypothesis. Accepts certain critical assumptions. Requires collection and interpretation of data. Cyclical (helical) in nature.
INTERACTIVE QUIZ 1: T/F? IS THIS RESEARCH OR NOT?
1. Everyday observation of phenomena happenings around us is a research.
2. You go to the library to do your term paper3. You compare the cost of an ipod from one shop
to another can be considered as research.4. Asking questions using a questionnaire is
research.5. You identify a measurable problem, collect
systematic information, analyze the information, draw conclusion and make interpretation.
INTERACTIVE QUIZ 2: WHAT IS/ARE THE “RESEARCH LANGUAGE” LEARNED?
Students volunteer to come to the front to write responses here
Empirical studies Investigation Exploration Logical knowledge Intuitive Analytical thinking
LECTURE 2
OUTLINE
I. Process of ResearchII. Ethics of researchIII. Concept of ScienceIV. Goals of scienceV. Logic of scientific reasoningVI. Approaches to science
I. PROCESS OF RESEARCH
A CLEAR CUT STRUCTURE
(I) Identifying problem (2) Developing objective/hypothesis (3) Data collection (4) Data analysis (5) Report writing
5 steps in research process:
Research begins with a problem. This problem need not be Earth-shaking.
Identifying this problem can actually be the hardest part of research.
In general, good research projects should: Address an important question. Advance knowledge.
II. ETHICS OF RESEARCH
ETHICAL CONDUCT
The ethical conduct of research is essential for thoseworking in all disciplines, but particularly for researchers in medicine and life sciences.
An unethical approach can invalidate findings, lead to prosecution and damage the image of the research community within the public realm as a whole.
Taken from Higher Education and Research Opportunities (HERO)
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB) Every institution where an individual might
conduct research must have an IRBMost school districts have some types as well as
Universities Primary goal is to protect the rights of research
participants Some consider a goal to be to maintain integrity of
research conducted through the institution Government reviews IRBs and if finds problems
will order cease and desistAll research must be halted until further notice
(exceptions are made for studies that would be harmful to abruptly stop)
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
CONSENT
HARM
DECEPTION
PRIVACY
CONSENT Informed consent
Subjects must know potential risks, benefits, conditions of participation, and ability to withdraw without penalty
If consent is not informed, it can be as bad as (or worse than) not getting consent at all
Two typesDirect or Substitute (3rd party) If the person has a legal guardian, need substitute
When in doubt, ask for permission Consent should always be obtained in writing
ELEMENTS OF CONSENT Capacity
Ability: individual is competent enough to understand, evaluate, and make a decision of whether to participate or not
Age: > 18 or emancipated minor Information
Is it complete/comprehensive and fully understood? Voluntariness
Subjects have the choice to participate or withdraw and are aware of this choice
HARM Subjects must be protected from harm, or at the least
fully informed about the potential costs and benefits resulting from the harm
Research that is physically or psychologically dangerous is generally considered unethical
Care needs to be taken with subjects who are, or consider themselves to be, relatively powerless Children, elderly, w/ disabilities
HARM (CONT) There is no prespecified level for the unethical
threshold of harm (e.g., 36 degrees or 12 pounds) Consideration is in the cost/benefit ratio
In general, make sure the benefits (from the study) outweigh the costs (to individual participants)
PRIVACY Sensitivity of topic &/or data
Can responses/results affect the subject’s life if known by others
How public/private is the setting? Public display of the data
Personally identifiable information should be removed or changed
DECEPTION Often tied to the informed part of consent
Omission: withhold information Commission: provide false information
I.e., lying Establishing false intimacy: subject feels a high degree of
comfort because he/she does not know is “on the record” Using accomplices: someone helping the researcher that
the subject doesn’t know is helping
DECEPTION (CONT)
Sometimes a degree of deception is necessary IRB needs to regulate
When it is, subjects MUST be debriefed after the studyDehoaxing: researcher convinces (tells) each subject
who was deceived that they were, in fact, deceivedDesensitization: a systematic process of demonstrating
that there was deception Suggest that behavior was a result of the circumstances Point out that subjects’ behavior was not abnormal or unusual
III. CONCEPT OF SCIENCE
• Science is both a process of gaining knowledge, and the organized body of knowledge gained by this process.
• The scientific process is the systematic acquisition of new knowledge about a system.
• This systematic acquisition is generally the scientific method, and the system is generally nature.
• Science is also the scientific knowledge that has been systematically acquired by this scientific process.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Science is also an approach for the generation of knowledge. It relies on a mixture of empiricism (i.e., the collection of data) and rationalism (i.e., the use of reasoning and theory construction and testing).
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE Science is progressive. Science is rational. Science is creative. Science is dynamic. Science is open. Science is "Critical." Science is never-ending.
IV. GOALS OF SCIENCE
Account for (explain) behaviors or events
Predict (and ultimately control) future occurrences and outcomes
HIERARCHY IN SCIENCE Finding facts
Developing laws
Establishing theories
SCIENCE PYRAMID
V. LOGIC OF SCIENTIFIC REASONING
SCIENTIFIC METHOD 2 REASONING PROCESS:
Inductive reasoning (Bottom-up) Deductive reasoning (Top-bottom)
INDUCTIVE & DEDUCTIVE REASONING PROCESSES
Observation
Pattern
Tentative hypothesis
Theory
Hypothesis
Observation
Generalization
INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Reseach is designed to identify components that can eventually lead to generalizations.
Begins with empirical observations then infers constructs
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Generalization is stated and the specifics are sought to support the generalizations.
Using constructs as a basis for making predictions about new observations.
VI. APPROACHES TO SCIENCE
Positivist Interpretive Critical
POSITIVIST
Positivists generally assume that reality is objectively given .
Reality can be described by measurable properties which are independent of researches and their instruments
Positivist studies generally attempt to test theory, in an attempt to increase the predictive understanding of phenomena.
Orlikowski & Baroudi (1991) classified research as positivist if there was evidence of formal propositions, quantifiable measures of variables, hypothesis testing, and the drawing of inferences about a phenomenon from the sample to a stated population.
INTERPRETIVE
• Interpretivists assume knowledge is socially constructed through language, consciousness and shared meanings language, consciousness and shared meanings.
• Interpretive research does not predefine dependent and independent variables, but focuses on the full complexity of human sense making as the situation emerges.
• Interpretive studies generally attempt to understand phenomena through the meanings that people assign to them.
Interpretive methods of research are "aimed at producing an understanding of the context of the social system, and the process whereby the system influences and is influenced by the context “. (Walsham,1993)
CRITICAL
• Critical researchers assume that social reality is historically constituted and that it is produced and reproduced by people.
• People’s ability to change their social and economic circumstances, are constrained by forms of social, cultural and political domination.
• The main task of critical research is seen as being one of social critique, whereby the restrictive and alienating conditions of the status quo are brought to light.
Critical research focuses on the oppositions, conflicts and contradictions in contemporary society, and seeks to be emancipatory i.e. it should help to eliminate the causes of alienation and domination.
INTERACTIVE QUIZ 1: T/F?
1. An inductive researcher would starts his research with an observation. T/F?
2. An deductive researcher would starts his research with a theory. T/F?
INTERACTIVE QUIZ 2: WHAT IS/ARE THE “RESEARCH LANGUAGE” LEARNED?
Students volunteer to come to the front to write responses here
LECTURE 3
OUTLINE
I. VariableII. Relationship among variablesIII. Hypothesis and theory
I. VARIABLE “A variable is anything that can take on different
values” (Marczyk, DeMatteo, & Festinger, p. 3 & 42).
Williams (1986) defines a variable as “an observable characteristic of an object or event that can be described according to some well-defined classification or measurement scheme” (p. 4).
Bolton and Parker (1992) define a variable as “characteristics of persons or things that can take on two or more values” (p. 341).
A variable is an object, event, idea, feeling, time period, or any other type of category you are trying to measure.
A key element is that variables refer to characteristics that are not fixed but are able to vary, that is, to take on more than one value.
For example, the word “green” would not be a variable but “shades of green” could be a variable.
“One inch” is not a variable, however, “length”, which could be operationally defined as the number of inches as measured by a ruler would be a variable.
Variable is simply, something that varies. Specifically, variables represent persons or objects
that can be manipulated, controlled, or merely measured for the sake of research.
Variation: How much a variable varies. Those with little variation are called constants.
A variable is a measured concept.
There can be more than one variable for a single concept.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
Quantitative Variables Discrete Variables Continuous Variables
Qualitative or Categorical Variables
A variable that can be measured numerically is called a quantitative variable. The data collected on a quantitative variable are called quantitative data.
A variable whose values are countable is called a discrete variable. In other words, a discrete variable can assume only certain values with no intermediate values.
Example: A household could have: three children or six children, but not 4.53 children. two or three cars, but not 2.5 cars.
A variable that can assume any numerical value over a certain interval or intervals is called a continuous variable.
Example: A person can be: 5.7 inches tall, & 80.1 kg in weight
A variable that cannot assume a numerical value but can be classified into two or more nonnumeric categories is called a qualitative or categorical variable. The data collected on such a variable are called qualitative data.
Variable
Quantitative Qualitative orcategorical (e.g.,
make of a computer,hair color, gender)
Continuous(e.g., length,age, height,weight, time)
Discrete (e.g.,number of
houses, cars,accidents)
DEPENDENT & INDEPENDENT VARIABLES• Independent variable: “Variable that is believed to
cause or influence the dependent variable".
• Dependent variable: “Variable that is influenced by the independent variable".
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
These variables are ones that are more or less controlled.
Scientists manipulate these variables as they see fit.
They still vary, but the variation is relatively known or taken into account.
Often there are many in a given study.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Dependent variables are not controlled or manipulated in any way, but instead are simply measured or registered.
These vary in relation to the independent variables, and while results can be predicted, the data is always measured.
There can be any number of dependent variables, but usually there is one to isolate reason for variation.
WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?
The dependent variable is placed on the y-axis
The independent variable is placed on the x-axis.
ANTECEDENT VARIABLE An antecedent variable is a variable that occurs
before the independent variable and the dependent variable.
CONTROL VARIABLE Variable held constant in order to assess or clarify the
relationship between two other variables. In the example below, sex is a control variable.
# of hours studying
CGPA
sex
INTERACTIVE QUIZ: IV AND DV
1. Time spent studying causes a change in test score.2. Stress causes increase heart rate.3. Independent happens no matter what, dependent
can only happen based on another condition.
INTERACTIVE QUIZ: FIND THE IV AND DV
A researcher wanted to study the effects of sleep deprivation on physical coordination. The researcher selected 25 year-old male college students and deprived some of the subjects to either 24, 36, or 45 hours of sleep.
In the present study the independent variable was: a) the length of time the subjects were deprived of sleep. b) the age of the subjects. c) the gender of the subjects. d) the physical coordination skills of the subjects.
In the present study the dependent variable was: a) the length of time the subjects were deprived of sleep. b) the age of the subjects. c) the gender of the subjects. d) the physical coordination skills of the subjects.
INTERACTIVE QUIZ: QUANTITATIVE OR QUALITATIVE?
1. Hair color2. Height3. Eye color 4. Religion5. Shoe size6. Favorite movie 7. Sex8. Weight9. Money10. Time11. Age12. Self-esteem score13. CGPA
LECTURE 4
OUTLINE
I. Relationship among variablesII. Hypothesis and theoryIII. Theoretical FrameworkIV. Conceptual Framework/ModelV. Interactive quiz
I. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG VARIABLES
Examine relationship among variables as they exist naturally
Positive correlation Negative correlation No or neutral correlation Differences in kind, degree
POSITIVE CORRELATION
Both variables change in same direction As one increases the other increases As one decreases the other decreases
Examples:(Height and Weight)(Amount of Study time and GPA)
NEGATIVE CORRELATION
Both variables change in opposite directions
As one increases the other decreases
(and vice versa)
(# of cigarettes smoked and # of years of life expectancy)
NO OR NEUTRAL CORRELATION
The variables are not related to each other. A is not related to B. B is not related to A.
SCATTER DIAGRAMS
DIFFERENCES IN KIND, DEGREE OF VARIABLES
Comparison between variables Compare a variable according to another variable
Example compare CGPA between girls and boys (the extent of differences between 2 groups)
To actually measure relationships among variables, you have to know what level of measurement the variable is.
The level of measurement determines what kinds of mathematical operations can meaningfully be performed on the values of a variable. In this course, we basically deal with just three kinds of relationships:
TEST FOR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN/AMONG VARIABLES
Variables Test for Relationship Example
Both variables are nominal level Chi-square test
See which divisions have the most female employees
Independent variable is nominal,Dependent variable is interval or ratio
T-test (if indep has 2 categories only);ANOVA
Test hypothesis that male employees are more satisfied than female employees
Both variables are interval level Correlation; Regression
Look at relationship between job satisfaction and salary level
II. HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY
A successful hypothesis becomes a scientific theory.
• What is a Hypothesis:
hunch or expectations that social scientists have about relationships between or among variables,
commonly but not always expressed as the expectation that variation in an independent variable will “cause” or be associated with variation in a dependent variable.
A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study.
For example, a study designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states,
“This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety.”
Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your experiment or research.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
contains at least 2 variables. states the relationship between 2 variables. stated in a simple, clear, accurate and specific
form. present the study variable in an operational
term. can be tested to determine the extend to
which it can be supported or rejected.
can be deduced from theory, past research or observation, thus, it must be consistent with the existing knowledge or what is already known.
provides the guide for which research strategy to use.
help to identify the type of data to be collected. help to identify which statistic to use in analyzing
data. facilitate in how to reach a conclusion in solving
the research problem.
FORMS & CLASSES OF HYPOTHESIS
Form Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis
Classes Directional Non-directional
NULL HYPOTHESIS also known as statistical hypothesis or zero
hypothesis. (). labelled as H0 states that there is no difference or relationship
between the groups or variables measured. statement to be rejected.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS also known as the research hypothesis or working
hypothesis. labelled as Ha. states that there is a difference or relationships
between groups or variables that are being measured.
statement to be accepted.
DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS is a hypothesis that specifies the direction of the
predicted relationship that is whether the predicted relationship will be positive or negative.
enough evidence to deduce for the direction of the expected results (IV on DV).
NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
is a hypothesis that does not indicate the direction of the expected research results.
positive or negative results of the investigation will not be stated.
SOME EXAMPLESNull There is no significant
relationship between number of hours studying and test score.
Alternative There is a significant relationship between number of hours studying and test score.
Directional Students who study longer hours will get higher score on the test.
Non-directional
Number of hours studying will influence test score.
THEORY AND ROLE OF THEORY
A theory is a set of propositions meant to explain a class of phenomena Propositions are causes, the phenomena are the
effects induced by the causes Theories often lead to the generation of
hypotheses that confirm or disconfirm the theory Theories are constructed by scientists
A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural word.
A theory arises from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested hypotheses that are widely accepted.
Theory guides the research process, forms the research questions, aids in design, analysis and interpretation.
A theoretical framework can be thought of as a map or travel plan.
While the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in general practice, the difference between a theory and a hypothesis is important when studying experimental design.
Some important distinctions to note include:
A theory predicts events in general terms, while a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
A theory is has been extensively tested and is generally accepted, while a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.
Theory: a hypothesis that becomes very well supported over a period of time.
The word theory applies to a well-tested hypothesis that unifies a broad range of observations
E.G. OF HOW THEORY DEVELOPS
Scientific Method Car Repair
Observation Engine won’t turn over.
Hypothesis (prediction)
Predict battery is dead.
Test Replace battery.
Observe result Engine now turns over.
Revise hypothesis? Not needed.
New test? Not needed.
Scientific Theory Cars won’t work without a fully charged battery.
newton.uor.edu/facultyfolder/tyler_nordgren/.../FYS_SciMethod.ppt
E.G. OF HOW THEORY DEVELOPSScientific Method Making Spaghetti
Sauce
Observation Spaghetti sauce should be red.
Hypothesis (prediction)
Try a tomato sauce.
Test Heat pot of tomato sauce.
Observe result Taste the sauce - bland.
Revise hypothesis? Use tomato sauce and garlic!
New test? Add garlic, taste - not so bland.
Scientific Theory The Final Recipe.
newton.uor.edu/facultyfolder/tyler_nordgren/.../FYS_SciMethod.ppt
A theory is a highly successful hypothesis. All hypotheses make predictions. All theories make predictions. All theories can be tested. Any scientific theory is subject to change as our
ability to make tests, or make observations of a test’s results, improves with time.
newton.uor.edu/facultyfolder/tyler_nordgren/.../FYS_SciMethod.ppt
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The theoretical framework of the study is a
structure that can hold or support a theory of a research work. It presents the theory which explains why the problem under study exists.
Thus, the theoretical framework is but a theory that serves as a basis for conducting research.
Ref: journclasses.pbworks.com/f/theoretical+framework.ppt
Theoretical Framework:A process model of the determinants of parenting (Belsky, 1984)
Purpose of theoretical framework:
It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the study;
It can provide him with a general framework for data analysis;
It is essential in preparing a research proposal using descriptive and experimental methods.
THEORETICAL VS CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
While the theoretical framework is the theory on which the study is based, the conceptual framework is the operationalization of the theory.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
It is the researcher’s own position on the problem and gives direction to the study.
It may be an adaptation of a model used in a previous study, with modifications to suit the inquiry.
Aside from showing the direction of the study, through the conceptual framework, the researcher can be able to show the relationships of the different constructs that he wants to investigate.
Conceptual Framework for a study on “Predictors of Parenting Behavior and Child Academic Achievement
Academic achievement
ParentingBehavior
Parental Characteristics• Age• Education • Self-efficacy
Family Contexts• # of children• Family income• Parental Marital
Q Quality
Child Characteristics• Age• Sex• Aspiration
INTERACTIVE QUIZ
1. A good scientific hypothesis must be ________A. correct.B. able to be tested.C. obvious.D. based on common sense.
INTERACTIVE QUIZ
2. A well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations is a A. hypothesisB. variableC. controlD. theory
For each of the following, indicate whether the expected relationship between the two variables will be positive (+), negative (−), or zero (0):
____ A. Air temperature and the amount of snow on the ground____ B. The number of minutes of exercise per day and score on a physical fitness test____ C. The number of years since having a driver’s license and age____ D. The number of pages in a textbook and cost of that textbook____ E. Age at which a child takes its first step and educational level of the parents
HOMEWORK:WRITE IN YOUR OWN WORDS THE MEANING OF THE FOLLOWING RESEARCH LANGUAGE
Hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis:
Alternative Hypothesis:
Theoretical Framework:
Conceptual Framework/model:
LECTURE 5
OUTLINE
I. Classification & Types of Research II. Research DesignIII. Class Discussion
II. CLASSIFICATION & TYPES OF RESEARCH
II. Classification & Types of Research
CLASSIFICATION TYPES
I). Application 1. Pure/Basic Research2. Applied Research
II). Objectives 1. Descriptive research2. Exploratory3. Correlational 4. Explanatory
III). Types of information sought
1. Quantitative research2. Qualitative research3. Mixed methods
CLASSIFICATION BY APPLICATION
PURE/BASIC (Fundamental research)
APPLIED RESEARCH
• Address theoretical issues • Produce solution to a specific issues/problem
• Expand existing knowledge • Seek additional knowledge
• Explore the unknown • Solve immediate, practical problem
• Emphasize explanation • Emphasize application
• Complex methodology • Simple methodology
• Seeks answers, solutions, developments, and/or uses related to topics/problems that are new & different
• Uses known information, products, and/or services
• Long-term application • Short-term application
E.G., OF PURE RESEARCH What is the strength of Malaysian familes?
Developing family strength inventory of Malaysian families.
Why does deviant behavior occur?Stimulate new ways of thinking about deviance.
E.G., OF APPLIED RESEARCH Factors related to adolescents’ conduct problem.
Information relevant for parents, educators, police, policy makers, etc., who are trying to prevent delinquency.
Action research, social impact assessment research are popular examples of applied research.
Most social science research are applied in nature.
CLASSIFICATION BY OBJECTIVES
Descriptive Exploratory Correlational Explanatory
•Describe systematically a situation/topic of interest.
•e.g., describe the attitude of UPM students toward smoking.
•Explore areas of limited knowledge.•Feasibility/pilot study.
•May result in full study.
•Also use to develop, refine, and/or test measurement tools and procedures
•e.g., describe the prevalence of smoking amongst UPM students.
•Determine the extent of the existence of a relationship between 2 or > aspect of a situation.
•e.g., what is the relationship between smoking and the incidence of heart attack?
•Clarify why and how there is a relationship between 2 aspects of a situation.
•e.g., why cigarette smoking results in heart attack?
CLASSIFICATION BY INFORMATION SOUGHT
ASPECTS QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Views on the world
Assumed social facts have objective truth, removed from individual beliefs.
Assumed that truth is constructed from social, individual or group definition of a situation.
Research Purpose
Describe reason for change in social facts through measurement and objective analysis.
Emphasize more on understanding social phenomena from the perspective of the actor based on his/her participation.
Approach Use approach such as experimental or correlation that distant a person from clearly understanding social facts.
Use approach such as ethnography that can help in understanding a research situation clearly.
Researcher’s role
Researcher removes self from the subject to avoid bias.
Researchers immerse self in the research phenomena.
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Data are in the form of numbers.
Data are in the form of words
Deductive process Inductive process
Theory-based from onset. No theoretical emphasis onset
Reality is objective Reality is subjective
Researcher is independent from subject
Researcher interacts with subjects
Value-free and unbiased Value-laden and biased
Context-free Context-bound
Generalization for explanation/ understanding & prediction
Patterns, theories developed for understanding
Accurate & reliable through validity and reliability
Accurate and reliable through verification
Statistical report Narrative report
QN QL
Observe using structure questionnaire
Observe/ask questions with open-ended answers
Data entry Record what is said and/or done
Data analysis Interpret
Data interpretations Return to observe/ask more questions(recurring cycle 2-4
Draw conclusions Theorizing
General Sequence for Qn & Ql. Method
• Collect both quantitative & qualitative data
• Develops rationale for mixing
• Integrates data at different stages of inquiry
• Employs both qualitative and quantitative data analysis
• Both statistical and narrative reports.
Mixed methods
III. RESEARCH DESIGN
What is Research Design?
A plan, structure and strategy of investigation to obtain answers to research questions or problems
It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data
(Kerlinger, 1986:279).
Purpose of Research Design
identify the most appropriate method in conducting research
identify research variable & how to operationalize it
the robust and objective research
identify the most economical method in conducting the research
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Experimental Research Non-Experimental Research
• True Experimental Designs
• Quasi-Experimental Designs
1.Historical Research
2.Descriptive Researcha)Case Studiesb)Survey Research
3.Developmental Researcha)Longitudinal Researchb)Cross-Sectional Research
4.Correlational Research
HISTORICAL RESEARCH/HISTORGRAPHY
What? Attempt to identify: Source of Data
Limitations
Study past events
i). Factors from the past that have impact on the present of the future.
ii).Factors from two or more periods in the past that may be compared and may or may not be related to the present or the future.
iii).Factors from one or more periods in the past that are compared with or related to the future.
•Documents•Oral histories•Remains, remnant, and relics
Generalizability
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
What? Case Study Survey
Describe the current state of affairs of some phenomenon at the time of the study.
Study an individual or an institution as detailed as possible.
Basic tools:Indepth interviewQualitative observation
Study directly the characteristics of population thro’ surveys.
Examines the frequency & relationships betw. psychological and sociological variables --- attitudes, beliefs, prejudice, opinion.
Basic tools:QuestionnaireInterviews
CASE STUDY SURVEY RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES i. Focus on one individual or one thing, allows close examination
ii. Encourage use of several techniques.
iii.Richer data.iv.Suggestions
directions for further study.
i. Give broad picture of phenomenon studied.
ii. Survey research is efficient.
iii.Can yield remarkably accurate results
DISADVANTAGES
i. time consumingii. biased view of one
personiii.provide depth, not
breadthiv. not for establishing
any cause- and-effect links
v. generalizability is limited
Biasi. Interviewer biasii. Questionnaire bias
Uncooperative respondents
iii.Refused to answer as in mail surveys
Developmental ResearchStudy patterns and sequences of growth and/or change as part or function of time.
Longitudinal Research Cross-Sectional Research
• Examines one group of people repeatedly over time,
• Examine change over an extended period of time.
• Study same respondents studied according to age increment
• Examines several groups of people at one point in time.
• Examine age differences rather than age changes.
• Study different respondents with different age categories.
ADVANTAGES
Longitudinal Research Cross-Sectional Research
Reveals extensive detail on the process of of development
Inexpensive
High comparability of (the same) groups
Short time span
Allows for the study of continuity between widely differing groups
Low dropout rate
Allows modified cause and effect speculation about the relationship between variables
Requires no long-term administration or cooperation between staff and participants
DISADVANTAGES
Longitudinal Research Cross-Sectional Research
Expensive to conduct Limits comparability of groups
Potential for high dropout rate (mortality/attrition)
Gives no idea as to the direction of change that a group might take.
Examines people of the different chronological age
Examines people of the same chronological age who may be of different maturational ages.
Reveals continuity of development on a person-by-person case.
Reveals nothing about the continuity of development on a person-by-person case.
Correlational Research
Describes the linear relationship between 2 or more variables
no hinting on the effect of one variable to another
Determine the extent to which variations/change in one factor/variable,
Corresponds/relates to variations in one or > other factors/variables.
Focus on the amount of variance shared between 2 variables.
That is the more 2 things have in common, the more strongly related they will be to each other
(e.g., relationship between reading & mathematics vs. reading & physical strength.
A
B
A
B
A B
1
2
3
Frequent measure used to assess degree of relatedness is the correlation coefficient
a numerical index reflecting the relationship between 2 variables.
expressed as a number between -1.00 and +1.00
Strength increases as amount of variance one variable shares with another increases.
The important quality of a correlation coefficient is not its sign, but its absolute value.
A correlation of -.75 is stronger than a correlation of +.65, just as a correlation of +.58 is weaker than a correlation of -.70.
Pearson product moment correlation – search detail.
Correlations can be direct/positive as one variable changes in value, the other changes in the
same direction.
Correlations can also be indirect/negative as one variable changes in value in one direction, the other
changes in the opposite direction.
Focuses on analyzing the cause and effects of a phenomenon.
To test the presence of a distinct cause and effect:
A does cause B to happen?A does not cause B to happen?(change in one factor are causally related to
changes in the other – there are not just related; i.e., they share something, but one directly affects the other)
Experimental Research Design
Expt. design delineates several procedures that must be followed by researchers, as follows:
1. Determines control group randomly which, based on statistical characteristics is similar to the experimental or treatment group
(similar in statistic characteristics of the population used so that the subjects of the study are comparable and not extreme, for example, heights not exceeding 7 feet, between the two groups).
2. Control and experimental groups originate from the same population (this will help to determine similarities in terms of statistics)
3. Subjects in the control group are not exposed to the treatment, intervention or changes or variable(s) that will be manipulated.
4. Both groups must comprise equal numbers of subjects.
5. Conduct pre-test for the dependent variable for both control and experimental groups.
6. Conduct post-test for the dependent variable for both control and experimental groups.
7. Your study is complete after the post-test. You can conduct the post-test as many times as needed even when the experiment is taking place. Your research results are interpreted based on the differences in the post-tests between the experimental and control groups.
HAWTHORNE AND PLACEBO EFFECTS are two important issues that need to be given
attention in experimental research.
Hawthorne effect refers to the inclination of the research subjects to behave differently when they realized that they are being studied.
Placebo effect refers to the tendency of the subjects to feel themselves to be ‘better-off’ when they know that they are being treated.
To ensure that the effects of both Hawthorne dan Placebo can be controlled, you need to make certain that the subjects have no knowledge of their positions in the experiment (i.e,. whether in the control or experimental group).
QUASI EXPERIMENT
is designed to parallel true experiment. not lower in value than true experiment. sometimes better and more realistic than the true
experiment.
sometimes known as expo-facto research since, done after phenomena took place.
IV is difficult to manipulate as in the true experiment. does not emphasize the element of randomness as in
the true experiment.
subject is not randomly selected to be in any kind of situation.
subjects are chosen based on the IV ( e.g., age & sex).
the validity for the quasi experimental research is lower than the true experimental research.
Quasi experimental research can be classified according to three categories:
1) Quasi experiment using ‘subject variables’ Comparison between different subjects Pre-test and post-test measurements of the dependent variables
2) Quasi experiment using ‘environmental variable’ (time –series design) Comparison among the same subjects Several observations made on the same subject for a period of time
3) Quasi experiment involving time panel/cohort: Testing for developmental change. For example, comparing the
academic achievement of PJJ students cohort of May 2003/04 with those of May 2005/6
E.G., QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH1). The Effects of Taking Breakfast
Experimental Group?Control Group?
2) The Effects of Cigarette Smoking on Unborn ChildExperimental Group?Control Group?
CLASS DISCUSSIONS
Write the objectives for the research entitled “Factors related to academic achievement amongst FEM 3002 students of UPM.”
1). Decide what approach & research design you would use to conduct the research.
2). Draw your model (conceptual framework or conceptual model).
3). Write the relevant objectives & hypothesis for the research.
LECTURE 6 & 7
OUTLINE
I. What is a Research Proposal?II. Format of a research proposalIII. Description of a research
proposal content Sample proposal
Research Proposal?
Communicates a researchers plan for a study
Research Report?
Communicates what was actually done and what resulted
I. What is a Research Proposal?I. WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?
Writing a research proposal is an important component of a research activity.
Writing for an academic requirement or to apply funding from a certain sponsor.
For the academic purpose -- needs to be presented to a committee for approval.
II. FORMAT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1. Title2. Introduction3. Literature Review 4. Methodology5. Work Schedule6. Bibliography7. Budget8. Appendixes – Letters and
Questionnaire
III. DESCRIPTION OF A PROPOSAL CONTENT
1.0 : TITLE
The title refers to the issue focus on in the study. The selection of the title is based on what you are interested to
study. A ‘good’ title has the following characteristics:
contains less than 15 words contains variable (s) of the study describe the subject (e.g., adolescent, male adolescent, female
adolescent, secondary school students, primary school students, preschool children, working women, dual-earner couples)
identify location (e.g., urban, rural, name of district, name of state) contains statistic words (e.g., relationship, comparison, predictor) The title is more of a label for the research and not written in a
complete sentence, thus you will not put a period for a title.
Example 1:Mobile Phone Use amongst On-Campus Students in
Universiti Putra Malaysia: Its Correlates and Impact on Psychological Health and Academic Achievement
Example 2: Relationship between Parenting Behavior and
Psychosocial Functiong of School-going Adolescents in Bandar Baru Bangi
Example 3:Parenting Behavior of Mothers and Fathers of Children
with Mental Disoders in Selayang Hospital
2.0 INTRODUCTION
gives the general picture of what you want to study. You need to give general description of the purpose of the
study, its relationship to the current phenomena, problems related to it and why it needs to be investigatied.
In general this section gives answer to basic questions including ‘what’ and ‘why’ a study needs to be conducted.
Subtopics in this section include: Statement of the problem Significance of the study Objective – general & specific
Hypothesis Conceptual framework Definition of terminology (conceptual & operational) Limitation of study
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In this section you need to declare in clear terms the specific problem you want to focus.
In other words, tell exactly what you want to study. It must be stated in a ‘logico-empirical’ way, i.e., the problem must be concrete/tangible and can be measured.
You want to address the questions that you are interested in, and which are appealing to your reader so that they too would agree with you that the study needs to be conducted.
Describe briefly the background of the problem that you intent to study and how it can help you to answer ‘what’ you plan to study.
STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
State what the study is in very clear term. Help communicate your ideas to others. Help guide the research process (e.g., what variables
will be examined, what methods will be used).
WELL-STATED RESEARCH PROBLEM
State in simplest form. Stated as a question is preferable.
Identify the variables being investigated. Indicate the relationships between the variables
being investigated. Identify the target population.
EXAMPLES OF WELL-STATED RESEARCH PROBLEM The study was designed to identify factors that predict the parenting
behaviors of mothers, and to explore whether or not the same factors predict the quality of care provided by Malays, Chinese and Indian mothers. The factors related to the achievement of children ages 6-8 years old, were also examined.
factors related to parenting behaviors of mothers from different ethnic groups and their children’s achievement.
Predictors of mothers’ parenting behaviors and achievement of children from different ethnic groups.
The purpose of this study is to determine what effect preschool experiences have on the socialization of children entering the first grade.
The purpose of this study is to determine whether there is a difference in the rate of child abuse between female single families and male single-parent families.
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
This section explains to your reader or assessor the potential benefits of the research that you are going to conduct. You may describe how the results can be useful to a specific population or organization.
STUDY OBJECTIVE
The objective of a study can be classify into two, i.e., 1). General objective and 2). Specific objective. This section discusses the two types of objectives.
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
Akin to its name this objective broadly describes the aim of the study. Words that can be used for this objective must be measurable, such as:
Describe Explain Evaluate Examine Identify Determine Study
Example: This study aims to determine the relationships
between the level of problematic mobile phone use and psychological health of college students.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE
This objective is more explicit, precise and related to the general objective.
The purpose of this objective is to reflect on the method that will be used to achieve the objective of the study.
When reporting your research results in your final report, you would definitely need to refer or relate them back to your objectives.
Research objectives have direct relationships with the results that you will obtain.
Like the general objective, words that can be used in writing your specific objectives must be measurable, such as:
identify determine examine evaluate compare
You must avoid using unmeasurable words in writing your specific objectives, such as:
to ‘see’ to ‘understand’ to ‘know’
HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis refers to an educated guess that is developed to guide you on what the expected outcome of your research.
It is a prediction that can be tested. However, students must understand that not all
research need hypothesis (e.g., for exploratory and descriptive research).
You would only need to write hypothesis when you plan to use inferential statistics.
Your hypothesis should be derived /supported by the literature.
There are two types of hypothesis: 1). Null hypothesis, and 2). Alternative hypothesis.
• Let’s refer to Lecture 4 for our discussions on hypotheses.
• The following slides will present to you more samples of the different types of hypotheses.
Null hypothesis
HoX: There is no significant relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable
The format for writing hypothesis is as follows:
Alternative Hypothesis
HaX: There is a significant relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
EXAMPLE OF NULL HYPOTHESIS:
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between level of problematic mobile phone use and the academic performance of the secondary school students.
EXAMPLE OF ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS:
HaX1: The level of problematic mobile phone use is related to the academic performance of the secondary school students.
HaX2: Students who are problematic mobile phone users are more likely to be less academically well.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK:
A conceptual framework refers to the working model for your study. The model outlines your study variables, their positions and directions of effects. A good model is a useful model, that is, one that provides you with a clear direction of your research.
DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGY
Important terminologies included in your study must be defined conceptually and operationally.
Operational definition For this definition you will give an exact
specification of how a concept is measured or manipulated in your study.
Conceptual definition This is a general description of all the constructs,
terms or variables that you have included in your study. In this definition you will provide an abstract characterization of all your constructs/terms/variables.
Example :Research Title: ‘Relationship between level of self-
esteem and adolescent’s academic achievement’
Self-esteem Conceptual: A person’s overall self-evaluation or
sense of self worth. Operational: Respondent’s score on the Rosenberg’s
(1979) self-esteem scale.
LIMITATION OF STUDY
In this section you need to discuss the restriction or drawback of your study with respect to aspects such as:
Respondent Sampel size Location of study Sampling technique used Variables selected
Example 1: The current study focused on personal and family
factors associated with mobile phone use and its impacts on psychological health and academic achievement of college students. Other factors and impacts of the mobile phone may also be pertinent to explore, but was not the scope of the present study. Sample for the study would include only on-campus students of UPM, identified via cluster sampling. Those residing off-campus will not be selected for the study.
3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
The "literature" of a literature review refers to any collection of materials on a topic. It could be anything from a set of government pamphlets to scholarly published articles (i.e., non-fiction).
When you conduct a literature review you discuss published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period.
The review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis.
Literature reviews typically contain three basic elements:
1) An introduction or background information section Provides a quick opening of your topic, including its central theme
and organizational pattern.
2) The body of the review Contains your discussion of sources and is organized
chronologically, thematically, or methodologically.
3) A conclusion and/or recommendations section to end the paper.
Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing literature, and where might proceed.
WHY REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1. Examining the available body of knowledge in your area of interest.
2. Sets the stage for successful completion of research proposal and study.
3. A continuous process from beginning of research to ending.
4. Beginning: to become familiar with the research topic.
5. Ending: to integrate/compare your research findings with that of others.
STEPS IN CONDUCTING LITERATURE REVIEW:
1. Search for existing literature in your area of study.
2. Review the literature selected.3. Develop a theoretical framework; and 4. Develop a conceptual framework.
LITERATURE SOURCES:
General sources: Provide an overview of a topic and leads to find
more information.
e.g., newspapers, popular periodicals & magazines, trade books, Readers Guide to Periodical Literature
Secondary sources: Provide a level of information not from the
original source.
e.g., books give information on specific subjects Summary of selected research.
Primary sources: An original report of the original work or
experience.
e.g., journals, abstracts, and scholarly books, ERIC, movies
4.0 METHODOLOGY
The methodology presents the reader with your research design. There are at least four sections you will discuss here:
1). Study location Indicate where you want to conduct your study
2). Population and Sampel selection
Indicate which group of people you want to study
Discuss whom you would include in your sampling frame, which would you select as your respondents, and what would be your sampling technique?
3) Data collection
Discuss your measurements for both independent and dependent variables
Discuss the tool you would use for your data collection – e.g., questionnaire, observation scale?
Discuss what method you would use to collect your data – e.g., survey, case study? What technique would you use – e.g., face-to-face interview, mail interview, telephone interview?
4). Data analysis
Discuss what statistics you would use to describe data and test your hypothesis.
Discuss the results that you expected, you may want to present these using dummy tables.
5.0 WORK SCHEDULE
Work schedule is important for you to plan and present the processes that possibly may take place in your research.
The expected time frame you need to complete your research depends very much on the scope of your research.
6.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
At the end of your proposal/thesis report your will need to list down all the references that you have cited in the text.
The bibliography maybe written using the format/style provided by the American Psychological Association (APA).
7.0 BUDGET
In your proposal, you will include a section where you would indicate the estimated amount of money you need to conduct your research.
This section is very important especially when you are planning to apply for funds/grants from any institution or organization.
8.0 APPENDIX
At the end of your proposal, you would attach an appendix or appendixes containing materials related to your research project such as:
Letters Questionnaire Instruments Newspaper clipping
SAMPLE PROPOSAL
Students will go through a sample of a proposal and identify the different components that have been discussed.
