Industrial Revo Urban Planning

8/10/2019 Industrial Revo Urban Planning

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Urban planning

Urban planning designs settlements, from the smallest towns to

the largest cities. Shown here isHong Kongfrom Western District

overlookingKowloon, acrossVictoria Harbour.

Urban planning (urban, merged urban regions, regional,

city, and town planning) is a technical and political pro-

cess concerned with the use of land and design of the ur-

ban environment, including air and water and infrastruc-ture passing into and out of urban areas such as trans-

portation and distribution networks.

Urban planning guides and ensures the orderly devel-

opment of settlementsand satellite communities which

commute into and out of urban areas or share resources

with it. It concerns itself with research and analysis,

strategic thinking,architecture,urban design,public con-

sultation, policy recommendations, implementation and

management.[1]

A plan can take a variety of forms including strategic

plans, comprehensive plans, neighborhood plans, regu-latory and incentive strategies, or historic preservation

plans. Planners are often also responsible for enforcing

the chosen policies.

The modern origins of urban planning lie in the move-

ment for urban reform that arose as a reaction against the

disorder of theindustrial city in the mid-19th century.

Urban planning can includeurban renewal, by adapting

urban planning methods to existing cities suffering from

decline. Alternatively, it can concern the massive chal-

lenges associated with urban growth, particularly in the

Global South.[2]

In the late 20th century, the term sustainable developmenthas come to represent an ideal outcome in the sum of all

planning goals.[3]

1 History

In theNeolithicperiod, agriculture and other techniques

facilitated larger populations than the very small com-

munities of the Paleolithic, which probably led to the

stronger, more coercive governments emerging at that

time. The pre-Classical and Classical periods saw a num-

ber of cities laid out according to fixed plans, though

many tended to develop organically. Designed cities were

characteristic of theMinoan, Mesopotamian,Harrapan,

andEgyptian civilizations of the third millennium BC

(seeUrban planning in ancient Egypt). The first recorded

description of urban planning is described in the Epic

of Gilgamesh: Go up on to the wall of Uruk and walk

around. Inspect the foundation platform and scrutinize

the brickwork. Testify that its bricks are baked bricks,

And that the Seven Counsellors must have laid its foun-

dations. One squaremileis city, one square mile is or-

chards, one square mile is claypits, as well as the openground of Ishtar's temple.Three square miles and the

open ground comprise Uruk. Look for the copper tablet-

box, Undo its bronze lock, Open the door to its secret,

Lift out the lapis lazuli tablet and read. [4]

Distinct characteristics of urban planning from remains

of the cities of Harappa, Lothal, andMohenjo-daroin

theIndus Valley Civilization(in modern-day northwest-

ern India and Pakistan) lead archeologists to conclude that

they are the earliest examples of deliberately planned and

managed cities.[5][6] The streets of many of these early

cities were paved and laid out at right angles in a grid pat-

tern, with a hierarchy of streets from major boulevards toresidential alleys. Archaeologicalevidence suggests that

many Harrapan houses were laid out to protect from noise

and enhance residential privacy; many also had their own

water wells, probably for both sanitary and ritual pur-

poses. These ancient cities were unique in that they often

had drainage systems, seemingly tied to a well-developed

ideal of urbansanitation.[5]

Many Central American civilizations also planned their

cities, including sewage systems and running water. In

Mexico, Tenochtitlan was the capitalof the Aztec empire,

built on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now the Fed-

eral District in central Mexico. At its height, Tenochtit-lan was one of the largest cities in the world, with over

200,000 inhabitants.[7]

1
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2 1 HISTORY

Map ofPiraeus, the port ofAthens, showing the grid plan of the

city

1.1 Classical and Medieval Europe

Traditionally, the Greek philosopher Hippodamus(5th

century BC) is regarded as the first town planner and in-

ventor of the orthogonal urban layout. Aristotlecalled

him the father of city planning,[8] and until well into the

20th century, he was indeed regarded as such. This is,

however, only partly justified. The Hippodamian plan

that was called after him, is an orthogonal urban layout

with more or less square street blocks. Archaeological

finds from ancient Egyptamong othersdemonstrate

that Hippodamus cannot truly have been the inventor of

this layout.[9] Aristotlescritique and indeed ridicule of

Hippodamus, which appears in Politics2. 8, is perhapsthe first known example of a criticism of urban planning.

From about the late 8th century on, Greek city-states

started to found colonies along the coasts of the Mediter-

ranean, which were centered on newly created towns and

cities with more or less regular orthogonal plans. Gradu-

ally, the new layouts became more regular.[10] After the

city ofMiletuswas destroyed by the Persians in 494 BC,

it was rebuilt in a regular form that, according to tra-

dition, was determined by the ideas of Hippodamus of

Miletus.[11] Regular orthogonal plans particularly appear

to have been laid out for new colonial cities and cities that

were rebuilt in a short period of time after destruction.

Following in the tradition of Hippodamus about a century

later, Alexander commissioned the architect Dinocrates

to lay out his new city ofAlexandria, the grandest exam-

ple of idealized urban planning of the ancient Hellenistic

world, where the citys regularity was facilitated by its

level site near a mouth of the Nile.

Theancient Romans also employed regular orthogonal

structures on which they molded their colonies.[12] They

probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples,

as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by

theEtruscansin Italy.

[13]

(seeMarzabotto)The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city plan-

ning, developed for military defense and civil conve-

nience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with

city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid

of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To re-

duce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square

grid, passing through the central square. A river usually

flowed through the city, providing water, transport, and

sewage disposal.[14] Hundreds of towns and cities werebuilt by the Romans throughout their empire. Many Eu-

ropean towns, such as Turin, preserve the remains of

these schemes, which show the very logical way the Ro-

mans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets

at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads

were equal in width and length, except for two, which

were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran east

west, the other, northsouth, and intersected in the mid-

dle to form the center of the grid. All roads were made

of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller,

hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed

where needed. Each square marked by four roads wascalled aninsula,the Roman equivalent of a moderncity

block.

Each insula was 80 yards (73 m) square, with the land

within it divided. As the city developed, each insula

would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes

and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys.

Most insulae were given to the first settlers of a Roman

city, but each person had to pay to construct his own

house.

The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from in-

vaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city lim-

its were left open as farmland. At the end of each mainroad was a large gateway with watchtowers. Aportcullis

covered the opening when the city was under siege, and

additional watchtowers were constructed along the city

walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls.

The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is

relatively well-known, as there are relatively many written

sources, and there has been much attention to the subject

since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as

the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should

not be forgotten, though, that there were also other cul-

tures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, pri-

marily ofCeltic origin.[15] Among these, there are alsocases that appear to have been newly planned, such as the

Lusatian town ofBiskupinin Poland.

After the gradual disintegration and fall of the West-

Roman empire in the 5th century and the devastation

by the invasions of Huns, Germanic peoples, Byzantines,

Moors, Magyars, and Normans in the next five centuries,

little remained of urban culture in western and central Eu-

rope. In the 10th and 11th centuries, though, there ap-

pears to have been a general improvement in the political

stability and economy. This made it possible for trade and

craft to grow and for the monetary economy and urban

culture to revive. Initially, urban culture recovered par-ticularly in existing settlements, often in remnants of Ro-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biskupinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portcullishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_blockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_blockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marzabottohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinocrateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miletushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippodamus_of_Miletushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piraeus


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1.2 Renaissance Europe 3

man towns and cities, but later on, ever more towns were

created anew. Meanwhile, the population of western Eu-

rope increased rapidly and the utilized agricultural area

grew with it. The agricultural areas of existing villages

were extended and new villages and towns were created

in uncultivated areas as cores for new reclamations.[16]

Urban development in the early Middle Ages, charac-

teristically focused on a fortress, a fortified abbey, or a

(sometimes abandoned) Roman nucleus, occurred like

the annular rings of a tree,[17] whether in an extended

village or the center of a larger city. Since the new cen-

ter was often on high, defensible ground, the city plan

took on an organic character, following the irregulari-

ties ofelevation contourslike the shapes that result from

agricultural terracing.

Caernarvon (Wales). Plan by John Speed, 1611. Caernarfon

castle and town were re-founded by King Edward I ofEngland in

July 1283, during his second Welsh campaign to end the SecondWar of Independence.

In the 9th to 14th centuries, many hundreds of new towns

were built in Europe, and many others were enlarged with

newly planned extensions. These new towns and town ex-

tensions have played a very important role in the shap-

ing of Europes geographical structures as they in mod-

ern times. New towns were founded in different parts

of Europe from about the 9th century on, but most of

them were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, with

a peak-period at the end of the 13th. All kinds of land-

lords, from the highest to the lowest rank, tried to found

new towns on their estates, in order to gain economi-cal, political or military power. The settlers of the new

towns generally were attracted by fiscal, economic, and

juridical advantages granted by the founding lord, or were

forced to move from elsewhere from his estates. Most

of the new towns were to remain rather small (as for in-

stance thebastidesof southwestern France), but some of

them became important cities, such as Cardiff, Leeds,

s-Hertogenbosch, Montauban, Bilbao, Malm, Lbeck,

Munich, Berlin, Bern, Klagenfurt, Alessandria, Warsaw

and Sarajevo.[18]

From the evidence of the preserved towns, it appears that

the formal structure of many of these towns was will-fully planned. The newly founded towns often show a

marked regularity in their plan form, in the sense that the

Plan of Elburg in The Netherlands, based on the cadastral plan

of 1830. Elburg was founded in 1392 by Arent toe Boecop, stew-

ard of the duke of Gelre. Arent seems to have acted as a private

entrepreneur. He had bought a piece of land next to the existingtown, and he obtained permission from his lord to extend and re-

build the town, and to resettle the population of the surrounding

area, selling the house lots to the settlers. The highly symmetrical

layout is centered on a canalized river and an intersecting street.

The symmetry is disturbed, however, by the church in the eastern

corner and by the pre-existing street (the only curved one in the

whole town) on the northwest side. The corner bastions and the

wide outer ditch were added in the late 16th century.

streets are often straight and laid out at right angles to

one another, and that the house lots are rectangular, and

originally largely of the same size.

[19]

One very clear andrelatively extreme example is Elburg in the Netherlands,

dating from the end of the 14th century. (see illustra-

tion) Looking at town plans such as the one of Elburg, it

clearly appears that it is impossible to maintain that the

straight street and the symmetrical, orthogonal town plan

were new inventions from the Renaissance,' and, there-

fore, typical of modern times.'

The deep depression around the middle of the 14th cen-

tury marked the end of the period of great urban expan-

sion. Only in the parts of Europe where the process of

urbanization had started relatively late, as in eastern Eu-

rope, was it still to go on for one or two more centuries. Itwould not be until the Industrial Revolution that the same

level of expansion of urban population would be reached

again, although the number of newly created settlements

would remain much lower than in the 12th and 13th cen-

turies.

1.2 Renaissance Europe

Florencewas an early model of the new urban planning,

which took on a star-shaped layout adapted from the new

star fort, designed to resist cannon fire. This model was

widely imitated, reflecting the enormous cultural powerof Florence in this age; "[t]he Renaissance was hypno-

tized by one city type which for a century and a half
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4 1 HISTORY

from Filarete to Scamozzi was impressed upon utopian

schemes: this is the star-shaped city.[20] Radial streets

extend outward from a defined center of military, com-

munal or spiritual power.

The Ideal City by Fra Carnevale, between 1480 and 1484.

This extraordinary panel exemplifiesRenaissanceideals of ur-

ban planning and offers a model of the architecture and sculp-

ture that would be commissioned by a virtuous ruler who cares

for the welfare of the citizenry.

The ideal centrally planned urban space: SposaliziobyRaphael

Sanzio, 1504

Only in ideal cities did a centrally planned structure

stand at the heart, as inRaphael's Sposalizio(Illustration)

of 1504. As built, the unique example of a rationally

plannedquattrocento new city center, that of Vigevano

(149395), resembles a closed space instead, surrounded

by arcading.

Filarete's ideal city, building on Leon Battista Alberti's

De re aedificatoria, was named "Sforzinda" in compli-ment to his patron; its twelve-pointed shape, circumscrib-

able by a perfectPythagorean figure, the circle, took no

heed of its undulating terrain in Filaretes manuscript.[21]

This process occurred in cities, but ordinarily not in the

industrial suburbs characteristic of this era (see Braudel,

The Structures of Everyday Life), which remained disor-

derly and characterized by crowding and organic growth.

Following the 1695 bombardment of Brussels by theFrench troops of KingLouis XIV, in which a large part

of the city center was destroyed, GovernorMax Emanuel

proposed using the reconstruction to completely change

the layout and architectural style of the city. His plan

was to transform the medieval city into a city of the new

baroque style, modeled on Turin, with a logical street

layout, with straight avenues offering long, uninterrupted

views flanked by buildings of a uniform size. This plan

was opposed by residents and municipal authorities, who

wanted a rapid reconstruction, did not have the resources

for grandiose proposals, and resented what they consid-

ered the imposition of a new, foreign, architectural style.

In the actual reconstruction, the general layout of the citywas conserved, but it was not identical to that before the

cataclysm. Despite the necessity of rapid reconstruction

and the lack of financial means, authorities did take sev-

eral measures to improve traffic flow, sanitation, and the

aesthetics of the city. Many streets were made as wide as

possible to improve traffic flow.

1.3 Enlightenment Europe

During theSecond French Empire,Haussmanntransformed the

medieval city ofParisinto a modern capital, with long, straight,

wide boulevards. The planning was influenced by many factors,

not the least of which was the citys history of street revolutions.

During this period, rulers often embarked on ambitious

attempts at redesigning their capital cities as a showpiece

for the grandeur of the nation. Disasters were often a ma-

jor catalyst for planned reconstruction. An exception to

this was in Londonafter theGreat Fire of 1666when,

despite many radical rebuilding schemes from architectssuch as John Evelyn and Christopher Wren, no large-scale

redesigning was achieved due the complexities of rival
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1.4 Modern urban planning 5

ownership claims. However, improvements were made

in hygiene and fire safety with wider streets, stone con-

struction and access to theriver.

Model of theseismicallyprotective wooden structure, the "gaiola

pombalina (pombaline cage), developed for the reconstruction

ofPombaline Lower Town

In contrast, after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, King

Joseph I of Portugal and his ministers immediately

launched efforts to rebuild the city. The architect Manuel

da Maia boldly proposed razing entire sections of the

city and laying out new streets without restraint. This

last option was chosen by the king and his minister. [22]

Keen to have a new and perfectly ordered city, the king

commissioned the construction of big squares, rectilin-

ear, large avenues and widened streets the new mottos

of Lisbon. ThePombalinebuildings were among the ear-liestseismicallyprotected constructions in Europe.

An even more ambitious reconstruction was carried out in

Paris. In 1852,Baron Georges-Eugne Haussmannwas

commissioned to remodel the Medieval street plan of the

city by demolishing swathes of the old quarters and lay-

ing out wide boulevards, extending outwards beyond the

old city limits. Haussmanns project encompassed all as-

pects of urban planning, both in the centre of Paris and

in the surrounding districts, with regulations imposed on

building faades, public parks, sewers and water works,

city facilities, and public monuments. Beyond aesthetic

and sanitary considerations, the wide thoroughfares facil-itated troop movement and policing.[23]

A concurrent plan to extend Barcelona was based on

a scientific analysis of the city and its modern require-

ments. It was drawn up by the Catalan engineer Ildefons

Cerd to fill the space beyond the city walls after they

were demolished from 1854. He is credited with invent-

ing the term urbanization and his approach was codified

in his General Theory of Urbanization (1867). Cerd's

Eixample(Catalan for 'extension') consisted of 550 regu-

lar blocks with chamfered corners to facilitate the move-

ment of trams, crossed by three wider avenues. His ob-

jectives were to improve the health of the inhabitants, to-wards which the blocks were built around central gardens

and orientated NW-SE to maximize the sunlight they re-

ceived, and assist social integration.[24]

1.4 Modern urban planning

Planning and architecture went through a paradigm shift

at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized citiesof the 19th century had grown at a tremendous rate, with

the pace and style of building largely dictated by private

business concerns. The evils of urban life for the work-

ing poor were becoming increasingly evident as a mat-

ter for public concern. Thelaissez-fairestyle of govern-

ment management of the economy, in fashion for most of

theVictorian era, was starting to give way to aNew Lib-

eralismthat championed intervention on the part of the

poor and disadvantaged. Around 1900, theorists began

developing urban planning models to mitigate the conse-

quences of theindustrial age, by providing citizens, espe-

cially factory workers, with healthier environments.

1.4.1 Garden city movement

Ebenezer Howard's influential 1902 diagram, illustrating urban

growth throughgarden cityoff-shoots

The first major urban planning theorist was Sir Ebenezer

Howard, who initiated the garden city movement in 1898.

This was inspired by earlier planned communities built

by industrial philanthropists in the countryside, such as

Cadburys'Bournville,Levers Port Sunlightand George

Pullman's eponymousPullmaninChicago. All these set-tlements decentralized the working environment from the

centre of the cities, and provided a healthy living space
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicagohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pullman,_Chicagohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Pullmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Pullmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Sunlighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._H._Leverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournvillehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadburyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_city_movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebenezer_Howardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebenezer_Howardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_city_movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebenezer_Howardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_agehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_liberalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_liberalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_erahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laissez-fairehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eixamplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ildefons_Cerd%C3%A0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ildefons_Cerd%C3%A0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelonahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron_Georges-Eug%C3%A8ne_Haussmannhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pombaline_stylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_I_of_Portugalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquakehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pombaline_Lower_Townhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaiola_(construction)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames


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6 1 HISTORY

for the factory workers. Howard generalized this achieve-

ment into a planned movement for the country as a whole.

He was also influenced by the work of economist Alfred

Marshallwho argued in 1884 that industry needed a sup-

ply of labour that could in theory be supplied anywhere,

and that companies have an incentive to improve work-

ers living standards as the company bears much of thecost inflicted by the unhealthy urban conditions in the big

cities.[25]

Howards ideas, although utopian, were also highly prac-

tical and were adopted around the world in the ensuing

decades. His garden cities were intended to be planned,

self-contained communities surrounded by parks, con-

taining proportionate and separate areas of residences,

industry, and agriculture. Inspired by theUtopiannovel

Looking Backward and Henry George's work Progress

and Poverty, Howard published his book Garden Cities

of To-morrowin 1898, commonly regarded as the most

important book in the history of urban planning.[26] Hisidealized garden city would house 32,000 people on a

site of 6,000 acres (2,428 ha), planned on aconcentric

pattern with open spaces, public parks and six radial

boulevards, 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending from the cen-

tre. The garden city would be self-sufficient and when

it reached full population, another garden city would be

developed nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several

garden cities assatellitesof a central city of 50,000 peo-

ple, linked by road and rail.[27]

He foundedFirst Garden City, Ltd.in 1899 to create the

first garden city atLetchworth,Hertfordshire.[28] Donors

to the project collected interest on their investment if thegarden city generated profits through rents or, as Fish-

man calls the process, philanthropic land speculation.[29]

Howard tried to include working class cooperative or-

ganizations, which included over two million members,

but could not win their financial support.[30] In 1904,

Raymond Unwin, a noted architect and town planner,

along with his partnerBarry Parker, won the competition

run by the First Garden City, Limited to plan Letchworth,

an area 34 miles outside London.[31] Unwin and Parker

planned the town in the centre of the Letchworth estate

with Howards large agricultural greenbelt surrounding

the town, and they shared Howards notion that the work-ing class deserved better and more affordable housing.

However, the architects ignored Howards symmetric de-

sign, instead replacing it with a more organic design.[32]

Welwyn Garden City, also inHertfordshirewas also built

on Howards principles. His successor as chairman of the

Garden City Association wasSir Frederic Osborn, who

extended the movement to regional planning.[33]

The principles of the garden city were soon applied to

the planning of city suburbs. The first such project was

the Hampstead Garden Suburb founded by Henrietta Bar-

nett[34] and planned byParkerandUnwin. The schemes

utopian ideals were that it should be open to all classesof people with free access to woods and gardens and that

the housing should be of low density with wide, tree-lined

roads.

In North America, the Garden City movement was also

popular, and evolved into the Neighborhood Unit form

of development. In the early 1900s, as cars were intro-

duced to city streets for the first time, residents becameincreasingly concerned with the number of pedestrians

being injured by car traffic. The response, seen first in

Radburn, New Jersey, was the Neighborhood Unit-style

development, which oriented houses toward a common

public path instead of the street. The neighborhood is

distinctively organized around a school, with the inten-

tion of providing children a safe way to walk to school.

1.4.2 Urban planning profession

Urban planning became professionalized at this period,

with input from utopianvisionaries as well as from the

practical minded infrastructure engineers andlocal coun-

cilorscombining to produce new design templates for po-

litical consideration. The Town and Country Planning

Associationwas founded in 1899 and the first academic

course on urban planning was offered by the University

of Liverpoolin 1909.[35]

The first official consideration of these new trends was

embodied in the Housing and Town Planning Act of1909that compelledlocal authoritiesto introduce coher-

ent systems of town planning across the country using

the new principles of the 'garden city', and to ensure that

all housing construction conformed to specific building

standards.[36]

Following this Act,surveyors,civil engineers,architects,

lawyersand others began working together within local

governmentin the UK to draw up schemes for the devel-

opment of land and the idea of town planning as a new

and distinctive area of expertise began to be formed. In

1910, Thomas Adams was appointed as the first Town

Planning Inspector at theLocal Government Board, andbegan meeting with practitioners. The Town Planning In-

stitutewas established in 1914 with a mandate to advance

the study of town-planning and civic design.[37] The first

university course in America was established at Harvard

Universityin 1924.

The Tudor Walters Committee that recommended the

building of housing estates afterWorld War Oneincor-

porated the ideas of Howards discipleRaymond Unwin,

who demonstrated that homes could be built rapidly and

economically whilst maintaining satisfactory standards

for gardens, family privacy and internal spaces. Unwin

diverged from Howard by proposing that the new devel-opments should be peripheral 'satellites rather than fully-

fledged garden cities.[38]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Unwinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Onehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_Walters_Committeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_Planning_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_Planning_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Government_Boardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Adams_(architect)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawyerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Housing,_Town_Planning,_&c._Act_1909https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Housing,_Town_Planning,_&c._Act_1909https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Liverpoolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Liverpoolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_Associationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_Associationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radburn,_New_Jerseyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Unwinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Parkerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_Barnetthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_Barnetthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampstead_Garden_Suburbhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Osbornhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertfordshirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welwyn_Garden_Cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Barry_Parkerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Unwinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertfordshirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letchworthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_Associationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_townhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulevardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_Cities_of_To-morrowhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_Cities_of_To-morrowhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_and_Povertyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_and_Povertyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Georgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looking_Backwardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Marshallhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Marshall


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1.4 Modern urban planning 7

PartiznskeinSlovakia an example of a typical planned indus-

trial city founded in 1938 together with a shoemaking factoryin

which practically all adult inhabitants of the city were employed.

1.4.3 Modernism

In the 1920s, the ideas of modernismbegan to surface

in urban planning. The influential modernist architect

Le Corbusier presented his scheme for a Contempo-

rary City for three million inhabitants (Ville Contempo-

raine) in 1922. The centerpiece of this plan was the group

of sixty-storycruciform skyscrapers, steel-framed office

buildings encased in huge curtain walls of glass. These

skyscrapers were set within large, rectangular, park-like

green spaces. At the center was a huge transportation

hub that on different levels included depots for buses and

trains, as well as highway intersections, and at the top, anairport. Le Corbusier had the fanciful notion that com-

mercial airliners would land between the huge skyscrap-

ers. He segregated pedestrian circulation paths from

the roadways and glorified the automobile as a means

of transportation. As one moved out from the central

skyscrapers, smaller low-story, zig-zag apartment blocks

(set far back from the street amid green space) housed the

inhabitants. Le Corbusier hoped that politically minded

industrialists in France would lead the way with their effi-

cient Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from Amer-

ican industrial models to reorganize society.[39]

In 1925, he exhibited his Plan Voisin, in which heproposed to bulldoze most of central Paris north of the

Seine and replace it with his sixty-story cruciform towers

from the Contemporary City, placed within an orthogo-

nal street grid and park-like green space. In the 1930s, Le

Corbusier expanded and reformulated his ideas on urban-

ism, eventually publishing them inLa Ville radieuse(The

Radiant City) in 1935. Perhaps the most significant dif-

ference between the Contemporary City and the Radiant

City is that the latter abandoned the class-based stratifica-

tion of the former; housing was now assignedaccording to

family size, not economic position.[40] Le Corbusiers the-

ories were sporadically adopted by the builders ofpublichousingin Europe and the United States.

Many of his disciples became notable in their own right,

including painter-architectNadir Afonso, who absorbed

Le Corbusiers ideas into his own aesthetics theory.Lcio

Costa's city plan ofBrasliaand the industrial city ofZln

planned byFrantiek Lydie Gahurain the Czech Repub-

lic are notable plans based on his ideas, while the archi-

tect himself produced the plan forChandigarhin India.

Le Corbusiers thinking also had profound effects on thephilosophy of city planning and architecture in theSoviet

Union, particularly in theConstructivistera.

Another important theorist was SirPatrick Geddeswho

understood the importance of taking the regional envi-

ronment into account and the relationship between social

issues and town planning, and foresaw the emergence of

huge urbanconurbations. In 1927, he was commissioned

to plan the cityof Tel Aviv, then inthe British mandate for

Palestine. It consisted of about 40 blocks, sized around

150 meters square. The block contained an inner small

public garden, disposed into a windmill configuration of

inner access roads, making it awkward for car traffic.The big blocks form a gently undulating street pattern,

north-south commercial, east-west arranged to catch the

sea breeze. This was a simple and efficient manner to

modernize the historical fixed grid patterns. A series of

shaded boulevards short cuts the system, with some pub-

lic squares, accessing the sea front. The plan of the new

town became a success.

1.4.4 New Towns

Ebenezer Howards urban planning concepts were onlyadopted on a large scale after World War II. The dam-

age brought on by the war provoked significant public

interest in what post-war Britain would be like, which

was encouraged by the government, who facilitated talk

about a Better Britain to boost morale. Post-war rebuild-

ing initiatives saw new plans drafted for London, which,

for the first time, addressed the issue of decentralization.

Firstly, the County of London Plan 1943 recognized that

displacement of population and employment was neces-

sary if the city was to be rebuilt at a desirable density.

Moreover, the Greater London Plan of 1944 went further

by suggesting that over one million people would need tobe displaced into a mixture of satellite suburbs, existing

rural towns, andnew towns.[41]

The New Towns Act 1946 resulted many New

Towns being constructed in Britain over the follow-

ing decades.[42][43]

New towns were built in the United States from the 1960s

examples includeReston, Virginia; Columbia, Mary-

land; Jonathan, Minnesota and Riverside Plaza. This

construction effort was combined with extensive federal

government grants forslum clearance, improved and in-

creased housing and road construction and comprehen-

siveurban renewal projects. Other European countriessuch as France, Germany, Italy and Sweden also had

some successes with new towns, especially as part of post-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_renewalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slum_clearancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverside_Plazahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan,_Minnesotahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia,_Marylandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia,_Marylandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reston,_Virginiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_towns_in_the_United_Kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_towns_in_the_United_Kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Towns_Act_1946https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_towns_movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_mandate_for_Palestinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_mandate_for_Palestinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Avivhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conurbationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Geddeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Unionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Unionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Lydie_Gahurahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zl%C3%ADnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bras%C3%ADliahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BAcio_Costahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BAcio_Costahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir_Afonsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_housinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_housinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ville_Radieusehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruciformhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ville_Contemporainehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ville_Contemporainehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Corbusierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partiz%C3%A1nske


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8 1 HISTORY

war reconstruction efforts.

1.4.5 Urban planning in Communist countries

Russian Magnitogorskfounded as a planned industrial city in

1929.

Urban planning was popular in the Soviet Union and othersocialist countries in theperiod of 1929-1989. It was seen

as one method of the scientific management of society

and as a tool for a social engineering. Many new Soviet

cities and cities and suburbs in other socialist countries

were established in accordance with the prevailing trends

of urban planning. The pioneer of urban planning in

formerCzechoslovakiawas a Czech entrepreneurTom

Baa(1876-1932). He and his followers significantly re-

constructed or founded several industrial cities (Zln in

Czech Republic,SvitandPartiznskeinSlovakia). Later

Czechoslovak school of city planning continued in this

tradition.

1.5 Reaction

By the late 1960s and early 1970s, many planners felt

that modernisms clean lines and lack of human scale

sapped vitality from the community, blaming them for

high crime rates and social problems.[44]

Modernist planning fell into decline in the 1970s when

the construction of cheap, uniformtower blocksended in

most countries, such as Britain and France. Since then

many have been demolished and replaced by other hous-ing types. Rather than attempting to eliminate all dis-

order, planning now concentrates on individualismand

diversity in society and the economy; this is the post-

modernist era.[44]

Minimally planned cities still exist. Houstonis a large

city (with a metropolitan population of 5.5 million) in a

developed country without a comprehensive zoning or-

dinance. Houston does, however, restrict developmentdensities and mandate parking, even though specific land

uses are not regulated. Also, private-sector developers in

Houston use subdivision covenants anddeed restrictions

to effect land-use restrictions resembling zoning laws.

Houston voters have rejected comprehensive zoning or-

dinances three times since 1948.

1.6 New Urbanism

Jakriborgin Sweden, started in the late 1990s as anew urbanist

eco-friendlynew townnearMalm

Various current movements in urban design seek to create

sustainable urbanenvironments with long-lasting struc-

tures, buildings and a great liveability for its inhabitants.

The most clearly defined form of walkableurbanism is

known as theCharter ofNew Urbanism. It is an approach

for successfully reducing environmental impacts by alter-

ing the built environment to create and preserve smart

cities that support sustainable transport. Residents in

compact urban neighborhoods drive fewer miles and havesignificantly lower environmental impacts across a range

of measures compared with those living in sprawling

suburbs.[45] The concept ofCircular flow land use man-

agementhas also been introduced in Europe to promote

sustainable land use patterns that strive for compact cities

and a reduction of greenfield land taken by urban sprawl.

Insustainable construction, the recent movement ofNew

Classical Architecturepromotes a sustainable approach

towards urban construction that appreciates and devel-

ops smart growth, walkability,architectural tradition, and

classical design.[46][47] This is in contrast to modernist and

short-lived globally uniformarchitecture, as well as op-posing solitaryhousing estatesandsuburban sprawl.[48]

Both trends started in the 1980s.[49]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Housing_estatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacular_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Classical_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Classical_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_flow_land_use_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_flow_land_use_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_transporthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Urbanismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkabilityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm%C3%B6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_communityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Urbanismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakriborghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictive_covenanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_blockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partiz%C3%A1nskehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zl%C3%ADnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Ba%C5%A5ahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Ba%C5%A5ahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Unionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnitogorsk


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1.7 Sustainable development and sustainability 9

1.7 Sustainable development and sustain-

ability

Robert Hoddle's survey ofMelbournein 1837. The layout of the

city is referred to as the "Hoddle Grid".

Sustainable developmentand sustainabilityinfluence to-

days urban planners. Some planners argue that modern

lifestyles use too many natural resources,pollutingor de-

stroying ecosystems, increasing social inequality, creating

urban heat islands, and causingclimate change. Many ur-

ban planners, therefore, advocate sustainable cities.[50][49]

However, sustainable development is a recent, contro-

versial concept.[50] Wheeler, in his 2004 book, defines

sustainable urban development as development that im-

proves the long-term social and ecological health of cities

and towns. He sketches a 'sustainable' citys features:

compact, efficient land use; less automobile use, yet bet-ter access; efficient resource use; less pollution and waste;

the restoration of natural systems; good housing and liv-

ing environments; a healthy social ecology; a sustainable

economy; community participation and involvement; and

preservation of local culture and wisdom.[50] Urban plan-

nersare now promoting asustainable citymodel, which

consists of cities that designed with consideration of en-

vironmental impacts, such as minimizing the uses of en-

ergy, water, and the outputs of waste and pollution.[49]

Because of political and governance structures in most

jurisdictions, sustainable planning measures must be

widely supported before they can affect institutions andregions. Actual implementation is often a complex

compromise.[51]

Nature in cities Often an integral party of sustainable

cities is theIncorporation of nature within a city.

Car freesustainability in city planning can include large

pedestrian zonesor be a totallyCar free.

Collaborative Strategic Goal Oriented Programming

(CoSGOP) is a collaborative and communicative way

of strategic programming, decision-making, implemen-

tation, and monitoring oriented towards defined and spe-

cific goals. It is based on sound analysis of available infor-mation, emphasizes stakeholder participation, works to

create awareness among actors, and is oriented towards

managing development processes. It was adopted as a

theoretical framework for analyzing redevelopment pro-

cesses in large urban distressed areas in European cities

(see LUDA : Improving quality of life in Large Urban

Distressed Areas project Research funded by the Eu-

ropean Commission, EVK4-CT2002-00081).

Background of CoSGOP'

CoSGOP is derived from goal-oriented planning

(Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit GTZ

1988), which was oriented towards the elaboration

and implementation of projects based on a logical

framework, which was useful for embedding a specific

project in a wider development frame and defining its

major elements. This approach had weaknesses: its

logical rules were strictly applied and the expert language

did not encourage participation. CoSGOP introduced

a new approach characterized by communication with

and active involvement of stakeholders and those to beaffected by the program; strategic planning based on the

identification of strengths and weakness, opportunities

and threats, as well as on scenario-building and visioning;

the definition of goals as the basis for action; and

long-term, flexible programming of interventions by

stakeholders.

Elements of CoSGOP

CoSGOP is not a planning method but a process model.

It provides a framework for communication and joint

decision-making, in a structured process characterized

by feedback loops. It also facilitates stakeholder learn-

ing. The essential elements of CoSGOP are analysisof stakeholders (identifying stakeholders perceptions of

problems, interests, and expectations); analysis of prob-

lems and potentials (including objective problems and

problems and potentials perceived by stakeholders); de-

velopment of goals, improvement priorities, and alter-

natives (requiring intensive communication and active

stakeholder participation); specification of an improve-

ment program and its main activities (based on priori-

ties defined with the stakeholders); assessment of possi-

ble impacts of the improvement program; definition and

detailed specification of key projects and their implemen-

tation; continuous monitoring of improvement activities,

feedback, and adjustment of the programme (including

technical and economic information and perceptions of

stakeholders).

Application

CoSGOP has been applied in European cross-border pol-

icy programming, as well in local and regional develop-

ment programming. In 2004, the CoSGOP model was

applied in the LUDA Project, starting with an analysis of

the European experience of urban regeneration projects.

References[52][53][54]

Collaborative planning in the United StatesCollaborative planning arose in the US in response to the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carfree_cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedestrian_zoneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incorporation_of_nature_within_a_cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_plannershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_plannershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_heat_islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_inequalityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainabilityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_developmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoddle_Gridhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbournehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hoddle


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10 2 ASPECTS

The graphical scheme of the Detailed Urbanist Plan for a set-

tlement within theMunicipality of Aerodromwithin theCity of

Skopje,Republic of Macedonia.

inadequacy of traditional public participation techniques

to provide real opportunities for the public to make de-

cisions affecting their communities. Collaborative plan-

ning is a method designed to empower stakeholders by

elevating them to the level of decision-makers through di-

rect engagement and dialogue between stakeholders and

public agencies, to solicit ideas, active involvement, and

participation in the community planning process. Ac-

tive public involvement can help planners achieve better

outcomes by making them aware of the publics needs

and preferences and by using local knowledge to inform

projects. When properly administered, collaboration can

result in more meaningful participation and better, more

creative outcomes to persistent problems than can tra-

ditional participation methods. It enables planners to

make decisions that reflect community needs and values,

it fosters faith in the wisdom and utility of the resultingproject, and the community is given a personal stake in

its success.[55]

Experiences in PortlandandSeattle have demonstrated

that successful collaborative planning depends on a num-

ber of interrelated factors: the process must be truly in-

clusive, with all stakeholders and affected groups invited

to the table; the community must have final decision-

making authority; full government commitment (of both

financial and intellectual resources) must be manifest;

participants should be given clear objectives by planning

staff, who facilitate the process by providing guidance,

consultancy, expert opinions, and research; and facilita-tors should be trained in conflict resolution and commu-

nity organization.[56][57]

2 Aspects

2.1 Aesthetics

Towns and cities have been planned with aestheticsin mind. Here

inBath, England, 18th-century private sector development was

designed to appear attractive.

In developed countries, there has been a backlash against

excessive human-made clutter in the visual environment,

such as signposts, signs, and hoardings.[58] Other issues

that generate strong debate among urban designers are

tensions between peripheral growth, housing density and

new settlements. There are also debates about the mixing

tenures and land uses, versus distinguishing geographic

zones where different uses dominate. Regardless, all suc-cessful urban planning considers urban character, local

identity, respects heritage, pedestrians, traffic, utilities

and natural hazards.

Planners can help manage the growth of cities, applying

tools likezoningandgrowth managementto manage the

uses of land. Historically, many of the cities now thought

the most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting sys-

tems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes,

uses and features.[59] These allowed substantial freedoms,

yet enforce styles, safety, and often materials in practical

ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being

repackaged using the contemporary termsmart growth.There are some cities that have been planned from con-

ception, andwhile the resultsoften do not turn out quite as

planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains. (See

List of planned cities)

The 20th and 21st century trend forNew Classical Ar-

chitecture seeks to develop aesthetically pleasing smart

growthin urban areas and to continuearchitectural tradi-

tionandclassical design.[46][47]

2.2 Safety and security

Historically within the Middle East, Europe and the rest

of the Old World, settlements were located on higher
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacular_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacular_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Classical_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Classical_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planned_citieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath,_Somersethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Oregonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Macedoniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Skopjehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Skopjehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodrom_Municipality_(Skopje)


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2.2 Safety and security 11

The medieval walled city ofCarcassonneinFranceis built upon

high ground to provide maximum protection from attackers.

ground (for defense) and close to fresh water sources.Cities have often grown onto coastal and flood plains at

risk of floods and storm surges. Urban planners must con-

sider these threats. If the dangers can be localised then

the affected regions can be made into parkland orgreen

belt, often with the added benefit of open space provision.

Extremeweather,flood, or other emergencies can often

be greatly mitigated with secure emergency evacuation

routes and emergency operations centres. These are rel-

atively inexpensive and unintrusive, and many consider

them a reasonable precaution for any urban space. Many

cities will also have planned, built safety features, such as

levees,retaining walls, and shelters.In recent years, practitioners have also been expected

to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with

different abilities, practicing the notion of inclusive de-

sign, to anticipate criminal behaviour and consequently

to design-out crime and to consider traffic calming

or pedestrianisation as ways of making urban life more

pleasant.

Some city planners try to control criminalitywith struc-

tures designed from theories such as socio-architecture

orarchitectural determinisma subset of environmental

determinism. These theories say that an urban environ-

ment can influence individuals obedience to social rulesand level of power. Refer to Foucault and the Encyclope-

dia of the Prison System for more details. The theories

often say that psychological pressure develops in more

densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes

some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote

is believed to be more individual space and better, more

beautiful design in place offunctionalism.

Oscar Newmansdefensible space theorycites the mod-

ernist housing projects of the 1960s as an example of

environmental determinism, where large blocks of flats

are surrounded by shared and disassociated public areas,

which are hard for residents to identify with. As thoseon lower incomes cannot hire others to maintain public

space such as security guards or grounds keepers, and

because no individual feels personally responsible, there

was a general deterioration of public space leading to a

sense of alienation and social disorder.

Jane Jacobsis another notable environmental determinist

and is associated with the eyes on the street concept. By

improving natural surveillance of shared land and facili-ties of nearby residents by literally increasing the number

of people who can see it, and increasing the familiarity of

residents, as a collective, residents can more easily detect

undesirable or criminal behavior. However, this is not a

new concept. This was prevalent throughout the middle

eastern world during the time of Mohamad. It was not

only reflected in the general structure of the outside of

the home but also the inside. (refer to various religious

texts and archaeological sites)"

Jacobs went further, though, in emphasizing the details in

how to achieve this 'natural surveillance', in stressing the

necessity of multiple uses on city streets, so that differ-ent people co-mingle with different stores and parks in a

condensed part of city space.[60] By doing this, as well as

by making city streets interesting, she theorized a contin-

uous animation of social actions during an average city

day, which would keep city streets interesting and well

occupied throughout a 24 hour period. She presented the

North End in Boston, Massachusetts, as an idealization

of this persistent occupation and tasking in a condensed

city space, as a model for criminal control.

Thebroken-windows theoryargues that small indica-

tors of neglect, such as broken windows and unkempt

lawns, promote a feeling that an area is in a state of decay.

Anticipating decay, people likewise fail to maintain their

own properties. The theory suggests that abandonment

causes crime, rather than crime causing abandonment.[61]

Some planning methods might help an elite group to con-

trol ordinary citizens. Haussmanns renovation of Paris

created a system of wide boulevards which prevented the

construction of barricades in the streets and eased the

movement of military troops. InRome, theFascistsin

the 1930s createdex novomany newsuburbsin order to

concentrate criminalsand poorer classes away from the

elegant town.

Other social theories point out that in Britain and mostcountries since the 18th century, the transformation of

societiesfrom rural agriculture to industry caused a dif-

ficult adaptation to urban living. These theories empha-

size that many planning policies ignore personal tensions,

forcing individuals to live in a condition of perpetual ex-

traneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the

comfort of feeling at home when at home. Often these

theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used stan-

dards that rationalize the outcomes of a free (relatively

unregulated) market.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haussmann%2527s_renovation_of_Parishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixing_Broken_Windowshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Jacobshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defensible_Space_Theoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_determinismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_determinismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_determinismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socio-architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminalityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retaining_wallhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leveehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_evacuationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weatherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_belthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_belthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcassonne


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12 2 ASPECTS

2.3 Slums

Main article:Slums

The rapid urbanizationof the last century caused more

slums in the major cities of the world, particularly in de-veloping countries. Planning resources and strategies are

needed to address the problems of slum development.

Many planners are calling for slum improvement, par-

ticularly theCommonwealth Association of Planners.[62]

When urban planners work on slums, they must cope with

racial and cultural differences to ensure that racial steer-

ingdoes not occur.

Slums were often fixed by clearance. However,

more creative solutions are beginning to emerge such as

Nairobi's "Camp of Fire" program, where established

slum-dwellers promise to build proper houses, schools,

and community centers without government money, inreturn for land on which they have been illegally squat-

ting on for 30 years. The Camp of Fire program is one

of many similar projects initiated by Slum Dwellers Inter-

national, which has programs inAfrica,Asia, andSouth

America.[63]

2.4 Decay

Main article:Urban decay

Urban decayis a process by which acity, or a part ofa city, falls into a state of disrepair and neglect. It is

characterized by depopulation, economic restructuring,

property abandonment, highunemployment, fragmented

families, political disenfranchisement, crime, and deso-

late urban landscapes.

During the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay was often as-

sociated with central areas of cities in North America and

Europe. During this time, changes in global economies,

demographics, transportation, and policies fostered ur-

ban decay.[64] Many planners spoke of "white flight" dur-

ing this time. This pattern was different from the pat-

tern of outlying slums and suburban ghettos found inmany cities outside of North America and Western Eu-

rope, where central urban areas actually had higher real

estate values.

Starting in the 1990s, many of the central urban areas

in North America have been experiencing a reversal of

the urban decay, with rising real estate values, smarter

development, demolition of obsolete social housing and

a wider variety of housing choices.[65] However, rever-

sal of urban decay (gentrification) often causes housing

affordability in the inner city to decrease, with the conse-

quence that poorer residents are pushed out, often to older

inner and middle ring suburbs. This suburbanization ofpoverty has important implications for siting affordable

housing, and transportation and social services planning.

2.5 Reconstruction and renewal

Main article:Urban renewal

Areas devastated by war or invasion challenge urban

The overall area plan for the reconstruction ofKabul's Old City

area, the proposedKabul- City of Light Development

planners. Resources are scarce. The existing population

has needs. Buildings, roads, services and basic infrastruc-

ture like power, water and sewerage are often damaged,

but with salvageable parts. Historic, religious or social

centers also need to be preserved and re-integrated into

the new city plan. A prime example of this is the capital

city ofKabul,Afghanistan, which, after decades of civil

war and occupation, has regions of rubble and desolation.

Despite this, the indigenous population continues to live

in the area, constructing makeshift homes and shops out

of salvaged materials. Any reconstruction plan, such as

Hisham Ashkouri'sCity of Light Development, needs to

be sensitive to the needs of this community and its exist-ing culture and businesses.

Urban reconstruction development plans must also work

with government agencies as well as private interests to

develop workable designs.

2.6 New master-planned cities

In the 21st Century, countries in Asia and the Middle-

Easthave embarked on plans to build brand new large

cities.[66][67][68] Masdar City, a new city in UAE, cost $18

billion.[67]

Oneexpert has said building a brand new city for 1 million

people would be regarded as a terrifying concept in the

United Kingdom[69] while in Asia brand new large cities

are being built.[69]

Many of these new cities are built to use new technologies

such as District cooling and automatic waste collection[70]

inGIFT City[71][72] orPersonal Rapid Transitin Masdar

City.[73]

Saudi Arabia is building 5 new cities to control congestion

and sprawl in existing cities.[66] While India is building 7

new cities to provide space and facilities that are missingin existing cities, such ascycling paths, parks and pub-

lic transport within a 10 minute walk to every office and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_pathshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_Rapid_Transithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIFT_Cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_coolinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UAEhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masdar_Cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle-Easthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle-Easthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Light_Developmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisham_Ashkourihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Light_Developmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_renewalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_flighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disenfranchisementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemploymenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_restructuringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depopulationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_decayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_decayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Americahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Americahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slum_Dwellers_Internationalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slum_Dwellers_Internationalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_of_Firehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairobihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_steeringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_steeringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Association_of_Plannershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slums


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2.8 Suburbanization 13

home.[74]

2.7 Transport

Main article:Transportation planning

Transport within urbanized areas presents unique prob-

Very densely built-up areas require high capacity urban transit,

andurban planners must consider these factorsin long term plans

(Canary Wharf tube station).

Although an important factor, there is a complex relationship be-

tween urban densities and car use.

lems. The density of an urban environment increases

traffic, which can harm businesses and increase pollutionunless properly managed. Parking space for private ve-

hicles requires the construction of large parking garages

in high density areas. This space could often be more

valuable for other development.

Good planning usestransit oriented development, which

attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents

near high-volume transportation. For example, some

cities permit commerce and multi-story apartment build-

ings only within one block of train stations and multilane

boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks

farther away.

Floor area ratiois often used to measure density. This isthe floor area of buildings divided by the land area. Ratios

below 1.5 are low density. Ratios above five constitute

very high density. Most exurbs are below two, while most

city centres are well above five. Walk-up apartments with

basement garages can easily achieve a density of three.

Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or more.

City authorities may try to encourage higher densities to

reduce per-capita infrastructure costs. In the UK, recentyears have seen a concerted effort to increase the den-

sity of residential development in order to better achieve

sustainable development. Increasing development den-

sity has the advantage of making mass transport systems,

district heating and other community facilities (schools,

health centres, etc.) more viable. However critics of this

approach dub the densification of development as 'town

cramming' and claim that it lowers quality of life and re-

stricts market-led choice.

Problems can often occur at residential densities between

about two and five.[75] These densities can cause traffic

jams forautomobiles, yet are too low to be commerciallyserved by trains or light rail systems. The conventional so-

lution is to usebuses, but these and light rail systems may

fail where automobiles and excess road network capacity

are both available, achieving less than 2% ridership.[76]

The LewisMogridge Position claims that increasing road

space is not an effective way of relieving traffic jams as

latent or induced demandinvariably emerges to restore a

socially tolerable level of congestion.

2.8 Suburbanization

Main articles: SuburbanizationandUrban sprawl

In some countries, declining satisfaction with the urban

Low-density (auto-oriented) suburban development near

Colorado Springs, Colorado, United States

environment is held to blame for continuingmigrationto

smaller towns and rural areas (so-called urban exodus).

Successful urban planning supportedRegional planning

can bring benefits to a much largerhinterlandorcity re-

gionand help to reduce both congestion along transportroutes and the wastage of energy implied by excessive

commuting.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_regionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_regionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinterlandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_planninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_exodushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_migrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Springs,_Coloradohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbanizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induced_demandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%E2%80%93Mogridge_Positionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_railhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobileshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commuter_townhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_area_ratiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_oriented_developmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Wharf_tube_stationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_planning


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14 2 ASPECTS

2.9 Environmental factors

Main article:Environmental planning

Environmental protectionand conservation are of utmost

importance to many planning systems across the world.Not only are the specific effects of development to be

mitigated, but attempts are made to minimize the overall

effect of development on the local and global environ-

ment. This is commonly done through the assessment of

Sustainable urban infrastructureandmicroclimate.

2.10 Scope

Theoretically, the primary purpose of zoning is to segre-

gate uses that are thought to be incompatible. In practice,

zoning is used to prevent new development from inter-

fering with existingresidents or businesses and to pre-serve the character of a community. Zoning is com-

monly controlled by local governments such ascounties

ormunicipalities, though the nature of the zoning regime

may be determined or limited by state or national plan-

ning authorities or through enabling legislation.[77] In

Australia, land under the control of the Commonwealth

(federal) government is not subject to state planning con-

trols. The United States and other federal countries

are similar. Zoning and urban planning inFranceand

Germany are regulated by national or federal codes. In

the case of Germany this code includes contents of zon-

ing plans as well as the legal procedure.Zoning may include regulation of the kinds of activities

which will be acceptable on particular lots(such as open

space,residential,agricultural,commercialorindustrial),

the densities at which those activities can be performed

(from low-densityhousingsuch as single family homes to

high-density such ashigh-rise apartment buildings), the

height of buildi process is known as a Sustainability Ap-

praisal.

In most advanced urban or village planning models, lo-

cal context is critical. In many,gardeningand other out-

door activities assumes a central role in the daily life of

citizens. Environmental planners focus now on smallerand larger systems of resource extraction and consump-

tion, energy production, and waste disposal. A practice

known asArcologyseeks to unify the fields of ecology

andarchitecture, using principles oflandscape architec-

tureto achieve a harmonious environment for all living

things. On a small scale, the eco-villagetheory has be-

come popular, as it emphasizes a traditional 100140 per-

son scale for communities.

An urban planner can use a number of quantitative tools

to forecast impacts of development on the environmen-

tal, including roadway air dispersion models to predict

air quality impacts of urban highways androadway noisemodels to predictnoise pollutioneffects of urban high-

ways. As early as the 1960s, noise pollution was ad-

dressed in the design of urban highways as well as noise

barriers.[78] ThePhase I Environmental Site Assessment

can be an important tool to the urban planner by iden-

tifying early in the planning process any geographic ar-

eas or parcels which have toxic constraints. In addi-

tion, automated tools have been developed to enable plan-

ners to designrenewable energysystems at the city scalesuch as the distribution of roof-mounted photovoltaic

systems.[79][80][81][82]

Tall buildings in particular can have a substantial ef-

fect in channeling winds and shading large areas. The

microclimate around the building will typically be as-

sessed as part of the environmental impact assessment for

the building. The placement and design of buildings may

also be affected by the land on which they are placed. Soil

and rock considerations such as depth to bedrock may in-

fluence the height of very tall structures, as inManhattan,

though there is less impact than previously supposed,[83]

and geological conditions such as fault lines may affectbuilding requirements. See: Geotechnical engineering.

2.11 Light and sound

Theurban canyoneffect is a colloquial, non-scientific

term referring to street space bordered by very high build-

ings. This type of environment may shade the sidewalk

level from direct sunlight during most daylight hours.

While an oft-decried phenomenon, it is rare except in

very dense, hyper-tall urban environments, such as those

found in Lower and Midtown Manhattan, Chicagos Loopand Hong KongsKowloonandCentral.

In urban planning, sound is usually measured as a source

of pollution. Another perspective on urban sounds is de-

veloped in Soundscape studies emphasising that sound

aesthetics involves more than noise abatement and deci-

bel measurements. Hedfors[84] coined 'Sonotope' as a

useful concept in urban planning to relate typical sounds

to a specific place.

Light pollution has become a problem in urban residen-

tial areas, not only as it relates to its effects on the night

sky, but as some lighting is so intrusive as to cause conflict

in the residential areas and paradoxically intense improp-erly installed security lighting may pose a danger to the

public, producing excessive glare. The development of

the full cutoff fixture, properly installed, has reduced this

problem considerably.

2.12 Water and Sanitation Infrastructure

2.12.1 Access & Health Impacts

Water and sanitationservices are key considerations in

the planning of cities. This encompasses water provision,waste-water treatment, and sewage infrastructure. These

services are crucial for public health thus, one aspect of
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundscapehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central,_Hong_Konghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kowloonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_canyonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotechnical_engineeringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microclimatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_I_Environmental_Site_Assessmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_barrierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_barrierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_pollutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadway_noisehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadway_air_dispersion_modelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-villagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardeninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_Appraisalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_Appraisalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_blockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Househttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_areahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_areahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lot_(real_estate)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalitieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Businesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residency_(domicile)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microclimatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_urban_infrastructurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_protectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_planning


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2.12 Water and Sanitation Infrastructure 15

urban planning is to consider how to best provide these

services to urban residents in effective and cost-sensitive

ways.

Within urban environments, there are a number of dis-

parities with regards to access to these services. For ex-

ample, as of 2006, among the poorest quartile of theurban population in India, over 80% lacked access to

piped water at home and over half did not have sani-

tary flushes or pit toilets.[85] Data collected in 20052006

revealed that under half of the urban poor could access

adequate sanitation compared to about 95% of the ur-

ban non-poor.[86] In India,slumscompose a major part

of the urban environment one of the largest barriers to

improving slum conditions is that many slums go undoc-

umented. Because most slums are informal settlements

withno tenure rights, their illegal status excludes them

from official listings and thus excludes them from access

to municipal water and sanitation services.[87]

Economic status is highly correlated to water and sanita-

tion service access in urban environments. But economic

status is often tied to other demographic characteristics

such as caste, ethnicity, and race. Therefore access to

water and sanitation services is an equity issue that faces

urban planners working for urban governments. In the

absence of policy to address these infrastructural dispar-

ities, the urban poor and minorities suffer disproportion-

ately. A study of the social determinants of childrens

health in urban settings in India looked at data from In-

dias National Family Health Survey and found that even

within poor urban areas, caste status, religion, and sex

are major factors which determine family employmentand education level, factors which in turn affect access to

sanitation and water.[88]

Water and sanitation issues relate directly to health out-

comes due to the susceptibility to disease experienced

by populations that lack adequate access. In the 19th

and 20th centuries, diseases like cholera were partic-

ularly

Documents

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