WORK STUDY USING TAYLOR’S AND TIME STUDY

A project  Report submitted in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of the degree of 

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGYIN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGSUBMITTED

By J. SRIMUKH REDDY (11VD1A0348)

Under the guidance of Dr K. Prasanna Lakshmi

Assosiative professor &HOD of Dept.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JNTUH College of Engineering ManthaniCentenary Colony, Pannur(Vil), Kamanpur(Mdl),

Karimnagar, Andhra Pradesh-505212.

WORK STUDY USING TAYLOR’S AND TIME STUDY

A Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of the degree of 

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGYIN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGSUBMITTED

By

B. JHANSI (11VD1A0318)

B.SARASWATHI (11VD1A0338)

T. PRAVEENKUMAR (11VD1A0330)

J. SRIMUKH REDDY (11VD1A0348)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JNTUH College of Engineering ManthaniCentenary Colony, Pannur(Vil), Kamanpur(Mdl),

Karimnagar, Andhra Pradesh-505212.

JNTUH College of Engineering ManthaniCentenary Colony, Pannur(Vil), Kamanpur(Mdl),

Karimnagar,Andhra Pradesh-505212.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled “WORK STUDY USING

TAYLOR’S TIME STUDY” is the bonafied record of a project carried out by J.

SRIMUKH REDDY (11VD1A0348) in partial fulfillment of requirement for the

award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED To the Department of Mechanical Engineering, JNTUH college of

engineering MANTHANI constituent to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,

Hyderabad during the academic year 2010-14.

B.Sadashiva Dr. K. Prasanna

lakshmi

M.Tech HOD, Department of ME

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe a great many thanks to a great many people who helped and supported

me throughout the project and led it to a successful completion.

My deepest thanks to Smt. K. Prasanna Lakshmi, the project guide, head of

mechanical department of JNTUH College of engineering, Manthani, for guiding

me with her valuable suggestions and correcting various documents of main with

attention and care throughout the course of the project.

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to my

supervisor and guide Sri. B.Sadashiva for his invaluable guidance and

motivation during the course of my thesis work

***

CONTENTS

Abstract

List of figures

List of Tables

Introduction

Chapter No.

1. Chapter

1.1 Introduction to work study

1.2 Purpose

1.3 History

1.4 Benefits

1.5 Objectives

1.6 summary

2. Chapter

2.0 Introduction to work study

2.1 Method study

2.2 Steps involved in method study

2.3 recording techniques

2.4 Method study activity

2.5 Time and motion study

3. Chapter

3.1 Introduction to work measurement

3.2 Techniques

3.3 Selecting appropriate methods

4. Chapter

4.1 Robert Owen method

4.2 Taylors and time study

4.3 Gilberths and motion study

4.4 Charls E. Bedaux and time study

4.5 Therbligs micromotion study

4.6 Work study in India

5. Chapter

5.1 Manufacturing of gear box

5.2 Manufacturing process of a gear

5.3 Recording of data observed

5.4 Factors effecting the productivity rate

6. Methodology used for work study

7. Conclusion and Future scope

8. References

ABSTRACT

This project is all about work study that is to improve the production rate by

reducing the time of production WORK STUDY is the systematic examination of

the methods for carrying out activities such as to improve the effective use of

resources and to set up standards of performance for the activities carried out

In the production process it was observed that many unnecessary

operations and avoidable delays had to be eliminated in order to reduce the

production time of a product and improve the production rate.

PROJECT DETAIL

1. First a work to be selected and studied at different aspects and the information is

recorded by using different techniques (like chats, diagrams)

2. Second step is to examine the data that the way job is being performed and we

see that it is satisfying the purpose, sequence and method

3. Next by considering different factors and evaluating various alternatives to

develop the most practical, economical and effective method, an appropriate

method is designed.

4. Finally by using work measurement the new method which was found must be

installed and persons involved in it must be trained.

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Description Page No.

2.1 work study tree diagram 05

2.2 Recording techniques 12

2.3 Symbols of method study 14

2.4 symbols in operation chart 16

2.5 Flow process chart 17

2.6 Two handed process chart 18

2.7 Multiple activity chart 19

2.8 String diagram 21

5.2.1 Raw material of gear 46

5.2.2 Blank of gear 46

5.2.3 Drilling and Slotting 47

5.2.4 Gear hobbing 48

5.2.5 Gear finishing process 49

5.3.1 Operation chart of gear box 50

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Description page No.

2.3.1 Use of symbols in method study 17

5.3.2 Flow process of Gear box 51

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 WORK STUDY

Work-study is the investigation, by means of a consistent system of the

work done-in an organisation, in order to attain the best possible use of the

men, machines, material available in the buildings at present.

Another definition of work study may be as follows:

“The systematic, objective, critical and imaginative examination of the

factors governing the operational efficiency of any specified activity in

order to effect improvement.”

British standards instructions defines work study as a generic term for those

techniques particularly method study and work measurement which are

used in the examination of work in all its context, and which lead

systematically to the investigation of all the factors which affect the

efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed in order to effect

improvements.

Work study is a most valuable tool of management because;

1. It is a direct means of raising productivity involving little or no

expenses.

2. It is systematic, simple, consistent and is based on the handling of facts.

It minimises the part played by opinions.

3. It ensures that no factor affecting the efficiency of operation is over

looked.

4. It is the most accurate means of setting standards of performance, on

which depends effective systems of production, planning and control.

5. The savings resulting from the proper of work study almost

immediately.

6. It is a tool which can be applied universally.

7. It is the most penetrating tool of investigation available to the

management.

1.2 PURPOSE OF WORK STUDY

In general, work study aims to;

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I. Lower costs

II. Increase productivity

III. Increase profitability

IV. Increase job security

V. Make work easier

VI. Establish fair tasks for every one

VII. Check achievements against standards.

1.3 HISTORY OF WORK STUDY Work study is as old as industry itself .The first man who

succeeded in simplifying his job by use if his reason can be considered the

unconscious founder of work study. Far behind the many techniques which

constitute the over growing province of work study lies in basic attitude of

mind. That attitude of mind may be called the scientific. By scientific we

mean a ruthlessly analytical and inquisitive approach materials and

techniques, coupled with a desired to apply the result of such enquiry to

existing methods. Such an attitude has always been the pre requisite of

industrial progress.

Until very recently work study

remained an unconscious tool of management it was part of that

unformulated wisdom of craft which never received articulate expression, it

was practiced not as a regular feature of industry but as an unconscious art.

For instance, in some respects one might consider Robert Owen at new

Lanark as an early pioneer of method study.

But, even at their best, these early practices were only a feeble embryo of

that growing body of technique and knowledge which is called the modern

work study.

1.4 OTHER BENEFITS

a. Management benefits through increased efficiency and therefore

increased profits.

b. Work is assumed of a fair return for a fair days work. He is protected

from unfair demands the work is

made more easier and more productive

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c. Trade union.To trade unions work study provides a reliable data for

measuring fair days work for fair days work pay and vice versa and this

enables trade unions to do more objective negotiations with the

management based on factual evidence

d. Consumer, productivity through work study enables production of greater

amount of goods and services of optimum quality at lower prices

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF WORK STUDY

The objective of work study is to obtain the best use of the

human and material resources available in an organisation for the work

upon which it is engaged. Fundamentally, this objective has three aspects

i. The most effective use of plant and equipment

ii. The most effective use of human effort

iii. The evaluation of human work

1.6 WORK STUDY FOR INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY

There are six possible lines of attack on productivity

problems, which can be classified as follows

1. Improve basic processes by research and development

2. Improve existing methods and provide better plant and equipment

3. Simplify the product, reduce and standardize the range

4. Improve existing methods of plant operation

5. Improve the planning of work and use of man power

6. Increase the effectiveness of all employees

The actual significance and order of importance of these

will of course vary according to the individual circumstances of each

organisation

1.6.1 TO RAISE PRODUCTION RATE WE NEED TO ESTIMATE THE

FOLLOWING

Daily, weekly or monthly requirement of materials

Man power, machinery and equipment requirements

Production cost per unit as an input to better make or buy decision

Labor budgets

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Man power, machinery and equipment requirements

Worker's efficiency and make incentive wage payments.

1.7 SUMMARY OF PROJECT

In the production process it was observed unnecessary operations, avoidable

delays and other forms of waste which cause a rise in production cost and decrease

the production rate all these factors must be eliminated to improve the production

rate by reducing the time for production of a product which in turn can reduce

production cost. A method called TAYLORS TIME STUDY is used to improve

production

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CHAPTER 2

WORK STUDY

Work study is defined as that body of knowledge concerned with

the analysis of the work methods and the equipment used in performing a

job, the design of an optimum work method and the standardization of

proposed work methods .Work study has contributed immeasurably to the

search for better methods, and the effective utilization of this management

tool has helped in the accomplishment of higher productivity .Work study is

a management tool to achieve productivity in any organization, whether

manufacturing tangible products or offering services to its customers

Work study is also understood as a systematic, objective

and critical examination of the factors, affecting productivity for the

purpose of improvement .It make use of techniques of method study and

work measurement to ensure the best possible use of human and material

resources in carrying out a specific activity.

A generic term for those techniques,

particularly method study and work measurement ,which are used in the

examination of human work in all its contexts,and which lead

systematically to the investigation of all the factors which affect the

effeciency and economy of the situation being reviewed, in order to effect

improvement

Fig 2.1

2.1 METHOD STUDY

Method study or Motion study is the systematic recording

and critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work, as a

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means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and

reducing costs and variety of circumstances.

It ranges from the design of a new plant, to the design of a new

product, to the design of a new process, to the improvement of an existing

process, to the improvement of an existing workplace. Wherever work is

being done, methods engineering is a desirable function to ensure that the

work is being done in the easiest, safest, and most productive way .

Origin of Methods Engineering Methods engineering grew out of

the pioneering developments of the Gilbert's (Frank B, and his wife, Lillian

M.) who developed many of the tools of “motion study” as a part of

formulation a systematic approach to the analysis of work methods. Frank B

Gilbert first become interested in methods analysis as an outgrowth of his

observations of brick-laying. Gilbert, who in 1885 was employed as an

apprentice bricklayer, soon observed that a journey man bricklayer used one

set of motions when laying bricks slowly, another set when working at

average speed, and still a different set when working at rapid speed.

As a result of his observations, he invented an adjustable scaffold

and developed a set of motions that greatly increased the number of bricks

that could be laid in a day. Organization for Methods Engineering. As

indicated previously, methods engineering is a necessary function to ensure

that the most efficient methods are being used.

This activity is most frequently performed by industrial engineers;

however, all engineers should be concerned with work methods .The

engineers may be assigned to a central methods engineering or industrial

engineering department or may be assigned on a decentralized basis to

specific operating departments.

Some multi plant companies maintain both a central industrial

engineering group to work on problems common to many plants and also

assign engineers to each plant to work on projects pertinent only to that

plant.

Approach to Methods Design Charles E. Geisel States that in order

to design a system (method) thoroughly, eight elements must be considered.

1. Purpose: The function, mission, aim or need for the system.

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2. Input: The physical items, people, and/or information that enter the

system to be processed into the output.

3. Output: That which the system produces to accomplish its purpose, such

as finished steel, assembled toasters, boxes, and so forth

.4. Sequence: The steps required to convert, transform, or process the input

to the output.

5. Environment: The condition under which the system operates, including

physical, attitudinal, organizational, contractual, cultural, political, and legal

environment.

6. Human agents: The people who aid in the steps of the sequence without

becoming a part of the output.

7. Physical catalysts: The equipment and physical resources that aid in the

steps of the sequence without becoming part of the output

.8. Information aids: Knowledge and information resources that aid in the

steps of the sequence without becoming part of the output.

To ensure that the optimum method is found, a systematic approach

to methods design, superior to the use of a ‘hit or miss’ method, is used.

Stated in simplest form, this approach consists of the following steps:

1. Analyze the problem: Identify the problem and then secure all known

information about it through the use of appropriate analysis techniques.

2. Question are present method. If a method presently exists, question the

details of the known information to determine the principles violated.

3. Synthesize a proposed method: Formulate a proposed method for

performing the work, embodying all the principles of sound methods

engineering.

4. Apply the proposed method: Standardize and apply the new method.

2.1.1 STEPS OR PROCEDURE INVOVLED IN METHOD STUDY

1. Selection of the Job:

The first step, once the Method Study idea is conceived, is the orientation

and determination of objectives. The problem must be defined. Some

common problems the Method Study investigator faces and is usually

required to solve are:

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(a) Bottlenecks that disrupt smooth flow of materials or processes

(b) Products that need to be produced economically by the application of

cost-reducing techniques

(c) Economic utilization of space, including land and buildings

(d) Economic utilization of labour, material and plant

(e) Elimination of idle item or non-value adding time caused by problems of

flow, queues and congestion

While selecting the subjects for study, firstly, it is essential to remember

that the ultimate objective of the Method Study is to improve achievement

by raising the level of productivity and increasing satisfaction at work.

Secondly, the term ‘select’ should not be taken in its narrow sense, i.e., to

choose from among others. It must include a preliminary survey, which

enables the investigator to decide on the continuity of the study. The same

holds true for the selection of the job; it must also include the selection of

the appropriate techniques to achieve the end result.

2. Record the Facts:

Adequate facts about the existing system must be collected before

discarding the method or procedure. This is to ensure an objective record of

the way the job is carried out is maintained. To eliminate the chance of bias,

this record is based on direct observation by the concerned investigator. It is

not compiled from second-hand accounts, the manager’s version on how he

thinks the job is done or an operator’s description of how the job is done.

3. Critically Examine the Facts:

This is an important stage of Method Study; the information that is being

collected is scrutinized, and each part of the job is critically examined to

determine whether any part may be:

(a) Eliminated altogether

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(b) Combined with another part of the job

(c) Changed in sequence

(d) Simplified to reduce the content of work involved

For effective examination of the facts, the following questions are generally

asked:

(a) What is done and why?

(b) Who does it and why that person?

(c) Where is it done and why there?

(d) When is it done and why then?

(e) How is it done and why this way?

Rearranging, simplifying, combining, eliminating or modifying the facts or

records obtains a base for an improved method

4. Develop the New Method:

The alternatives selected are used to reshape and develop the new method,

layout or procedure. These may require test runs to determine their

feasibility. It is preferable that tests of this nature are carried out at a place

away from the work site, if possible. It is good to involve the departmental

officers to ease the problems of acceptance for the new method in the

department. The end result must be an improved method. It must be

acceptable to the departmental staff and workers. It must meet all their

practical requirements and technical specifications.

5. Install the Method:

Prior to installing the new method, decisions must be taken on:

(a) Ordering of new plants or materials (if any)

(b) Phasing in changes in the production process

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(c) Deciding the extent of redeployment

(d) Introducing new documentation procedures

(e) Setting new quality standards and test procedures

(f) A detailed timetable for effecting these changes

The end product of the installation stage is that the new method is in

operation at the work site; there is a complete control of line management;

and finally, all members of the department are fully conversant with the

method.

6. Installing the method

Installation will require the active support of everyone

concerned, and is by no means simple changes should not be introduced

until adequate preparation has been made

Throughout the study the opportunity should have been taken to

establish good working relationship at all levels, so that all who have been

taken part in the discussions leading to the improvements can realize that

they themselves contributed to the scheme

The new method now can be installed in the knowledge that

people have confidence in it and will be support it

Preparation

Preparation has broken into

1. Plan

2. Arrange

3. Rehearse

Installation

7. Maintaining the Method:

When a method has been installed, it tends to change slowly as

a result of minor alterations made by the operators or supervisors. To

detect any alterations, a reference standard (job instruction sheet) is needed

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against which the job can be compared. Likewise, a corresponding

document for an incentive scheme, which also contains details of the

standard time for each job, called a job specification, is prepared.

With this data, changes in method can be detected. If changes are

considered to be useful, the instruction sheet can be amended to incorporate

them. If they are thought undesirable, they can be removed through line

management.

2.2 RECORD TECHNIQUES FOR METHOD STUDY:

Fig 2.2

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In order to undertake critical examination, one must heve

facts, the whole range of facts and nothing but facts. Recording techniques

enable these facts to be reduced to written forms.

Recording comprises of two elements, obtaining all the

information needed by direct and reliable means and shifting and commiting

to writing all the data that have a bearing on the study collection of data

may be by

1. Direct observation, which may be

i. Unstructured

ii. Structured

The facts pertaining to a work system may be conveniently grouped under

the following categories

i. background

ii. systems, procedure or process

iii. Physical means of implementation

iv. movement and transportation

Background information includes feature like the history of the

organization, current aims, functions and tasks, future, trends, availability of

capital and other resources and industrial climate

Facts relating to process and procedures would bring out the details

of current practices and the activities involved in each sphere of the task

under study

2.3 METHOD STUDY ACTIVITIES

I .Operation. an operation is an action deliberately performed with the

intention of advancing a stage towards a desired result

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ii. Inspection. An inspection is a check that a planned activity has been

correctly performed the product remains unaltered by the inspection

iii. Storage. A storage occurs when the product is deliberately removed

for a time from the production

iv. Delay. A delay occurs when some undesreable event of

circumstance prevent the performance of the next planned activity

v. Transport. A transport occurs when there is movement from one

place to another

Fig 2.3

2.3.1

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RECORDING TECHNIQUES;

A. For recording the data, following aids may be utilized

i. Graphs

ii. Tables

iii. Schematic models

iv. Photographs

v. Templates

vi. Histogram

vii. Frequency polygons and gives

B. For recording the process, charts and diagrams are used

i. Outline process charts

ii. Flow process charts

iii. Two handed process charts

iv. Activity charts

v. Multiple activity charts

vi. Flow diagram

vii. String diagram

viii. Cine films

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2.3.1 FLOW PROCESS CHARTS

A flow process chart is used for recording greater detail thanis possible in

an operation process chart. It is made for each component of an assembly

rather than for the whole assembly

Symbols used

Symbol Letter Description

Ο O Operation

Ỻ I Inspection

→ M Move

D D Delay

∇ S Storage

Fig 2.4

WHEN TO USE IT

It is used when analyzing the steps in a process, to help identify and

eliminate waste.

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It is used when the process is mostly sequential, containing few

decisions.

Example of flow process chart

It is used when observing a physical process, to record actions as they

happen and thus get an accurate description of the process.

Fig 2.5

2.3.2 TWO HANDED CHARTS

The Two-Hand Process Chart The two-hand process chart,

sometimes referred to as an operator process chart is a motion study tool.

This chart shows all movements and delays made by the right and left

hands. Usually, it is not practical to make a detailed study through the two-

hand process chart unless a highly repetitive manual operation is involved.

Figure 4-17 on page 143 shows a typical two-hand process chart for a cable

clamp assembly, with the times for each therblig obtained from stopwatch

timing. It is usually less confusing to chart the activities of one hand

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completely, and then chart the other hand. Although there is no fixed rule

regarding what part of the work cycle to use as a starting point, it is usually

best to start plotting immediately after the release of the finished part. Since

it is sometimes not possible to time individual therbligs, work elements

might be comprised of several therbligs. For example, in Figure 4-17, the

first element of the left hand is "Get U-bolt" which is comprised of a

"reach" and a "grasp" therblig. It was not possible to time either of these

therbligs individually because they occur too fast.

In summary, the two-hand process chart is an effective tool to:

1. Balance the motions of both hands and reduce fatigue.

2. Reduce or eliminate nonproductive motions.

3. Shorten the duration of productive motions.

4. Train new operators in the ideal method.

5. Sell the proposed method.

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Fig 2.6

2.3.3 Multiple Activity Chart

This chart is similar to a Gantt chart but is used to show the interactions and

interferences between the work of several working as a team and dependent

on each other. It examines short cycle repetitive work and determines the

utilization of operators and machines working in a group. It enables group

work to be designed that is effective and operates with high productivity.

example

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Fig 2.7

2.3.4 STRING DIAGRAM

When to use it

Use it when analyzing a manual or physical process that involves significant

physical movement, in order to make movements easier and quicker.

Movements may be of people, materials or machines.

Use it when designing the layout of a work area, to identify the optimum

positioning of machines and furniture

How to understand it

The placement of equipment and furniture in work areas is often done

randomly and sequentially, rather than with any sense of what positioning

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will make the work easier. The result is that subsequent work requires much

more moving about than is necessary. A part of the problem is that when

designing a work area, it can be difficult to 'see' what movement will be

necessary.

The String Diagram is a simple tool for analyzing and designing work

spaces such that movement can be minimized. The basic diagram simply

consists of a map of the work area, with the actual movements drawn on top

Making of string diagram

It is common to also indicate type of actions being done at each point. This

is typically done using the same symbol set that is used in the Flow Process

Chart.

When analyzing the diagram, both the

positioning of equipment and the sequencing and detail of actions may be

considered. A simple revision of the process may enable the distance moved

to be significantly reduced (this may well be preferable to moving heavy

equipment around).

Example:

A metal worker became fed up with walking what seemed to

be half-way around the machine room just to build a metal box. With help

from the works facilitator, he measured the distance he traveled to build one

box, using a pinboard and scale map of his workshop area, as below. Using

this, he simply moved the machines into a U-shape. the result was an easier

and faster process, which also used less floor space.

Practical variations

Do a Flow Process Chart first, then follow up with a String Diagram. This

helps clarify the actions in the process, making the String Diagram easier to

complete. It also results in a more complete analysis.

Draw the map and 'string' on a single sheet of paper. This requires less

resources, and gives a result that can be easily copied, although it is less

flexible for redesigning.

Do multiple plots on the same diagram, for example where one person does

the same process in a different way, or where multiple people or items are

involved.

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Use colored pins to indicate different action types or different plots done on

the same map.

Use colored string to show different plots.

If it is significant, add the time taken for each movement.

Annotate the diagram with pertinent notes to help interpretation, for

example by giving notes on what is being done at each point, and why.

A Topological Movement Chart represents locations as small circles and

movement as lines between them. The distance is written next to each line,

as below. This is particularly useful for movement between remote sites,

such as travel between buildings or towns.

Fig 2.8

2.3.5 Cyclegraphs

A photograph showing movement depicted as a continuous pattern of light.

It is made by exposing a STILL film or plate for the period of the cycle of

the activity being analysed. Electric light bulbs are attached to the hands,

arms or feet of the subject, whose work is being analysed. The technique

was first used in 1890 by Marley to study the movements of athletes and

later developed by Gilbreth in the study of work.

Chronocyclegraphs:

This is a development of the cyclegraph where the electric light bulbs are

made to flash on quickly and die away slowly. The path of light appears as a

series of pear-shaped dots, the movement being in the direction in which the

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dots point. The spacing between the dots indicate the speed of movement

and show accelleration and decelleration.

Further Developments

Experiments were made with stereoscopic photography, in order to

reproduce the effect of three dimensional movement - i.e. towards and away

from the camera;

Later colour film was introduced using different coloured bulbs for each of

the two hands being analysed.

Equipment Used

A CHRONOGRAPHIC UNIT, which is a device (formerly battery

operated) to light the bulbs and to enable the flashing to be varied between

10 and 25 flashes per second;

Camera and exposure meter - a camera capable of double exposure will

enable a normal picture of the scene to be superimposed over the

chronocyclegraph;

Supplementary lighting for use when taking the instantaneous exposure to

obtain the superimposed picture.

Procedure

1. Set the frequency of flashes - depending on the type of job;

2. Attach bulbs to hands;

3. Decide the exposure time;

4. Take a time exposure for the period of the job cycle whilst the operator

performs the job - the location would be a darkened room in former

times;

5. Take a second, instantaneous exposure on the same film, if it is

required to superimpose the scene on the chronocyclgraph.

Uses of Chrono cycle graphs;

Developing a better work place - chronocyclegraphs reveal

obstructions and bad locations;

Analysis of a complex movement;

1. An aid to training;

2. Comparison of two methods;

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3. Publicity and advertising;

4. Design of new equipment.

5. Photographic Aids to Method Study

Both still and cine photography are used in cases where more detailed

investigations are required and where the operations may be of a very short

duration or performed at a high speed or where several different jobs are

being carried out simultaneously;

Advantages:

1. A permanent record is obtained of the work being carried out;

2. The record can be referred to at any time

3. The excellent means of demonstrating differences in methods is a

valuable aid to training;

4. Reproduction of the original method is possible at any time;

5. Repeated study of an operator's activities can be made without further

interference;

6. Examination of intermittent work can proceed when the work itself is

not actually in progress.

Use of 'Cine' Films

They can be projected at any required speed and can be

stopped at any convenient point. They can be reversed, thus enabling

clumsy or awkward movements to be easily detected;

It is possible to concentrate on particular activities involved without being

affected by the noise of normal surroundings.

2.3.6 Micro Motion Photography

Micro motion analysis is the critical examination of a SIMO

CHART prepared by a frame by frame breakdown of a cine film of an

operation; when a film is made for this purpose an exposure of 1000 frames

per minute is usually employed.

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2.3.7 Memo Motion Photography

This is a form of time lapse photography which records

activity by a cine camera adapted to take pictures at longer intervals of time

- e.g. one frame per second.

By employing this device it is possible to record the activities within the

working area over a lengthy period. The resulting series of still shots can be

analysed and used as a basis for the construction of appropriate charts and

method improvements - e.g. team operations, several operators or several

machines.

2.4 MOTION AND TIME STUDY

Motion study is a technique of analyzing the body motions

employed in doing a task in order to eliminate or reduce ineffective

movements and facilitate effective movements

By using the motion study and the principles of motion

economy the task is redesigned to be more effective and lesstime

consuming. Objective of motion study is job simplification so that it is less

fatiguing less time consuming

1. Transport- reach for an object

2. Grasp an object

3. Transport loaded

4. Release load

5. Use-manipulate tool

6. Hold the object

7. Preposition- position object for next use

8. Position at defined location

9. Assemble

10. Disassemble-separate multiple parts

11. Search –attempt to find the object

12. Select

13. Plan

14. Inspect

15. Unavoidable elay

16. Avoidable delay

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17. Rest

A time and motion study (or time-motion study) is a business

effeciency technique combining the Time Study work of Frederick Winslow

Taylor with the Motion Study work of Frank and Lillian Gilbert. It is a

major part of scientific management (Taylor's). After its first introduction,

time study developed in the direction of establishing standard times, while

motion study evolved into a technique for improving work methods. The

two techniques became integrated and refined into a widely accepted

method applicable to the improvement and upgrading of work systems. This

integrated approach to work system improvement is known as methods

engineering and it is applied today to industrial as well as service

organizations, including banks, schools and hospitals.

2.4.1 TIME STUDY

Time study is a direct and continuous observation of a task,

using a timekeeping device (e.g., decimal minute stopwatch, computer-

assisted electronic stopwatch, and videotape camera) to record the time

taken to accomplish a task and it is often used when

there are repetitive work cycles of short to long duration,

wide variety of dissimilar work is performed, or

process control elements constitute a part of the cycle.

The Industrial Engineering Terminology Standard, defines time study as "a

work measurement technique consisting of careful time measurement of the

task with a time measuring instrument, adjusted for any observed variance

from normal effort or pace and to allow adequate time for such items as

foreign elements, unavoidable or machine delays, rest to overcome fatigue,

and personal needs.

The systems of time and motion studies are frequently assumed to be

interchangeable terms, descriptive of equivalent theories. However, the

underlying principles and the rationale for the establishment of each

respective method are dissimilar, despite originating within the same school

of thought.

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The application of science to business problems, and the use of time-study

methods in standard setting and the planning of work, was pioneered by

Frederick Winslow Taylor. Taylor liaised with factory managers and from

the success of these discussions wrote several papers proposing the use of

wage-contingent performance standards based on scientific time study. At

its most basic level time studies involved breaking down each job into

component parts, timing each part and rearranging the parts into the most

efficient method of working. By counting and calculating, Taylor wanted to

transform management, which was essentially an oral tradition, into a set of

calculated and written techniques.

Taylor and his colleagues placed emphasis on the content of a fair day’s

work, and sought to maximize productivity irrespective of the physiological

cost to the worker. For example, Taylor thought unproductive time usage

(soldiering) to be the deliberate attempt of workers to promote their best

interests and to keep employers ignorant of how fast work could be carried

out.This instrumental view of human behavior by Taylor prepared the path

for human relations to supersede scientific management in terms of literary

success and managerial application.

2.4.2 PROCEDURE OF TIME STUDY

Following is the procedure developed by Mikell Groover for a direct time

study:

1. Define and document the standard method.

2. Divide the task into work elements.

These first two steps are conducted prior to the actual timing. They

familiarize the analyst with the task and allow the analyst to attempt to

improve the work procedure before defining the standard time.

3. Time the work elements to obtain the observed time for the task.

4. Evaluate the worker’s pace relative to standard performance

(performance rating), to determine the normal time.

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Note that steps 3 and 4 are accomplished simultaneously. During these

steps, several different work cycles are timed, and each cycle performance

is rated independently. Finally, the values collected at these steps are

averaged to get the normalized time.

5. Apply an allowance to the normal time to compute the standard time.

The allowance factors that are needed in the work are then added to

compute the standard time for the task.

2.4.3 CONDUCTING TIME STUDY

According to good practice guidelines for production studies  a

comprehensive time study consists of:

1. Study goal setting;

2. Experimental design;

3. Time data collection;

4. Data analysis;

5. Reporting.

The collection of time data can be done in several ways, depending on study

goal and environmental conditions. Time and motion data can be captured

with a common stopwatch, a handheld computer or a video recorder. There

are a number of dedicated software packages used to turn a palmtop or a

handheld PC into a time study device. As an alternative, time and motion

data can be collected automatically from the memory of computer-control

machines (i.e. automated time studies)

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CHAPTER 3

WORK MEASUREMENT

WORK MEASUREMENT:

Work Measurement is a term which covers several

different ways of finding out how long a job or part of a job should take to

complete. It can be defined as the systematic determination, through the use

of various techniques, of the amount of effective physical and mental work

in terms of work units in a specified task. The work units usually are given

in standard minutes or standard hours.

Why should we need to know how long a job should take? The

answer to this question lies in the importance of time in our everyday life.

We need to know how long it should take to walk to the train station in the

morning, one needs to schedule the day's work and even when to take out

the dinner from the oven.

In the business world these standard times are needed for:

manning jobs, to decide how many workers it would need to complete

certain jobs,

costing the work for estimating contract prices and costing the labour

content in general calculating the efficiency or productivity of workers - and

from this:

providing fair returns on possible incentive bonus payment schemes.

On what are these standard times set? They are set, not on how long a

certain individual would take to complete a task but on how long a trained,

experienced worker would take to do the task at a defined level of pace or

performance. Who sets these standard times? Specially trained and qualified

observers set these times, using the most appropriate methods or techniques

for the purpose i.e. "horses for courses" .How it is done depends on

circumstances that obtain. The toolkit available to the comprehensively

trained observer is described below.

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3.1 OBJECTIVES OF WORK MEASUREMENT:

1. Comparison of alternative method

2. Manning

3. Planning

4. Control

5. Incentives

6. Budgeting

7. Team work

3.2 TECHNIQUES OF WORK MEASURMENT

The principle techniques of work measurement are

1. Time study

2. Synthesis

3. Predetermined motion time system

4. Analytical estimate

5. Work sampling

3.3 SELECTING THE MOST APPROPRIATE OF WORK

MEASUREMENT

The method chosen for each individual situation to be measured

depends on several factors which include: the length on the job to be

measured in time units

the precision which is appropriate for the type of work in terms of time the

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general cycle-time of the work, i.e. does it take seconds, minutes or days to

complete

The length of time necessary for the completion of the range of jobs can

vary from a few seconds in highly repetitive factory work to several weeks

or months for large projects such as major shutdown maintenance work on

an oil refinery. It is quite clear that using a stop-watch, for example, on the

latter work would take several man-years to time to measure! Thus, more

"overall" large-scale methods of timing must be employed.

The precision is an important factor, too. This can vary from setting times

of the order of "to the nearest thousandth of a minute" (e.g. short cycle

factory work) to the other end of the scale of "to the nearest week" (e.g. for

large project work).

These are the dominant factors that affect

the choice of method of measurement. The methods PMTS .At the

"precision" end of the scale is a group of methods known as predetermined

motion time systems that use measurement units in ten thousandths (0.0001)

of a minute or hundred-thousandths of an hour (0.00001 hour). The

resulting standard times can be used directly, for very short-cycle work of

around one minute total duration such as small assembly work. However,

they often are used to generate regularly used basic tasks such using

assembling or disassembling nuts and bolts, using a screwdriver and similar.

Tasks of this type are filed as standard or synthetic data-banks

Estimating.At the other end of the scale (long-cycle and project work) we

need something which is quick to use. Such a method is estimating. This

can exist in three main forms.

Analytical estimating relies on the

experience and judgement of the estimator. It is just of case of weighing up

the work content and, using this experience, stating a probable time for

completion, such as "this job will take about eight days to complete".

Category estimating. This is a form of range estimating and requires a

knowledge of the work. Estimators may not feel comfortable with overall,

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analytical estimates upon which may depend the outlay of a great deal of

money. They often prefer giving a range estimate such as "this job should

take between 12 weeks and 14 weeks to complete", which provides a safety

net should things go wrong. Such ranges are not just picked upon at random

but are statistically calculated and based on

comparative estimating. This is another example of range estimating.

Again, estimators rely on experience of the work in order to produce

estimates. This experience can be augmented by the provision of each time-

range with a few typical, descriptive, jobs that would guide estimators to the

most appropriate range

The intermediate method between the two groups

above, is timing the work in some way, usually with a stop-watch or

computerised electronic study board. This method is retrospective in that

the job must be seen in action in order to be timed whereas the other

methods are prospective and can be used for timing jobs before they start.

The observer times each element of the work and obtains times that the

observed operator takes to do the elements. Each timing is adjusted (rated)

by the pace at which the operator was working as assessed by the observer.

This produces basic times for the elements and hence the whole job, which

are independent of the operator and can be used as the time for a trained,

experienced worker to carry out the same elements. The reader is referred to

the Topic on time study in this Website.

Another method of assessing the work is using activity sampling and rated

activity sampling. This is a method based on the observer making snap

observations at random or systematic sample times, observing what the

operator is (or operators are) doing at the times of those observations (see

the appropriate Topic).

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CHAPTER 4

METHODS OF WORK STUDY

To make work study different people suggested different theories some among them are

1. Robert owen

2. Fredrick W. Taylor

3. Frank and Lilian Gilbert

4. Charles E. Bedaux

4.1 ROBERT OWEN METHOD

At the age of 19 Owen was manager of a cotton mill in Manchester employing 500

operatives. On becoming manager and partner in the Chorlton Twist company, Owen

induced his partners to purchase the new Lanark mills. Their Owen carried out many

social and industrial experiments. He succeeded in elevating the living conditions of his

employees, while reorganising the mills so that they were a commercial success inspite

of heavy expenditure on humanitarian improvements. Was interested in factory layout

and in problem of fatigue and environment.

As far as we know, the earliest attempt at timing production was made in

1760 by a French man, called Perronet. Perronet made overall timings of the complete

cycle of operations in the manufacture of pins. He found that 12000 No., 6 pins, took

24.3 hours to manufacture. Seventy years later pins, and it was he who recognised the

need for scientific methods in industry.

Following a ten year period which he spent visiting factories and

workshops in England and Europe, he published a book entitled “The Economy if

Machinery and Manufacturer”, which was, in part, a study of factory management.

Included in this recommendations were ideas which remain of considerable practical

interest even today.

He believed that every enterprise should begin

with a systematic survey of raw material supply; of the problems concerned with

production, inspection, waste, labour available, equipment, costs, marketing of the

product and competition. Methods of work should be analysed, processes costed and

analysed, and labour divided to separate skilled from unskilled work.

Two further points may be mentioned here:

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1. Babbage had apparently practised Time Study and gave a warning against the

difficulty of obtaining correct measurements, in view of the fact that the worker

under observation tends to be self conscious. He was familiar with the stop

watch which had just recently been invented.

2. He attached great importance to the value of good human relationship in

industry, and advocated as an ideal solution, a partnership between employees

and employers.

4.2 TAYLORS AND TIME STUDY

The first real landmark was the development of times study by an

American Engineer Frederick Taylor

(a) Frederick W. Taylor(1856-1915)

Taylor was rather a remarkable man. Having had to abandon a promising

academic career due to impaired eyesight, Taylor served an apprenticeship

as a machinist and a pattern maker. In 1878 when he was 22 he had to go to

work at a Midvale steel Work as an ordinary labour, for times were hard. He

worked his way up rapidly-time clerk, journey man, lathe operator, gang

boss, foreman of the machine shops until at only 31 he was made chief

engineer of the Works.

(b) The principle of Scientific Management

While at Midvale Taylor came face to face with those basic industrial

problems to which the only answer up to that time had been the product of

guess work.” Which is the best way to do a job?” “What should constitute a

day’s work?” etc. Taylor set out to find answers to many of these questions.

He concentrated upon the problems of discovering the work content of a job

and thereby establishing different time standards. But he extended his study

further and endeavoured to establish basic principles of management, which

would apply to all fields of industrial activity. Many years later Taylor

explained his objectives as having been the following:

1. “The development of a science for each element of man’s work thereby

replacing the old rule-of-thumb method”.

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2. “The development of the best worker for each particular task, and then

training , teaching and developing the workman, in place of the former

practice of teaching and developing the work man, in place of the former

practice of allowing the worker to select his own task and train himself as

the best he could”.

3. “The development of a spirit of hearty co-operation between management

and the men in carrying on the activities in accordance with the principles of

the developed science”.

4. “The division of the work into almost equal shares between management

and the workers, each department taking over the work of which it is best

fitted instead of former condition in which almost all of the work and the

greater part of the responsibility were thrown on the men”.

It was these principles, extended and applied, which formed the

basic of what has been called ‘Scientific management’.

(c) Investigation of Shovelling

In 1898 Taylor went to the Bethlehem Steel Works, where he undertook his

famous studies in shovelling. As nearly 600 men on the plant were employed on

shovelling, it was natural that Taylor should turn his attention to this aspect of

the works. What worried Taylor was the disparity of load handled between

individual shovellers and between various materials shovelled. Finally he came

to the conclusion that a load of 10 kg. Enabled a man to shovel the maximum

tonnage of material in one day. Therefore he provided different types of shovels

for use in handling different types of materials, but each was so constructed that

it would hold only 10 kg. In addition Taylor established a planning department

in order to determine in advance the amount of work to be done in the yard

during the ensuing day. Furthermore instead of working in large gangs, each

man was responsible for his own work and paid a bonus for reaching his target.

(d) Time study

In these studies at Midvale and Bethlehem. Taylor made stop watch timing on

the basic of his observations, from which he developed the techinique of time

study until it became the principal feature of his scientific management. It was,

of course, Taylor himself who coined the phrase ‘Time Study’. His studies were

entirely different from the earlier efforts of Perronet and Babbage.

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While the latter had contended themselves by taking overall timings for a

complete cycle of work, Taylor started breaking down the cycle of the operation

into small groups of motions called ‘elements’. Each element was timed

separately and the elapsed time of each element was determined. Taylor realised

that the overall time told, relatively little and gave no indication as to where

time was being wasted or being used inefficiently. By timing the individual

elements one obtained a complete breakdown of the total operation in an easily

analysable form, while at the same time one could always ascertain the overall

time by simple arithmetic.

Furthermore, Taylor realised that each cycle must be studied for a long

time and each study must be repeated a number of times if any degree of

accuracy were to be attained.

Thus Taylor was able to show by time study that there were in industrial

operations preventable loss of efficiency.

Taylor’s fundamental contribution to the development of work

study was to approach production problems in any analytical manner. In the

words of Eric farmer, the Cambridge industrial psychologist, Taylor”

approached problems which had been thought either not to exist or to be

easily solved by common sense, in the spirit of scientific enquiry.”

4.2.1 CRITICISM OF TAYLOR

Management theorist Henry Mintz bergis highly critical of Taylor’s

methods. Mintzberg states that an obsession with efficiency allows

measureable benefits to overshadow less quantifiable social benefits

completely, and social values get left behind.

Harry Braverman's work, Labour and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation

of Work in the Twentieth Century, published in 1974, was critical of

scientific management. This work pioneered the field of Labour Process

Theory.

Taylor's methods have also been challenged by socialist intellectuals. The

argument put forward relates to progressive defanging of workers in the

workplace and the subsequent degradation of work as management,

powered by capital, uses Taylor's methods to render work repeatable,

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precise yet monotonous and skill-reducing. James W. Rinehart argued that

Taylor's methods of transferring control over production from workers to

management, and the division of labor into simple tasks, intensified the

alienation of workers that had begun with the factory system of production

around 1870–1890.

Calling special attention to one of Taylor's most famous statements, “In the

past the man has been first; in the future the system must be first,” author

Anthony Horvath argues that Taylor's contribution to the Progressive Era

helped lay the groundwork for the Eugenics movement, which specifically

did put the 'system' first, and the individual last, with horrific results.

4.3 THE GILBRETH’S AND MOTION STUDY

1. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth

The founder of modern motion study was Frank B. Gilbreth (1869-1924), a

New England contractor and industrial consultant.

As another pioneer in the filed of ‘scientific management’; Gilbret was

greatly assisted by his wife, a trained psychologist, who happily played an

active part in the continuation of her husband’s work. Gilbreth started as a

bricklayer and became a successful contractor. His wife worked for many

years to win her doctorate in psychology; yet she was able to assist her

husband materially in this work.

2. Bricklaying

In 1885, Gilbreth at the age of 17, eschewed at Harvard education which

was the convection of New England families. Instead, he went to work for a

building contractor in Boston, where he began by learning the bricklayers

trade. His ambition was to work his way through the various ranks of the

building trade until he himself could become a patner.But when he tried to

learn to lay bricks, he discovered that no two operatives used the same

technique, nor did the operative used himself the same method as the one

which he endeavoured to teach to the apprentice. Furthermore noticed that a

bricklayer used one set of motions when he worked slowly, and another

when he worked fast. This started Gilbreth thinking. While himself

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learning the craft as he best could, Gliberth determined to work out the most

efficient method of laying bricks, so that he personally could get ahead. He

began by studying the motions of the individual bricklayer and

endeavouring to analyse and rationalise this motions. This was the

beginning of ’Motion Study’.

In a short time Gilbreth duly became a foreman and subsequently started

up a general contracting firm of his own.

3. Motion Study

So far Gilbreth had done no more than numerous other men must

have done underdiffering industrial circumstances. But apparently Gilberth

was not contended to leave the matter there. He continued to study the

problem of laying bricks. He ascertained that eighteen seaport movements

were made in laying each brick. By analysing this movements, he was able

reorganise the pattern of work, so that the movements were reduced to five

per brick. From applying what we should call Method study he was led to

redesign the scaffolding and the general layout of the work site. For

example, Gilbreth devised a scaffold which could be raised quickly and

easily, a short distance at a time, thus permitting it to be maintained at a

level most convenient for the laying of each particularrow of bricks.

Furthermore, he equipped the scaffold with a bench for holding the bricks

and mortar at a height convenient for the operative, thus saving him the

unnecessary task of bending over to pick up each brick from the floor of the

scaffold. As a result of his investigation, Gilbreth was able to demonstrate

that a bricklayers’s output could be trebled, the production cost lowered and

wages increased substantially,in fact he was able to rise the average output

of operation from 120 bricks per hour to 350.

From a study of bricklaying Gilbreth moved onto constructional jobs

all of which were included in his own field of general contracting. All

through his life Gilbreth remained an active contractor. His studies and

researches were all stimulated by the Harvard School of Practice.

The ideas that Gilbreth had developed on motion study and

management interested his wife very much, and it was with encouragement

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from her that they published a number of papers between 1904 and 1920

these included Field system- 1908 bricklaying system 1909, motion study-

1911, The primer of scientific management-1912, Fatigue study-1916,

Applied motion study-1917, and motion study for the Handicaapped-1920.

The term ‘motion study’ to cover their field of research was coined by

the Gilbreths, in order to distinguish their work from the time study of F.W

Taylor. In1917, the Gilbreths propounded the first definition of motion

study, namely that motion study consists of dividing the work into

fundamental elements : analysing these elements separately, and in relation

to one another; and from these studied elements, when timed, building

methods of least waste.

In addition of motion study the Gilbreths developed the technique

known as Micromotion study. This is simply the application of the camera

of motion study. In cyclic repetitive work it had been impossible for the

human eye to distinguish and record the different motions performed, so the

Gilbreths decided to photograph this type of work with a motion camera has

become. As a result it has become possible to record, and consequently to

analyse this type of work. The Gilbreths were always actually aware of the

advantages of automatically and rhythm in work. In a further effort to

record the rhythm and cycle of an operator’s movements, they invented two

instruments, the cyclograph and chronocyclograph.

4. Fatigue

The Gilbreth’s also investigated the problem of fatigue and its

elimination. From these studies they felt that it was possible to eliminate

‘needless fatigue. The three principal methods by which this could be done

were:

1. Lightening the load.

2. Introducing rest periods.

3. Spacing the work.

Here we can distinguish the early conception of what today we call

‘Compensating

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(e) Taylor & Gilbreth

At this time the ideas of F.W. Taylor and his colleagues in ‘Scientific

management’ were prevalent in American industrial circles. Gilbreth, as

might be expected, became interested in them, but he was reluctant to

accept them whole heartendly. He found that many if the details of Taylor’s

work conflicted with his own experience. All through his life Gilbreth

retained immense admiration for Taylor’s courage and analytical abilities,

but he never allowed it to obscure the weakness in Taylor’s thesis. To begin

with, Gilbreth held that it was bad practice to take a time study, until one

head ensured that the best and most economical method of performing the

operation had been established. Today this is one of the key principles of

work-study. Furthermore, Gilbreth objected to the habit of making secret

time studies of reluctant employees. He maintained stoutly that both Motion

Study and Time Study required achieve interest and co-operation of the

operative concerned.

The difference in the two respective

approaches of Taylor and the Gilberths is signified in the two names which

are associated with there names.Time study and Motion study. Taylor was

interested principally in the time factor. He approached the problem of

method and motion in a far less scientific manner, simply in an ancilliary

task in the practise of his time studies. The Gilberths on the other

hand ,were mainly concerned with devising the most economical methods

and most effective layout of work space, followed by the motion study.

They regarded elapsed time as a secondary consideration. They felt that in

any case, a reduction in elapsed time would follow from the proper use of

motion study.

f. ATTITUDE TO LABOUR

In face Gilberths and Taylors had fundamentally different

approaches to labour, although both of them had worked in their day as

ordinary labourers. Gilberth understood and often agreed with the work

mans point of view. He believed in getting results through information and

cooperation. Taylor, on the other hand, did not understand the men with

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whom he dealt. He disliked their alleged absence of cooperation and he

found himself constantly by their inherent conservation

Although their contributions were many, what

the Gilbreths are most known for is their work on motion studies. If you're

familiar with the phrase 'work smarter, not harder', then you will know

exactly what Frank and Lillian were after. The interest in standardization

and method studies developed while Frank was working as a bricklayer. In

fact, it didn't take long as an apprentice for Frank to notice that no one

bricklayer performed his or her job quite the same. He found some workers

to be highly productive, while others were extremely slow and ineffective.

While we can certainly attribute some of the slowness and inefficiency to

pure laziness, Frank focused on identifying the basic movements needed to

lay brick effectively and isolated them to eliminate unnecessary movements.

Frank presented his findings to his fellow bricklayers and found that those

who used the movements he recommended were able to increase their

output from 1,000 to 2,700 bricks per day.

Just imagine what that would mean for you as a manager. If you were able

to come up with a standard set of movements, practices, methods, or

procedures for your workers to follow that would maximize their efforts,

how much more could your employees do during their 8-hour shift? How

much more could be done on a given week, a month, or a year? And how

much more profit could you earn as a result? What the Gilbreths discovered

by studying the motions of others was a way to immediately impact the

bottom line for the better. There was no fancy equipment to buy, elaborate

marketing schemes to draw up, or innovative products needing to be

developed. It required nothing more than spending time observing,

analyzing, and scrutinizing effective movements of workers as they went

through the motions of their jobs. Again, work smarter, not harder!

4.3.1 CRITICISMS

In response to Taylor’s time studies and view of human nature, many strong

criticisms and reactions were recorded. Unions, for example, regarded time

study as a disguised tool of management designed to standardize and

intensify the pace of production. Similarly, individuals such as Gilbreth

(1909), Cadbury and Marshall heavily criticized Taylor and pervaded his

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work with subjectivity. For example, Cadbury in reply to Thompson stated

that under scientific management employee skills and initiatives are passed

from the individual to management, a view reiterated by Nyland. In

addition, Taylor’s critics condemned the lack of scientific substance in his

time studies, in the sense that they relied heavily on individual

interpretations of what workers actually do. However, the value in

rationalizing production is indisputable and supported by academics such as

Gantt, Ford and Munsterberg, and Taylor society members Mr C.G. Renold,

Mr W.H. Jackson and Mr C.B. Thompson.Proper time studies are based on

repeated observation, so that motions performed on the same part

differently by one or many workers can be recorded, to determine those

values that are truly repetitive and measureable. Good studies are never

studied just once.

4.4 CHARLES E. BEDAUX AND TIME STUDY

From 1911 onwards another American industrial consultant,

Charles E. Bedaux, tried to construct an objective system of work

measurement. He evolved a common unit by which he was able to record

the value of work done on any particular job. It was intended to provide an

objective standard upon which to base bonus payments and by which to

compare different types of work. This unit he called a B unit after himself.

The tool used by Bedaux to establish his unit value was that of taylor’s time

study

Bedaux made an important addition of time

study practise. Previously time study had been simply of the elapsed time

for each element .Bedaux introduced a new factor,’ rating assessment ‘ as

each element was timed, the time study man assessed a rating value for the

speed and effectiveness with which the element was carried out. Thus a

serious attempt was made to bring a qualitative element into time study.

Furthermore, Bedaux followed gilberths conception of introducing a rest

allowance for the recovery from fatigue into the basic calculations of a B

unit value

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There is no doubt that Bedaux, by introducing

a rating assessment and including a rest allowance, went a long way

towards establishing an empirical basis for the measurement of work.

Unfortunately, his efforts in industry met with serious opposition from

organised labour, both in America and great Britain. The reasons were

many, but the most important, was the failure of the management to obtain

labours confidence, and the failure of labour to realise that industrial

productivity is the only key to plenty. It is also true that some of the Bedaux

techniques were still fairly primitive e.g. fatigue allowances were not only

on a truly analytical basis. Furthermore the current redundancy of labour

was sometimes used by the employers as a reason for cutting rates after they

had been properly established by Bedaux enginers

This was brought to Great Britain for the first

time by messrs. Kodak and j. lyons. A company called a harles E. Bedaux

limited was registered in London with the objective of supplying technical

consultants to companies

4.5 THERBLIGS MICROMOTION STUDIES

Detailed analysis os a film of an operation will reveal

much that be missed in the recording of a process chart from observation of

the operator. this is particularly true in the case of a job involving intricate

finger movements or one with a very short cycle time

In micro motion study a film of the operation is projected

frame by frame. The movements observed are classified into elements

called THERBLIGS and these are recorded in the form of charts known as

simultaneous Motion cycle chart

This is drawn to a time scale, the time being read form a special

clock measuring down to one thousand of a minute, which is placed in the

field of view of the camera when the film is taken

Gilbert discovered that all movement could be broken down

into elements called as THERBLIGS (Gilberth backward). These elements

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are seventeen eighteen in number, the first thirteen being elements of

movement which cannot be logically sub divided and the last four, five

reasons for lack of movement

4.6 WORK STUDY IN INDIA

The need for increased productivity was felt in India

during and after the II world war consulting firms like industrial and

business consultants have been working in Indian industries in the field of

work study and wage incentives for more than two decades. Further

development assisted by the nationl productivity council has left a lasting

impact and it can be said that the potentialities of the application of work

study is now all round understood

Institutions like the defence Institute of work study

institutions of work study, India and the national institute of training in

industrial engineering are doing useful work in the field of work study

training

It is now accepted that the work study, can be

applied successfully in the fields of research, design, production planning,

systems control. Considering that hitherto many of these were considered as

impossible areas for work study applications one can really look forward to

a better and more productive tomorrow

SUMMARY

These are the different theories which take only some factors into account

and a method is proposed. Every theory has their own limitations which

effect the rate of production.

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CHAPTER 5

DATA COLLECTED AT INDUSTRY

5.1 MANUFACTURING OF GEAR BOX:

A machine consists of a power source and a power transmission system, which

provides controlled application of the power. It is an assembly of parts including

the speed-changing gears and the propeller shaft by which the power is

transmitted from an engine to a live axle. Often transmission refers simply to the

gear box that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed and torque conversions

from a rotating power source to another device.

A gear train is a mechanical system formed by mounting gears on a frame

so that the teeth of the gears engage. Gear teeth are designed to ensure the pitch

circles of engaging gears roll on each other without slipping, providing a smooth

transmission of rotation from one gear to the next.

5.1.1 IMPORTANT PARTS OF GEAR BOX

1. Housing

2. Gears

3. Bearings

4. Counter shafts

5. Shafts

5.2 Manufacturing process of gear:

Gear manufacturing refers to the making of gears. Gears can be manufactured

by a variety of processes, including casting, forging, extrusion, powder

metallurgy, and blanking. As a general rule, however, machining is applied to

achieve the final dimensions, shape and surface finish in the gear. The initial

operations that produce a semi finishing part ready for gear machining as

referred to as blanking operations; the starting product in gear machining is

called a gear blank

Raw material

Raw material is brought in the form of rods with different diameters as

required for the manufacturing of a gear.Then this material is stored without

allowing to get damage. When an order is received then the material is sent

to next step for cutting into blanks

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Fig 5.2.1

Cutting of raw material

The material is sent to a cutting machine in the industry with the

help of trollies and cranes here the material is cut into blanks of certain

thickness required for that gear . Here blanks are produced of required

thickness and then send to next machining process.

Fig 5.2.2

Grinding of blanks

Here surface grinding is done for the blanks.Surface grinding is used to

produce a smooth finish on flat surfaces. It is a widely used abrasive

machining process in which a spinning wheel covered in rough particles

(grinding wheel) cuts chips of metallic or non metallic substance from a

work piece, making a face of it flat or smooth.

Drilling

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of

circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool,

often multipoint. The bit is pressed against the work piece and rotated at

rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the

cutting edge against the workpiece, cutting off chips (swarf)from the hole as

it is drilled. Drilling is done to the blanks in order to fix the shafts in them

and at spotting machine a slot is done. After this process tooth is cut down

for the gear by using different process

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Fig 5.2.3

GEAR GENERATION

Gear generation

In gear generating, the tooth flanks are obtained as an outline of the

subsequent positions of the cutter, which resembles in shape the mating gear

in the gear pair. There are two machining processes employed shapingand

milling. There are several modifications of these processes for different

cutting tool used

Gear hobbing:

Gear hobbing is a machining process in which gear teeth are

progressively generated by a series of cuts with a helical cutting tool. All

motions in hobbing are rotary, and the hob and gear blank rotate

continuously as in two gears meshing until all teeth are cut

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Fig 5.2.4

Finishing operations

As produced by any of the process described, the surface finish and

dimensional accuracy may not be accurate enough for certain applications.

Several finishing operations are available, including the conventional

process of shaving, and a number of abrasive operations, including

grinding, honing, and lapping.

Fig 5.2.5

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Inspection:

Gear after its manufacturing it will be inspected. If it reaches the required

standard then it will be sent out.

5.3 RECORDING OF DATA OBSERVED:

The data that observed is recorded in the following process

5.3.1 OPERATION PROCESS CHART:

An operation process chart provides the chronological sequence

of all operations and inspections that occur in a manufacturing or business

process. Operation process chart for this has the sequence of steps starting

from the getting of raw material to designing and to the assembly. The

following diagram shows the pictorial representation of process carried out.

FIG 5.3.1

5.3.2 FLOW PROCESS CHART:

A flow process chart is used for recording greater detail than is

possible in an operation process chart. It is made for each component of an

assembly rather than for the whole assembly. The following chart shows process

chart for the assembly of a gear box

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Fig 5.3.2

Standard time = observed time + rating factor + personal allowances + fatigue

allowances + delay allowance +work related + contingency allowance

5.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE PRODUCTION RATE

5.4.1 LAYOUT FACTORS

1. Maximum accessibility: A good layout will be one which can be rapidly

modified to meet changing circumstances

2. Maximum coordinatiom: entry into, and disposal from, any department

or functional area should be in such a manner that it is must convient to

the issuing or receiving departments

3. Maximum use of volume: facilities should be considered as cubic

devices and maximum use made of the volume available.this principle is

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particularly useful in stores, where goods can be stacked at considerable

heights without inconvenieance, especially if modern lifting devices are

used

4. Maximum visibility: all the materials and people should be readily

observable at all the time there should be no hidden places into which

goods or information can get mis laid

5. Maximum accessibility: all servicing and maintenance points should be

readily accessible. For example, equipment should not be placed against

a wall in such a manner that necessary maintenance easily carried out

6. Minimum distance; All movements should both necessary and direct.

Handling work adds to cost but not increase value consequently any

unnecessary or indirect movements should be avoided

7. Minimum handling: the best of handling of material and information is

no handling but where it is unavoidable it should be reduced to a

minimum

8. Minimum discomfort: Poor lighting, excessive sunlight, heat,noise,

vibrations and smells should be minimized and if possible counteracted

9. Inherent safety

10. 5.4.2 PLANT LOCATION Maximum security

11. Efficient process flow

FACTORS:

1. Proximity to markets

2. Integration with other parts of the organization

3. Availability of labour and skills

4. Availability of amenities

5. Availability of transport

6. Availability of inputs

7. Availability of services like gas electricity

8. Suitability of land and climate

9. Regional regulations

10. Room for expansions

11. Safety requirements

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5.4.3 MATERIAL HANDLING FACTORS

Material handling is a necessary and significant component of any

productive activity. It is something that goes on in every plant all the time.

Material handling means providing the right amount of the right material, in

the right condition, at the right place, at the right time, in the right position

and for the right cost, by using the right method. It is simply picking up,

moving, and lying down of materials through manufacture. It applies to the

movement of raw materials, parts in process, finished goods, packing

materials, and disposal of scraps. In general, hundreds and thousands tons of

materials are handled daily requiring the use of large amount of manpower

while the movement of materials takes place from one processing area to

another or from one department to another department of the plant. The cost

of material handling contributes significantly to the total cost of

manufacturing.

In the modern era of competition, this has acquired greater

importance due to growing need for reducing the manufacturing cost. The

importance of material handling function is greater in those industries where

the ratio of handling cost to the processing cost is large. Today material

handling is rightly considered as one of the most potentially lucrative areas

for reduction of costs. A properly designed and integrated material handling

system provides tremendous cost saving opportunities and customer

services improvement potential.

OBJECTIVES OF MATERIAL HANDLING

The primary objective of a material handling system is to reduce the unit

cost of production. The other subordinate objectives are:

1. Reduce manufacturing cycle time

2. Reduce delays, and damage

3. Promote safety and improve working conditions

4. Maintain or improve product quality

5. Promote productivity

i. Material should flow in a straight line

ii. Material should move as short a distance as possible

iii. Use gravity

iv. Move more material at one time.Automate material

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6. Promote increased use of facilities

i. Promote the use of building cube

ii. Purchase versatile equipment

iii .Develop a preventive maintenance program

iv. Maximize the equipment utilization etc.

7. Reduce tare weight

8. Control inventory reduce Cost of Handling the total cost of material

handling per unit must decrease.

The total cost per unit is the sum of the following:

1. Cost of material handling equipment – both fixed cost and operating cost

calculated as the cost of equipment divided by the number of units of

material handled over the working life of the equipment.

2. Cost of labor – both direct and indirect associated cost calculated in terms

of cost per unit of material handled.

3. Cost of maintenance of equipment, damages, lost orders and expediting

expenses, also calculated, in terms of cost per unit of material

handled.Reduced Manufacturing Cycle Time the total time required to make

a product from the receipt of its raw material to the finished state can be

reduced using an efficient and effective material handling system. The

movement of the material can be faster and handling distance could be

reduced with the adoption of an appropriate material handling system.

LIMITATIONS OF AUTOMATED MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS:

A good management practice is to weigh benefits against the limitations or

disadvantages before contemplating any change. Material handling systems

also have consequences that may be distinctly negative. These are:

1. Additional

2. Lack of flexibility

3. Vulnerability to downtime whenever there is breakdown

4. Additional maintenance staff and cost

5. Cost of auxiliary equipment.

6. Space and other requirements: The above limitations or drawbacks of

adopting mechanized handling equipment have been identified not to

discourage the use of modern handling equipment but to emphasize that a

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judicious balance of the total benefits and limitations is required before an

economically sound decision is made.

PRINCIPLES OF MATERIAL HANDLING:

When designing a material handling system, it is important to refer to best

practices to ensure that all the equipment and processes including manual,

semi-automated and automated, in a facility work together as a unified,

system. By analyzing the goals of the material handling process and

aligning them to guidelines, such as the 10 Principles of Material Handling,

a properly designed system will improve customer service, reduce

inventory, shorten delivery time, and lower overall handling costs in

manufacturing, distribution and transportation. These principles include:

1. Planning: Define the needs, strategic performance objectives and

functional specification of the proposed system and supporting technologies

at the outset of the design. The plan should be developed in a team

approach, with input from consultants, suppliers and end users, as well as

from management, engineering, information systems, finance and

operations.

2. Standardization: All material handling methods, equipment, controls and

software should be standardized and able to perform a range of tasks in a

variety of operating conditions.

3. Work: Material handling processes should be simplified by reducing,

combining, shortening or eliminating unnecessary movementthat will

impede productivity. Examples include using gravity to assist in material

movement, and employing straight-line movement as much as possible.

4 .Ergonomics: Work and working conditions should be adapted to support

the abilities of a worker, reduce repetitive and strenuous manual labor, and

emphasize safety.

5. Unit load: Because less effort and work is required to move several

individual items together as a single load (as opposed to moving many items

one at a time), unit loads—such as pallets, containers or totes of items—

should be used.

6. Space utilization: To maximize efficient use of space within a facility, it

is important to keep work areas organized and free of clutter, to maximize

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density in storage areas (without compromising accessibility and

flexibility), and to utilize overhead space.

7. System: Material movement and storage should be coordinated

throughout all processes, from receiving, inspection, storage, production,

assembly, packaging, unitizing and order selection, to shipping,

transportation and the handling of returns.

8. Environment: Energy use and potential environmental impact should be

considered when designing the system, with reusability and recycling

processesimplemented when possible, as well as safe practices established

for handling hazardous materials.

9. Automation: To improve operational efficiency, responsiveness,

consistency and predictability, automated material handling technologies

should be deployed when possible and where they make sense to do so.

10. Life cycle cost: For all equipment specified for the system, an analysis

of life cycle costs should be conducted. Areas of consideration should

include capital investment, installation, setup, programming, training,

system testing, operation, maintenance and repair, reuse value and ultimate

disposal

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CHAPTER 6

METHODOLOGY USED TO MAKE WORK STUDY

TAYLORS WORK STUDY

Taylors work study was concentrated to develop a scientific method to any

human problem. It is obtained by selecting a worker for particular task and

then training him soundly, essentially by developing co-operation between

workers and the management

TAYLORS APPROACH

Split up a work into small activities called elemental movements or

simply elements

Eliminate all unnecessary elements

Assign time to each elemental motion accurately with the help of stop

watch or standards.

Assign each worker a clearly defined task in defined time

Classify and describe each elemental motion and its time carefully for

future references

Add on allowances to actual time to cover the time delays due to known

forecasts or unknown reasons

Standardize the tools and working conditions with more emphasis laid

on methods improvement

It also given rise to a firm a scientific and calculative opinion on

remuneration system.

REMUNERATION SYSTEM

The wages in the company are agreemented according to their

workand qualification for certain period of time

To obtain best report on wages for both workers and management

the time study remuneration system has to be followed.

If workers accomplished the task in time he mustbe paid wisely

otherwise he must bare the losses.

TAYLORS PRINCIPLES

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The development of science for each element of man’s work thereby

replacing the old rule of thumb method

The selection of best worker for each particular task,and then

training ,teaching ,developing the workman ,in place of former practice

of teaching and developing the work man, in place of former practice of

allowing the worker to select his own task and train himself as best he

could.

The development of a spririt of hearty cooperation between

management and the men in carrying out the activities in accordance

with the principles of the developed science

The division of work into almost equal shares between management and

the workers,each department taking over the work of which it is best

fitted instead of the former condition in which almost all of the work

and the greater part of the responsibility where thrown on the men

TAYLOR SUMMARIZED AS

Definite task

Definite time

Definite method

CHAPTER 7

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CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

FUTURE SCOPE

To survive in the current competitive and global environment, it is important for the

organization to continuously look at ways to improve efficiency and productivity. It

needs to discover a new, easy and cost-effective way of manufacturing or providing

services.

Work study in industrial engineering play important role in the future in job

simplification, job design, job enrichment, value analysis/engineering, method analysis,

operational analysis, etc. Work study must be utilize by companies to job productivity.

Work study in Industrial engineering is the latest method employed to improve

productivity. It deals with design, enhancement and setting up of engineering systems

encompassing plants, machinery, workers, etc.

CONCLUSION

In order to get a higher productivity and to reduce the cost of the

manufacturing process we need to follow different theories given by

different people but every theory has its own limitations therefore we need

to take the theory that suits our firm based on firms production type and

scale of the firm. Correct use of method can raise the productivity and

reduce the production time.

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REFERENCES

www.iitg.ac.in/spal/Work%2520study.pdf

www.slideshare.net/vishakeb/work-st

www.hs-mainz.de/../index.html

www.Operatm.blogspot.com/2012/04/work-s