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Indonesian Youth Online An Exploratory Study of the Indonesian Digital Landscape

31 January 2012 Authors: UNICEF New York, Division of Communication, Social and Civic Media Section Gerrit Beger, Priscillia Kounkou Hoveyda, Akshay Sinha Collaborators: UNICEF Indonesia, Division of Communication Edward Carwardine, Nuraini Razak Contributors: Emily Guthrie, Dita Nugroho

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CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... 4SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ........................................................................................................... 4THE DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP AND SAFETY PROJECT & THE SOCIAL AND CIVIC MEDIA SECTION AT UNICEF .................................................................................................................. 5INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 6a. Background ................................................................................................................ 6b. Objective ..................................................................................................................... 8c. Methodology ............................................................................................................... 8

Research process ...................................................................................................... 8Sources utilized ......................................................................................................... 8Valuing local sources and expertise .......................................................................... 9Assessing the reliability of sources ............................................................................ 9

CONTEXT ..................................................................................................................................... 9a. Overview of Indonesia ................................................................................................ 9b. Technological Context .............................................................................................. 11

Low access and ownership in the ICT sector .......................................................... 11Mobile telephones replacing fixed telephone lines .................................................. 12Digital Divide ............................................................................................................ 13

OPPORTUNITIES ....................................................................................................................... 15a. Digital Access - Mobile and Warnet Access Leading the Way ................................. 15

Behaviour: Men spending more time online ............................................................ 17ICTs in schools ........................................................................................................ 17ii. Digital activities – Indonesians aim to connect ................................................. 18iii. Stagnant e-Commerce sector ........................................................................... 22

INITIATIVES ............................................................................................................................... 23a. Educational initiatives ............................................................................................... 23b. Child protection hotlines ........................................................................................... 24c. The Palapa Ring project ........................................................................................... 25d. Other community initiatives ...................................................................................... 26IDENTIFYING SAFETY RISKS .................................................................................................. 27a. The Risks: ............................................................................................................ 27

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i. Child Pornography and Grooming ........................................................................ 27ii. Talking to and meeting strangers ......................................................................... 29iii. Trafficking ............................................................................................................ 29iv. Software piracy ................................................................................................... 31V. Exposure to Extremist Content ............................................................................ 31VI. Cyberbullying ...................................................................................................... 32VII. Assessing online safety risks ............................................................................ 32

Laws and Regulations: Seeking Balance between Protection and Freedoms ........................... 33

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ABSTRACT ThisexploratorypaperispartofaseriesexaminingtheroleoftheInternetinthelivesofadolescentsandyouthlivingindevelopingnations.ThisreportfocusesonIndonesiaandbasesitselfonsecondaryevidencegatheredthroughadeskreviewofrelevantliterature.ThereportfirstpresentsthegeneralcontextofIndonesiaandthespecificcontextofitsdigitallandscape.InformationandCommunicationTechnologies(ICT)developmentofIndonesiahasflourishedinmobileaccessanduse(Internet,texting),whilelaggingincomputerandstationaryInternetownershipanduse.TheICTlandscapeinIndonesiaprovidesarangeoftechnologicalplatformstoapopulationthatexchangesoverwhelminglyonwestern‐basedwebsites.ThenextsectioninvestigatestheuseofICTsbyIndonesianadolescentsandyouth.ResearchidentifiedanumberofcharacteristicsuniquetotheIndonesiandigitallandscape,includingpersistentdigitaldividesbasedonsocio‐economics,geography,andgender,aswellasinICTownership,access,anduse.UrbandwellersandmalesleadinInternetaccess,use,andsocialnetworking.However,asawhole,thenationleadsintheworldwiththesecondhighestamountofusersonFacebookandthirdhighestonTwitter.Thesestaggeringstatisticspointtothehighengagementofadolescentsandyouthincontentcreationandconsumption.Thereisalsoaneedforawarenessoftheriskswithhighaccessanduse.Thereportnextdiscussesthetypesofsafetyrisksfacedonline.Researchshowsthatadolescentsandyouthfaceriskssuchaschildpornography,talkingtoandmeetingstrangers,trafficking,softwarepiracy,exposuretoextremistcontent,andcyber‐bullying.ThefinalsectiondiscussespublicandprivateinitiativestoincreaseopportunitiesforIndonesiancitizenstooptimallyandsafelyaccessanduseICTs.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS • Indonesialagsinstationaryinternetandcomputerownershipbutleadsasoneofthehighest

usersofmobiletechnologyandsocialnetworking• ThereisapronounceddigitaldivideinIndonesiawithregardtoICTaccessanduse,withurban

dwellers,males,adolescents,andyouthleading• IndonesianInternetisdominatedbywesternplatformssuchasFacebook,Twitter,andGoogle• IndonesianadolescentsandyouthfavourmobileoverstationaryInternetandaccessthe

InternetatInternetcafes• TheprimaryrisksfacedbyIndonesianadolescentsandyouthonlinearechildpornography,

talkingtoandmeetingstrangers,trafficking,softwarepiracy,andexposuretoextremistcontent• TheIndonesiangovernmentandprivatesectorareactivelyinvolvedinpromotingICT

developmentandmonitoringonlinesafety.However,thereisconcernthatexistinglegislationmaybetoobroad,potentiallygivingrisetoeitherinsufficientprotectionorinsufficientrespectofindividualrights

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THE DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP AND SAFETY PROJECT & THE SOCIAL AND CIVIC MEDIA SECTION AT UNICEF ThisexploratorystudyispartofaseriesproducedbytheSocialandCivicMediaSectionatUNICEFNewYorkthroughitsDigitalCitizenshipandSafetyproject.TheDigitalCitizenshipandSafetyprojectaimstogetabetterunderstandingofthedigitallandscapeinarangeofdifferentcountries,mainlythosewithadevelopingoremergingeconomy.Theprojectstartswithadatacollectionphase,duringwhichexploratory,quantitativeandqualitativestudiesareconductedtothenproduceevidence‐basedcommunicationmaterialstoraiseawarenessontheoptimalandsafeuseoftheICTs.TheconceptofDigitalCitizenshipisthenadvocatedatthelocalgovernmentlevelthroughadvocacyworkshops,seminarsandconferencesonhowtomaximizeICTs’opportunitieswhileminimizingrisks.

TheDigitalCitizenshipandSafetyprojectalignsitselfwithinthescopeofworkconductedbytheSocialandCivicMediaSectionatUNICEF,whosemissionistoworkwithnewtechnologiesincludingsocialnetworkingtools,SMSanddigitalmappingtoempowerchildrenandyoungpeopletoplayanactiveroleinsociety.

TheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(CRC,1989)guaranteestherighttoexpressviewsandtobeheard(Art.12),freedomofexpression,includingthefreedomtoseek,receiveandimpartinformation(Art.13),thefreedomofassociationandpeacefulassembly,andtherighttoinformation,(Art.17)amongstothers.AlthoughdraftedbeforetheInternetbecameubiquitous,theCRCishighlypertinentwhenitcomestoadolescentsandyouthaccessing,postingandsharingcontentonline.WiththerapiddevelopmentofICTsinthelastdecade,theserightsareanalysedandclearlyappliedtothedigitalageunderthisproject.

ThekeyResultsoftheprojectaretwofold:a)Adolescentsandyoungpeopleareeducatedabouttheirrights,ICTs’opportunities,andprotectedfromICTs’risksthroughtheconceptofDigitalCitizenshipusingdiversecommunicationchannelsand/orinclusioninschoolcurricula.b)Throughadvocacywork,policymakersareprovidedwithevidence‐basedpolicyrecommendationstomaximizeICTs’opportunitiesandminimizeICTs’risks.

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INTRODUCTION

a. Background

Withthesecond‐largestpopulationonFacebookandthird‐largestonTwitter,Indonesianshaveclearlymadeaplaceforthemselvesinthedigitalworld.TheextentofFacebook’spopularityinIndonesiaismademoresignificantconsideringitspenetrationrateof136percentoutofitsonlinepopulation.1DespiteIndonesia’simpressivewebpresence,ratesofInternetconnectivity,computerusageandownershipininthecountryarelowerthanregionalaverages.Instead,Indonesiansfindotherwaystoconnectwitheachotheronlineusingcheaperalternativessuchasinternetcafés(warunginternetorwarnet)andmobileinternet.

TheimpactofICTsisnotsolelylimitedtoday‐to‐dayactivities.TheInternetandmobiletechnologieshavealsobeenusedaslifesavingtoolsinremoteareas.Indeed,aspartofaresponsetothedevastating2004earthquakeandtsunami,theMidwivesMobile‐PhoneprojectwaslaunchedintheAcehregionofIndonesiain2005.2WiththehighestinfantmortalityrateinSoutheastAsia,IndonesiaandtheAcehregioninparticular,sustaineduntolddamagetohumanlifeandinfrastructureastheepicentreofthedisaster.Whilemidwivesaloneprovided90percentofmaternalandnew‐borncare,3thedeathof1,650midwives4inAcehwascatastrophictothe15,000pregnantwomenwhoweredisplacedbythedevastation.5

Theprojectprovided123midwiveswithmobilephoneswhichwerepre‐loadedwithcallcreditsandashortmessageservice(SMS)‐basedapplicationwhichallowedthemtouploadpatienthealthinformationtoacentraldatabasemaintainedbytheUnitedNationsChildren’sFund(UNICEF)andtheUnitedNationsPopulationFund(UNFPA),andprojectadministratorsatWorldVisionovertheInternet.6Asubsequentstudyoftheprojectfoundthatthemidwiveswereabletoservemoreclients,hadincreasedincome,hadbetterrelationshipswithmembersofthecommunity,andhadanincreasedknowledgebase.7

NotonlydoestheMidwivesMobile‐Phoneprojecthighlightthelife‐savingpotentialofICTsbutitalsodemonstratestheapplicabilityandimportanceoftheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsofthe

1 Social Bakers, ‘Indonesia Facebook Statistics’, <http://www.socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/indonesia/last-3-months>, (Accessed 19 November 2011). 2 Chib, Arul. "Midwives and mobiles: using ICTs to improve healthcare in Aceh Besar, Indonesia." Asian Journal of Communication 18, no. 4 (2008). <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01292980802344182> (Accessed 22 December 2011 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 United Nations Treaty Collection, ‘Tsunami Survivors Give Birth Without Basic Necessities’, <http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/iha999.doc>.htm (Accessed 22 December 2011) 6 Chib, Arul, Op.Cit. 7 Ibid.

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Child(UNCRC1989),which,ratifiedbyIndonesiain1990,8ensuresthatallchildrenhave“accesstoinformationandmaterialfromadiversityofnationalandinternationalsources,especiallythoseaimedatthepromotionof[...]physicalandmentalhealth”(Art.17).9

ICTsalsohavefarreachingimplicationsfornationalcivicparticipation.In2005,theSpecialStaffOfficeofPresidentSusiloBambangYudhoyono,openedadirectmailandSMSlinethatthecommunityatlargeusedtomaketheirviewsdirectlyknowntothePresident’sstaff.ByMay2011,overthreemilliontextmessageshadreportedlybeenreceived.10ThePresidenthasstatedthatheusesthisfacilityas“athermometertotakethetemperatureandpulseoflifeinthecommunity”,notingtheopenandfranktoneofthemessages.11Thecommunity,inturn,hasusedtheopportunitytoraiseconcernsaboutthelatedeliveryofcivilservicepensionpayments,12selectionofofficialholidaydates,13acollapsedbridge,14ortoexpressgeneralwell‐wishesonthePresident’sbirthday,forexample.15

WhiletheminimumvotingageinIndonesiais17,16thisSMSprojectprovideschildrentheuniqueopportunitytoopenlyparticipateinnationaldialogueandcivicsociety.ProjectsliketheseareexamplesofsuccessfulimplementationsofArticles1317and1518oftheUNCRCwhichensurechildren’srightsto

8 United Nations Treaty Collection, Chapter IV Human Rights, 11. Convention of the Rights of the Child, ‘Status as at: 03-01-2012 02:26:07 EDT’, <http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-11&chapter=4&lang=en>, (Accessed 22 December 2011). 9 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm> (Accessed 22 December 2011) 10 Situs Web Resmi Presiden Republik Indonesia - Dr. H. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, ‘SBY: Aduan Masyarakat Jadi Termometer untuk Mengukur Suhu Kehidupan’, Berita Utama, 23 May 2011, <http://www.presidenri.go.id/index.php/fokus/2011/05/23/6833.html>, (accessed 22 December 2011) 11 Ibid. 12 Pasandaran, Camelia, ‘Speedy Pension Payments a Priority, SBY Says’, The Jakarta Globe, 24 May 2011, <http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/speedy-pension-payments-a-priority-sby-says/442757>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 13 Aco, Hasanudin, ‘SBY Ngaku Dimarahi Rakyat Lewat SMS Soal Penetapan 1 Syawal’, Tribun News, 6 September 2011, <http://www.tribunnews.com/2011/09/06/sby-ngaku-dimarahi-rakyat-lewat-sms-soal-penetapan-1-syawal>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 14 Aco, Hasanudin, ‘SBY Kecewa, Laporan Awal Justru dari SMS Bukan Menteri, Tribun News, 2 December 2011, <http://id.berita.yahoo.com/sby-kecewa-laporan-awal-justru-dari-sms-bukan-040500956.html>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 15 Hertanto, Luhur, ‘SBY Banyak Terima Ucapan Selamat Ultah Via SMS dan Twitter’, detik News, 9 September 2011, <http://us.detiknews.com/read/2011/09/09/083329/1718700/10/sby-banyak-terima-ucapan-selamat-ultah-via-sms-dan-twitter>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 16 Komisi Pemilihan Umum, Peraturan Komisi Pemilihan Umum Nomor 12 Tahun 2010. <http://www.kpu.go.id/dmdocuments/12_2010_REVISI67.pdf>, (accessed 22 December 2011); Exceptions are made for married individuals under the age of 17 17 1. The child shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of the child's choice.2. The exercise of this right may be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary:(a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others; or(b) For the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals. 18 1. States Parties recognize the rights of the child to freedom of association and to freedom of peaceful assembly. 2. No restrictions may be placed on the exercise of these rights other than those imposed in conformity with the law and which are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security or public safety, public order (ordre public), the protection of public health or morals or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.

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“freedomofexpression”includingthe“freedomtoseek,receiveandimpartinformationandideasofallkinds”andchildren’s“freedomofassociationandtofreedomofpeacefulassembly”respectively.

b. ObjectiveThisexploratorystudyisthefirstoutputofanon‐goingresearchefforttobetterunderstandthedigitallandscape,includingaccess,use,rightsandthetypesofsafetyrisksfacedbyIndonesianyouth.

c. Methodology

ResearchprocessAspartofalargerresearcheffortledbytheMinistryofInformationandCommunicationofIndonesia,UNICEFconductedathoroughdeskreviewoftheuseofandaccesstoICTs,digitalbehaviourandtypesofrisksfacedbyIndonesianyouthonlineaswellastherelevanceoftheUNCRCinthecontextofICTs.

Asanon‐goingprocessduringtheresearch,themethodologiesofstudieswerecheckedfortheirreliability,aswerethebackgroundandexperienceofthesources’institutions.Thereliabilityofthestudieswasmeasuredusingthesamplingframe,thequestionnaireandtheexperienceoftheinstitutionsinconductingresearchinthefocusedarea.

TheliteraturesearchwasundertakenontheInternetinbothBahasaIndonesiaandEnglish.MainlywesternsearchenginesincludingGoogle.com,Google.co.id,andid.Yahoo.comwereutilized.Theuseoflocallanguageandsearchtoolswereimportantintheresearchprocess,toensurethatlocalsourceswereidentified.

SourcesutilizedOnlysourcesidentifiedasstemmingfromreputableorganizationsandreliablemethodologieswereutilized.HouseholdsurveysconductedbytheBadanPusatStatistik(BPS‐StatisticsIndonesia),wereusedingatheringnationalpopulationanddemographicdata.OtherprimaryresearchsourcesusedinthisreportincludestudiesfromtheUnitedNations,theAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB),InternationalTelecommunicationUnion(ITU),EndChildProstitution,ChildPornographyandTraffickingofChildrenforSexualPurposes(ECPAT),FreedomHouse,andBostonConsultingGroup(BCG).

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ValuinglocalsourcesandexpertiseAdetailedprocesswascarriedoutinweighingallinternationalandnationalsourcestogatherobjectivedata,intheorderofUnitedNations,internationalinstitutions,government,universities,non‐governmentalorganizations(NGOs),andprivateactors.

Inordertovalidatethestudy’sfindingsandgatherlocalperspective,localexpertswereconsultedattheMinistryofCommunicationandInformation,ACNielsen,andtheNationalCoalitionforECPAT.

AresearchertranslatedBahasaIndonesialiteratureintoEnglishandinpartnershipwiththreeotherresearchersconsultedwithIndonesianexpertsaboutthevalidityofresultsandreliabilityofsources,wherenecessary.BahasaIndonesialanguageliteraturecamefromsourcessuchasgovernmentandeducationalinstitutions,localNGOs,andprivatecompanies.

In2012,thefindingsofthisexploratorystudywillfeedintotheMinistryofInformationandCommunication’sresearchefforts,whichincludeadeskreviewandfocusgroupstudies.

AssessingthereliabilityofsourcesToassessthereliabilityofsecondarysources,asourcevaluationmatrixwascreated,whichweightedthesourcesbytype,date,andtheexpertwhowroteagivenstudy.Inthisprocess,datawerecarefullycheckedagainstallavailablesources.Thismitigatedtheriskofvaluinganyinvalidfactsorformulatingfalsehypotheses.

Twelvestudiesthatcontainedinformationrelevanttotheobjectivewerefound.Thesestudiesweregroupedandanalysedbasedonthecontentoftheirresults.

CONTEXT

a. OverviewofIndonesiaWithapopulationofover230million,Indonesiaistheworld’sfourth‐mostpopulousnation.19ThepopulationislargelyconcentratedontheislandsofJava(58percentofthepopulation)andSumatra(21percent).20Youth,ages10to24,makeup26.7percentofthepopulation.21WhileBahasaIndonesiais

19 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects, the 2010 Revision <http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Sorting-Tables/tab-sorting_population.htm> 20 Statistics Indonesia. 2010. Trends of Selected Socio-Economic Indicators of Indonesia: November 2010. <http://www.bps.go.id/booklet/booklet_nov2010.pdf>

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thenationallanguageusedineducation,government,businessandthemedia,thearchipelagoismarkedwithgreatdiversity,encompassingsome500ethnicgroupsspeakingover700differentlanguages,22across34provincesandover17,000islands.23

Sincesufferingthebruntofthe1997Asianfinancialcrisis,Indonesia’seconomyisweatheringthecurrentdownturnandisoneofthebestperformingintheregionwithagrowthrateofaround6percent.24PercapitaincomeinIndonesiarosefromUS$1,922in2007toUS$3,005.9in2010.25Officialratesshowadeclineinpoverty26andunemployment,27aswellasaburgeoningmiddleclasswithstrengtheningdomesticconsumption.28Approximately13percentofIndonesiansstilllivedbelowtheofficialpovertylinein2010.29However,someindependenteconomistsestimatethatclosetohalfthepopulationliveonlessthanUS$2aday,30andthesizeofthisvulnerablepopulationactuallydoubledbetween1999and2010.31

Thefinancialcrisisofthelate1990salsoendedSuharto’s32long‐standingregime.Sincethen,Indonesia’stransitionhasbeenheraldedasasuccess,havingundergonethreelargelypeacefuldemocraticelectionsandasignificantcurtailingofthemilitary’spoliticalrole.Theexecutivebranchofthegovernmentisthepresident,whosince2009,iselectedbydirectpopularvote.

EducationinIndonesiaiscompulsoryforchildrenuptotheageof15.33Primaryeducationisclosetouniversalwitharound95percentenrolment.However,enrolmentatsecondary(65percent)and

21 Badan Pusat Statistik, Sensus Penduduk 2010, ‘Penduduk Menurut Kelompok Umur, Daerah Perkotaan/Perdesaan, dan Jenis Kelamin’, <http://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/site/tabel?tid=263&wid=0>, (Accessed 28 December 2011). 22 Hassan, Ridman, Indonesia: a Story of Recovery, 5 September 2007, <http://www.embassyofindonesia.org/press/docpdf/speech/StoryofRecovery.pdf>, (Accessed 22 December 2011). 23 Statistics Indonesia. 2010. Trends of Selected Socio-Economic Indicators of Indonesia: November 2010. <http://www.bps.go.id/booklet/booklet_nov2010.pdf>, (Accessed 22 December 2011). 24 International Monetary Fund. 2011. IMF Country Report No. 11/309. <http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2011/cr11309.pdf> (Accessed 22 December 2011) 25 Badan Pusat Statistik, ‘Data Strategis BPS’, 2011, ISSN 2087-2011, Katalog BPS 1103003, <http://www.bps.go.id/65tahun/data_strategis_2011.pdf>, (Accessed 28 December 2011). 26 Statistics Indonesia. 2010. Trends of Selected Socio-Economic Indicators of Indonesia: November 2010. Op.cit. From 19.14 percent in 2000, to 15.42 in 2008 and 13.3 percent in 2010. 27 Ibid. From 8.39 percent in 2008 to 7.41 in 2010. 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid. 30 Forward, Karina, 2010. ‘Indonesia Update 2010 Employment, living standards and poverty in contemporary Indonesia’, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol. 46, Issue 3, 2010 31 Suryahadi, A. et.al. “Accelerating Poverty and Vulnerability Reduction: Trends, Opportunities, and Constraints”, Indonesia Update. <http://www.crawford.anu.edu.au/acde/ip/update/2010/ppoint_podcast.php>, Canberra: Australian Natinal University, 2010 32 Suharto was the second President of Indonesia, in office from 1968-1998. ‘Biografi Soeharto’, Kepustakaan Presiden-Presiden Republik Indonesia. <http://kepustakaan-presiden.pnri.go.id/biography/?box=detail&presiden=suharto&presiden_id=2> 33 Equivalent to Grade 9 in Indonesia, <http://www.kemdiknas.go.id/kemdiknas/Sekolah_Dasar>, (Accessed 15 December 2011).

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tertiary(22percentgrossenrolmentrate)levelsisconsiderablylower.34Enrolmentbygenderislargelyequitable.35However,thereisastrongdisparityofaccesstohigherlevelsofeducationbyincomeandbetweenurbanandruralareas.36

ICTsofferIndonesia’syounganddiverse,politicallyandeconomicallydynamic,andincreasinglytransparentpopulationtheopportunitytoconnectandengage.

b. TechnologicalContext

LowaccessandownershipintheICTsector IndonesiaissimilartootherSoutheastAsiancountrieswheremosttechnologicaldevelopmentistakingplaceinmobileownershipandusage.However,thecountrycontinuestoexperienceasignificantlaginbothICTinfrastructureandownershipincomputersandstationaryInternet.Accordingtoa2010BCGstudyoftwothousand14‐to50‐year‐oldsconductedintencities,only5percentofIndonesiansownedaPCin2009,withforecastedownershipof38percentby2015.37

In2010,anITUstudyusingnationallyrepresentativedatafoundthatIndonesiaranked107outof159countries,usingtheICTDevelopmentIndex(IDI),acompositeindexmadeupof11indicatorscoveringICTaccess,useandskills.Oneoftheindicators,computer‐density,describestheratiobetweenthenumberofcomputersandthenumberofpeople.ForSoutheastAsia,theaverageisabout5.97computersper100people,whileinIndonesiaitisonlytwocomputersper100people.Anotherindicatoristhatofcomputerusagepenetration,whichmeasuresaccessratherthanownership,withIndonesiarankingseventhamongtenASEAN(AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations)countries.38StatisticsfromITUshowedthatlessthan1percentofIndonesianshadfixedInternetaccessin2008.39

34 UNESCO Institute for Statistics, ‘Education (all levels) profile – Indonesia’, UIS STATISTICS IN BRIEF, <http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=121&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=3600&BR_Region=40515> 35 Ibid. 36 Granado, et.al. 2007. <http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/08/27/000158349_20070827133204/Rendered/PDF/wps4329.pdf>, (accessed 22 December 2011). A child from a family in the poorest quintile is 20 per cent less likely to enroll in secondary school than children from non-poor families. Senior secondary enrolment for the richest quintile is six and a half times that of children in the poorest quintile. 37 Boston Consulting Group, ‘The Internet’s New Billion’, September 2010, <http://www.bcg.com/documents/file58645.pdf>, (Accessed 10 August 2011). 38 Arif Wismadi, David N. Townsend, International Telecommunication Union and Asian Development Bank, ‘Rural ICT Policy Advocacy, Knowledge Sharing, and Capacity Building: Country Case Study- Indonesia’, 2010, <http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/asp/CMS/Events/2011/ITU-ADB/Indonesia/ITU-ADB_Interrim_Indonesia_Country_Report.pdf>, (Accessed 1 September 2011). 39 International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ‘Internet Users’, 2010, <http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/material/excel/2010/InternetUsersPercentage00-10.xls> (accessed 10 November 2011).

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AnotherstudyshedslightonthelevelofICTaccessamongIndonesianadolescentsinparticular.A2009schoolsurveybytheOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)40foundthatlessthanone‐fifthof15‐yearoldIndonesianstudentsreportedtheyhadacomputerathomethattheycoulduseforschoolworkandonlyeightpercenthadInternetaccessathome.Thisnationallyrepresentativesurveywasconductedinschools.41Considering35percentofyouthinthisagegroupareout‐of‐school,42ICTaccessislikelytobeloweroverallamongIndonesianadolescents.

MobiletelephonesreplacingfixedtelephonelinesIndonesianICTdevelopmenthasbeenslowintermsoffixedlinetelephonyduetothehighinfrastructurecostsneededtopenetrateruralislands.However,Indonesia’srapidlygrowingmobiletelephonysectorcontributestoSoutheastAsia’sstandingasoneofthelargestmobileconsumersintheworld.43The2010nationalcensus,conductedbyBPSfoundthathouseholdownershipoffixedlinetelephoneis0.75percent,whilehouseholdownershipofmobiletelephonesis65.41percent.44Only7.22percentofhouseholdsownbothfixedlineandmobiletelephones,while26.62percentownneither.45ITUconfirmsthistrendofhighuseofmobilesandlowoffixedtelephonelines,findingthatin2010,fixedtelephonelinepenetrationwasonly15.83percent,46whilemobilecellularsubscriptionpenetrationwas91.72percent.47Whilethecompoundannualgrowthrateforfixedtelephonelineswas11percent,itwas34percentforthemobilesector,demonstratingitsincreasingpopularity.48

40 From an accompanying survey to an 2009 achievement study conducted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Programme for International Student Assessment. Data extracted by authors from OECD PISA 2009 dataset, <http://pisa2009.acer.edu.au/interactive.php>, (Accessed 22 December 2011). 41 Ibid. 42 UNESCO Institute for Statistics, “Education (all levels) profile - Indonesia”, UIS STATISTICS IN BRIEF, http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=121&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=3600&BR_Region=40515, (Accessed 22 December 2011). 43 International Telecommunication Union (ITU). According to ITU 2010 Fixed telephone penetration: Indonesia 15.83 per cent, Malaysia 16.10 per cent, Viet Nam 18.67 per cent, Philippines 7.67 per cent. According to ITU 2010 Mobile subscriber penetration: Indonesia 91.72 per cent, Malaysia 121.32 per cent, Viet Nam 175.30 per cent, Thailand 100.81 per cent. 44 BPS, Sensus Penduduk 2010, ‘Jumlah Rumah Tangga C1 dan C2 Apartement Menurut Wilayah dan Jenis Telepon yang Dikuasai’, <http://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/site/tabel?tid=307&wid=0>, (Accessed 28 December 2011). 45 Ibid. 46 International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ‘Fixed telephone lines’, 2010, <http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/material/excel/2010/FixedTelephoneLines00-10.xls> (Accessed 15 November 2011). 47 International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ‘Mobile cellular subscriptions’, 2010, <http://www.itu.int/ITUD/ ict/statistics/material/excel/2010/MobileCellularSubscriptions00-10.xls>, (Accessed 15 November 2011). 48 Badan Regulasi Telekomuniksi Indonesia (Indonesian Telecommunications Regulatory Body), ‘Telecom Regulatory and Policy Environment in Indonesia’, 2008, <http://www.lirneasia.net/wpcontent/uploads/2009/07/TRE_Indonesia_2009Mar18.pdf>, (Accessed 15 November 2011).

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In2009,98percentofmobileusersusedapre‐paidsystem.49Pre‐paidserviceshavebeenoneofthemainfactorsleadingtotheexpansionofthemobilesectorinIndonesia.50Theseserviceshavebeenimmenselypopularsincetheyallowusersmorecontrolovertheirmobileexpenditureandaremoreaffordablewithlessinfrastructurerequired.51

FixedtelephonelinesaremonopolizedbythestateownedenterprisePT.Telkom,andtherecentlyprivatizedPT.BakrieTelecom.52However,thereareoverseventeenmobileprovidersavailabletousers.53ThethreedominantmobilephonecompaniesareTelkomsel,themobileextensionofPTTelkom,withapproximately50percentmarketshare.54IndosatandExcelcomindoarethesecondandthirdbiggestwith23percentand17percentmarketsharerespectively.55

Themostpopularsmartphonebrandin2011wasNokia,followedbyBlackberryandSamsung.56WhilenodatawasfoundforNokiaandSamsung,therewereanestimated3millionBlackberryownersinIndonesiain2011.57

Adoptionofmorerecentmobiletechnologicaldevelopmentsisoccurringatalowerratethaninothercountriesintheregion.3Gtechnology,introducedinIndonesiain2006,hasgrownto8.2percentamongmobilephoneusers.ThisislowwhencomparedtoJapan,Taiwan,andSouthKoreawhereitis80percent,28.5percent,and14percentrespectively.58

DigitalDivideDigitaldivide,agapinopportunitiestoaccessanduseICTsbetweenindividualsandhouseholds,existsinvariousformsinIndonesia.

Genderparticipationgap

49 Ibid. 50 International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ‘ICT and Telecommunications in Least Developed Countries’, 2006, < http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ldc/pdf/ictand_telinldc-e.pdf > (Accessed 26 December 2011). 51 International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ‘ICT and Telecommunications in Least Developed Countries’, 2006, < http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ldc/pdf/ictand_telinldc-e.pdf > (Accessed 26 December 2011). 52 Rasyid, Asmiati, ‘Indonesia: Liberalization at the Crossroad Impact on Sector Performance,Teledensity and Productivity’, Munich University Library: The Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA), <http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/2452/1/MPRA_paper_2452.pdf>, (Accessed 19 August 2011). 53 (with the highest market share by state owned companies). 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid. 56 <http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/11/16/indonesian-netizens-spend-less-time-online-nielsen.html> 57 Safitri, Dewi, “Why is Indonesia so in love with the Blackberry?’, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/direct/indonesia/9508138.stm> 58 International Journal of Science and Management, ‘A New Conceptual Model of Mobile Multimedia Services (MMS) and 3G Network Adoption in Indonesia’, <http://www.srlst.com/ijist/special%20issue/ijism-special-issue2010_files/Special-Issue201049.pdf> (accessed 8 October 2011).

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AccordingtoaNielsenstudy,23percentofmalessurveyedhadusedtheInternetinthelastmonthcomparedto16percentoffemales.59Agapcanalsobefoundintheuseofsocialnetworkingsiteswithmalesmakingup60percentofIndonesianFacebookusers.60Althoughlimitedevidencehasbeenfound,thereisanindicationthatmalesenjoyhigheraccessanduseofICTsthanfemales.

Telephoneandcomputeraccessdominantincities

A2010studybytheAsianDevelopmentBankandtheITUfoundthattelecommunicationpenetrationinurbanareaswas125timeshigherthaninruralareas.61Tele‐density,ameasurementoffixedlinetelephoneownershipper100inhabitants,hadreached35percentinmosturbanareassuchasJakarta,Bogor,andothers,whileitwasaround0.25%inruralareas.62Accordingtothe2010census,fixedlinetelephoneownershipamongurbanhouseholdsis4.63timeshigherthanamongruralhouseholds.6364Justunder70percentofhouseholdfixedlinetelephoneownershipwasamonghouseholdsinJava.65

Asimilardivideexistswithincomputerownership.AccordingtodatafromBPS,asof2007,householddistributionofcomputerownershipwasdisproportionallyconcentratedinurbanareas.Nationally,householdcomputerownershipwas5percent,ofwhich84.5percentwasinurbanareas.Approximately68percentoftotalownershipcamefromJavaalone.66

Likeinmostdevelopingcountries,inIndonesia,mobiletelephonyhasbeenafundamentalfactorinreducingthegapbetweenurbanandruralareas,asitprovidesaccesstoareasunderservedbymaintelephonelinesandICTinfrastructure.Accordingly,ICTstudieshavepointedtothefactthatinthemajorityoftheleastdevelopedcountries(Indonesiaincludedinthisstudy),mobileswithprepaid

59 The Nielsen Company, The Digital Media Habits and Attitudes of Southeast Asian Consumers, October 2011, <http://www.nielsen.com/content/dam/corporate/us/en/reports-downloads/2011-Reports/South-East-Asia-Digital-Consumer.pdf>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 60 Ibid. 61 Wismadi, Arif, and Townsend, David N. ‘Rural ICT Policy Advocacy, Knowledge Sharing, and Capacity Building: Country Case Study- Indonesia’, International Telecommunication Union and Asian Development Bank, 2010, <http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/asp/CMS/Events/2011/ITU-ADB/Indonesia/ITU-ADB_Interrim_Indonesia_Country_Report.pdf> (Accessed 1 September 2011). 62 Ibid. 63 Fixed-line telephone ownership is 1.25 per cent among urban households, and 0.27 per cent among rural households. 64 BPS, Sensus Penduduk 2010, ‘Jumlah Rumah Tangga C1 dan C2 Apartement Menurut Wilayah dan Jenis Telepon yang Dikuasai’, <http://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/site/tabel?tid=307&wid=0>, (Accessed 28 December 2011). 65 Ibid, authors’ calculation based on household fixed line telephone ownership in the provinces of DKI Jakarta, West Java, Central Java, DI Yogyakarta, East Java, and Banten. 66 Badan Telekomunikasi dan Informatika Pedesaan (BTIP) / Rural Telecommunication and Informatics Body, ‘BTIP Annual Report for 2008’, 2009

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servicesarethe“onlymeansofcommunication”forruralandsocio‐economicallydisadvantagedhouseholds.67

OPPORTUNITIES

a. DigitalAccess‐MobileandWarnetAccessLeadingtheWayGivenIndonesia’sarchipelagicgeography,cableinfrastructurehasbeencostlytoimplementandaccessinfrastructuresaremostlyconfinedtourbanareas.Nonetheless,inlinewithArticle17oftheUNCRC,Indonesiahasbeenensuringthatchildrenhave“accesstoinformationandmaterialfromadiversityofnationalandinternationalsources”68withincreasingInternetpenetrationinrecentyears.StatisticsfromITUindeedshowthatrateoftotalInternetusersincreasedfrom3.6percentin2005to9.9percentin2010,includingthosewhoaccesstheInternetfrommobiledevicesandotherlocations(suchasatworkandwarnets).69However,the2010rateremainedlowerthantheregionalaverageof26.9forSoutheastAsia.70The2010censusfoundthat14.91percentofhouseholdshadaccessedtheInternetintheprecedingthreemonths.71

Usingadifferentmethodology,in2011Nielsenestimatedthat21percentofIndonesiansovertheageof15usedtheInternet.72ThisishigherthanITU’sandBPS’estimates,presumablyduetodiscrepanciesinsampleselectionandtimeframe.However,thevariationbetweenIndonesianratesandregionalrates

67 International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ‘ICT and Telecommunications in Least Developed Countries’, 2006, < http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ldc/pdf/ictand_telinldc-e.pdf > (Accessed 26 December 2011). 68 UNCRC, Op.Cit. 69 International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ‘Internet Users’, 2010, <http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/material/excel/2010/InternetUsersPercentage00-10.xls> (accessed 10 November 2011). 70 Authors’ calculation of ITU data: “ITU Individuals Using the Internet 2000-10”. 71 BPS, Sensus Penduduk 2010, ‘Jumlah Rumah Tangga C1 dan C2 Apartemen Menurut Wilayah dan Akses Internet dalam Tiga Bulan Terakhir’, <http://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/site/tabel?tid=308&wid=0>, (Accessed 28 December 2011). 72 The Nielsen Company, The Digital Media Habits and Attitudes of Southeast Asian Consumers, October 2011, <http://www.nielsen.com/content/dam/corporate/us/en/reports-downloads/2011-Reports/South-East-Asia-Digital-Consumer.pdf>, (accessed 22 December 2011).

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remainsfairlyconsistent.TherateofInternetuseinIndonesiausingthismethodisjustoverhalfofNielsen’sestimatedregionalaverageof38percentforSoutheastAsia.73

Inabsolutenumbers,mobileInternetusehasgrownsignificantlysince2007.BCGreportsthatin2010therewere9millionmobileInternetusersinIndonesia,adramaticincreasefrom2.3millionusersin2007.74ANielsensurveyfoundthatdesktopownershipisat31percent,andisthelowestintheregion.75However,at78percent,ownershipofinternet‐capablemobilephonesismorethandoublethedesktopownershiprate,andissecondonlytoSingaporeintheregion.76Unsurprisingly,in2010,43percentofInternetuserscitedmobilephonesastheirmaindeviceforaccessingtheInternet,makingitthemostpopularmedium.77

WarnetswerethemostpopularlocationtoaccesstheInternet,with66percentofIndonesianInternetuserschoosingthemastheirmainaccesslocation.78Thispatternisconsistentwitha2009studybyTNSandYahoo!of1,021urbanInternetusers,79ages15‐to50‐years‐old,whichfoundthatwithinthepreviousthreemonths,83percentofusersaccessedtheInternetfromwarnetsand22percenthadaccesseditfromamobilephoneorapersonaldigitalassistant(PDA).80Thesamestudyalsofoundthatyouthsages15to19spentanaverageof53percentoftheirInternettimeatwarnets.81

ThelowstationaryInternetpenetrationrateandhighrateofInternetaccessfromalternativesourcescanalsobeattributedtotherelativecostofservices.HomebroadbandservicescostaroundUS$35permonth,82aquarteroftheaverageworker’smonthlywagein2009,83meanwhile,mobilephoneInternet

73 Ibid. Other countries included in the region were Malaysia (38 per cent internet use in the past 12 months), the Philippines (33 per cent), Singapore (67 per cent), Thailand (31 per cent) and Vietnam (56 per cent). 74 Boston Consulting Group, The Internet’s New Billion, September 2010, <http://www.bcg.com/documents/file58645.pdf>, (Accessed 5 August 2011). 75 The Nielsen Company, Op.Cit. Desktop ownership 31 per cent compared to 77 per cent in Malaysia, 68 per cent in the Philippines, 74 per cent in Singapore, 70 per cent in Thailand and 75 per cent in Vietnam. 76 Ibid. Internet-capable mobile phone ownership rate in Malaysia is 78 per cent, the Philippines is 64 per cent, Singapore 85 per cent, Thailand 77 per cent and Vietnam 32 per cent. 77 Ibid. 78 Nielsen, Indonesians the Most Reliant on Mobile Internet Access, 11 July 2011, <http://id.nielsen.com/news/Release110711.shtml>, (accessed 19 November 2011). 79 Defined as having accessed the Internet within the past month. 80 Yahoo! and TNS, ‘Digital Indonesia: Internet Media Habits Decoded’, 20 March 2009. (Accessed December 22, 2011). <http://www.admaxnetwork.com/download/news/NetIndexIndonesiaHighlights.pdf> 81 Ibid. 82 Telkom, Layanan Broadband Speedy Digelar Secara Nasional, <http://www.telkom.co.id/pojok-media/siaran-pers/layanan-broadband-speedy-digelar-secara-nasional.html>, (accessed 22 December 2011), and Tunardy, Wibowo, Perbandingan Tarif Internet 3G/3,5G IM2 Postpaid Regular, <http://www.tunardy.com/perbandingan-tarif-internet-3g35g-im2-postpaid-regular/>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 83 Badan Pusat Statistik, <http://www.bps.go.id/booklet/booklet_okt2009.pdf>, (accessed 22 December 2011). Average monthly wage in 2009 (employed workers) is $141.

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subscriptioncostaroundUS$5permonth,84andwarnetsofferInternetaccessathourlyratesbelowUS$1.85

Behaviour:MenspendingmoretimeonlineBCGreportedthatstationaryInternetusersspentanaverageof0.9hoursonlineperpersonperdayandatotalof27millionhoursperdayin2010.86Incontrast,aface‐to‐facesurveyconductedbyNielsenfromApriltoJune2011foundthatInternetusersspentanaverageof14hoursperweekonline,withwomenspendinganaverageof11.2hoursonlineandmenspending16hoursperweek.87

ICTsinschoolsANielsensurveyfoundthat55percentof15‐to19‐yearoldshadusedtheInternetintheprecedingfourweeks.88

Anationallyrepresentativesurveyof15year‐oldIndonesianstudentsfoundthatamajorityhadeitherneverparticipatedinorhadanyknowledgeofdiscussiongroupsorforums(74.5percent),searchingadictionaryorencyclopaedia(71.8percent),readingemails(57percent)orsearchingforpracticalinformation(54.8percent).89

Thesestudentsscoredlowerininternationalreading,mathematicsandscienceteststhanIndonesianstudentswhoparticipatedintheseactivitiesseveraltimesamonthtoseveraltimesaweek.However,thescoresofstudentswhodidtheseactivitiesseveraltimesadaytendedtobelowerthanthosestudentswhodidthematamoremoderaterate.90

Anumberofsmall‐scalestudiesofstudents’Internetuseandonlinebehaviourexist,largelyfocusedonurbanschools.Forexample,twostudiesinurbanSurabaya(encompassingfivesecondaryschools

84 Suhefmi, Harry, ‘Perbandingan Biaya/Tarif Handphone (GSM/CDMA) dan Internet Unlimited’, 20 September 2009, <http://harry.sufehmi.com/archives/2009-09-20-2194/> (accessed 22 December 2011). 85 Online Warnet, ‘Apakah tarif Warnet yang ditentukan seimbang dengan modal?’, <http://onlinewarnet.blogspot.com/2009/11/apakah-tarif-warnet-yang-ditentukan.html>, Komunitas Warnet Indonesia, ‘Menghitung Tarif Warnet Secara Logis’, <http://www.warnetforum.com/index.php?topic=8231.0> , (accessed 22 December 2011). 86 Boston Consulting Group, “The Internet’s New Billion”, September 2010, <http://www.bcg.com/documents/file58645.pdf>, (Accessed 5 August, 2011). 87 http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/11/16/indonesian-netizens-spend-less-time-online-nielsen.html 88 Ibid. 89 Data extracted by authors from OECD PISA 2009 dataset <http://pisa2009.acer.edu.au/interactive.php> 90 Ibid

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overall)foundthatstudentsoftenbeganusingtheInternetataroundgrade7,orages12to13.91Many(46.9percent)werefirstintroducedtotheInternetbyafriendorpeer.92

WhenaskedtonamethemostimportantusesoftheInternet,thestudentsinaSurabayasecondaryschoolrankedonlinegaming,chatting,andsocialnetworkingasthehighest,witheducationalpurposesandschoolworkbeingrankedthelowest.93Somestudents,however,utilisedtheInternettosupportBiologyandICTclasses,andthesestudentswerefoundtohavehigherlearningmotivationandachievementlevels.94

ThelinksbetweenICTuseandachievementinallthesestudieswerecorrelationalanddonotimplycausality.However,theydosuggestthatthefrequencyofeducationalICTuseamongIndonesianstudentsisstilllow.Thedearthofinfrastructuralsupportandlowusebytheoverallpopulationalsoappliestothecontextofschools.

ThenationallyrepresentativeOECDsurvey,forexample,alsofoundthat64.5percentofprincipalsinIndonesiabelievedthattheshortageorinadequacyofcomputerswasahindrancetotheirschools’capacitytoprovideinstruction.95ThiswasalmostdoubletheproportionofschoolprincipalswhofacedthisissueinOECDcountries.96Thetrendisfurtherillustratedbythefindingsofsmallerstudies,suchasasurveyof40teachersatasecondaryschoolinruralBali,whichfoundthatthree‐quarters(72.5percent)hadneveraccessedtheinternet,halfofwhom(48.9percent)reportedthattheydidnotknowabouttheInternet.97

ii. Digitalactivities–Indonesiansaimtoconnect

According to TNS and Yahoo!, Indonesian Internet users participate in a diverse array of activities. The most popular of these is social networking (77 per cent), followed by visiting Internet portal front pages (65 per cent), using a search engine (64 per cent), instant messaging (57 per cent), and emailing (53 per cent).98 A Nielsen study found that the top four online activities conducted by Indonesians on at least a weekly basis were on social media sites, namely private messaging (71 per cent of digital consumers surveyed), posting public comments (61 per cent), browsing other people’s profiles (59

.91 Qomariyah, A.N, Internet Use Among Urban Youth, Surabaya: Universitas Airlangga, 2008, and Rhosyied, A. and Otok, B.W., Analysis of the influence of internet use as a learning media, motivational and creativity tool on students’ learning achievement using structural equation modeling (Case Study at SMAN 1 Probolinggo), Surabaya: Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November, 2009. 92 Qomariyah, A.N. Op.cit. 93 Rhosyied & Otok., Op.cit. 94 Ibid. 95 Data extracted by authors from OECD PISA 2009 dataset <http://pisa2009.acer.edu.au/interactive.php> 96 Ibid. 97 Nilakusumawati, D.P.E. A Study on Teachers’ Knowledge of the Internet as a Reference Source for Scientific Papers, Bali: Udayana University, Faculty of Mathematics and Science, 2011 98 Yahoo! and TNS, ‘Digital Indonesia 2010 Yahoo!-TNS Net Index Highlights’, <http://www.scribd.com/doc/32354566/null> (Accessed 19, November 2011)

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per cent) and updating their own profile (56 per cent).99 These were followed by email (51 per cent).100

Decreasing email usage ThepercentageofIndonesianInternetusersutilizingemaildecreasedfrom59percentin2009to53percentin2010.101A2008Nielsenreportfoundthat41.6percentofusersaccessedemail.102WesternplatformsdominatedwiththemajorityofusersaccessingemailthroughYahoo!(both.comand.co.id)andGmailin2009.103Presumablythiscanbeduetothepopularityofmessagingservicesprovidedbysocialnetworkingsites.

Popularity of chatting Ina2009studyofurban15‐to50‐year‐olds,TNSandYahoo!foundthat58percentusedinstantmessengers.104ThemostpopularservicesusedwereYahoo!(83percent),GTalk(33percent),MSN/WindowsLive(14percent),andmIRC(7percent).Respondentsmostfrequentlycommunicatedonlinewiththeirfriends.105However,thiswasfollowedbypeopletheymetonline,106whichpresentsariskforyoungerrespondentsinparticular.

VoIP: alternative for the masses VoiceoverInternetProtocol(VoIP),oftenknownasInternettelephony,usesaudio(andattimesvideo)transferovertheInternet,effectivelyallowinguserstomakeaudioorvideocallsonline.Majorpublicandprivatetelecommunicationproviders(includingPT.Telekom,Indosat,etc)inIndonesiaprovidesuchservicestotheirInternetsubscribers.107Theyarefacingincreasingcompetition,however,fromwhattheyrefertoasunlicensedoperatorsprovidingVoIPservicesthroughtheInternetorfromsoftwarethatallowscomputer‐to‐computervoicecommunicationsovertheInternet.108

Therearecurrentlythreelocally‐ownedfreeVoIPserviceprovidersinIndonesia:VoIPMerdeka(‘FreedomVoIP’),VoIPMarsinahandVoIPRakyat(‘People’sVoIP’).109VoIPMerdekawasthefirstVoIP

99 The Nielsen Company, The Digital Media Habits and Attitudes of Southeast Asian Consumers, October 2011, <http://www.nielsen.com/content/dam/corporate/us/en/reports-downloads/2011-Reports/South-East-Asia-Digital-Consumer.pdf>, (Accessed 22 December 2011). 100 Ibid. 101 Yahoo! and TNS, ‘Digital Indonesia 2010 Yahoo!-TNS Net Index Highlights’, <http://www.scribd.com/doc/32354566/null> (Accessed 19, November 2011) 102 AC Nielsen, ‘Nielsen Media Index Indonesia/Mix 2008 Wave’, <http://comm215.wetpaint.com/page/Indonesia%3A+Internet+Penetration> (Accessed 19 November 2011) 103 Yahoo! and TNS, ‘Digital Indonesia: Internet Media Habits Decoded’, <http://www.admaxnetwork.com/download/news/NetIndexIndonesiaHighlights.pdf (Accessed 19, November 2011) 104 Ibid. 105 Ibid. 106 Ibid. 107 PT Telkom, Overview of Telecom Industry in Indonesia, 108 Ibid. 109 Kasdiono, Eddy. P., ‘VoIP closes distance of time and place’, The Jakarta Post, 19 August 2009, < http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/19/voip-closes-distance-time-and-place.html>, (accessed 22 December 2011).

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networkinIndonesia,builtin2003byaformerprofessorattheInstituteofTechnologyBandung.110VoIPRakyat,startedin2005byagraduateoftheTelkomInstituteofTechnology,iscurrentlythemostpopular.111Corporatecustomersmadeup70percentoftheover70,000usersregisteredwithVoIPRakyatin2009.112

TheexactnumberofIndonesianusersonthelargestinternationalvoicecarrier,Skype,113isunknown,114althoughitisestimatedtobearoundfivemillion.115Attheendof2010,Skypereportedhaving23millionconnectedusers,or20percentofallconnectedusers,intheAsiaPacificregion.116Fiveyearsearlier,asimilarproportion(19.13percent)ofallofitsuserswasfromthisregion,andIndonesiawasnotinthetop20countryusers.117However,Skype’srecentpartnershipwithTelkomseltoprovideitssoftwareonarangeofmobilehandsets,announcedinOctober2011,illustratesIndonesia’splaceasanimportantemergingmarket.118

Jakarta as the world’s Facebook capital AfterbecomingavailabletoIndonesiansin2006,Facebookhasgainedsubstantialpopularity.119Withover17million120Facebookusers,JakartaistheFacebookcapitaloftheworld,toppingcitieswithsimilarpopulationssuchasNewYork,MexicoCity,andIstanbul.121Jakartacurrentlyaccountsfor50.33percent

110 Ibid., and Martant, Aris, ‘VoIP Rakyat a lower cost alternative’, Innovation at the Frontier, 21 May 2008, < http://innovationfrontier.blogspot.com/2008/05/voip-rakyat-lower-cost-alternative.html>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 111 Kasdiono, Eddy. P., Op.Cit.and Anton Raharja’s Linkedin profile, <http://id.linkedin.com/in/antonrd>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 112 Tanuhandaru, Protus. ‘How to make Telkom remain competitive’, Jakarta Post, 29 June 2009, < http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/06/29/how-make-telkom-remain-competitive.html>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 113 Ricknas, Mikael, IDG News Service, ‘Skype is largest international voice carrier, says study’, Network World, 23 March 2009, <http://www.networkworld.com/news/2009/032509-skype-is-largest-international-voice.html>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 114 During a press conference in Jakarta in May 2011, Skype’s General Manager International stated that he was unable to release data on the number of Indonesian users on Skype. Source: Purwanti, Tenni and Wahyudi, Reza, ‘Skype Bungkam Soal Microsoft’, Kompas, 26 October 2011, <http://tekno.kompas.com/read/2011/10/26/19432826/Skype.Bungkam.Soal.Microsoft>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 115 Haswidi, Andi, ‘Telkomsel, Skype forge unlikely partnership’, The Jakarta Post, 27 October 2011, <http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/10/27/telkomsel-skype-forge-unlikely-partnership.html>, (accessed 22 December 2011). How this figure was obtained is unclear. 116 United States Securities and Exchange Commission, Amendment No.2 To Form S-1 Registration Statement Sjype S.á r.l. (to be converted to Skype S.A.), <http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1498209/000119312511056174/ds1a.htm> , (accessed 22 December 2011). 117 Enck, James. ‘Whose net is it anyway?’, Eurotelcoblog, <http://eurotelcoblog.blogspot.com/2005/04/whose-net-is-it-anyway-stumbled-across.html> , (accessed 22 December 2011). 118 Skype press release, Telkomsel partners with Skype to bring a new communications experience in Indonesia. 26 October 2011, <http://about.skype.com/press/2011/10/telekomsel_partners_with_skype.html>, (accessed 22 December 2011). 119 SalingSilang.com, ‘Indonesia Social Media Landscape’, <http://www.slideshare.net/salingsilang/indonesia-social-media-landscape-saling-silang-report>, (Accessed 19 November 2011). 120 17,484,300 121 Russell, Jon, ‘Jakarta Named World’s Facebook Capital’, <http://asiancorrespondent.com/50592/jakarta-recognised-as-the-worlds-facebook-capital/>, (Accessed 19 November 2011).

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ofIndonesianFacebookusers.122ThepopularityofFacebookisnotonlyreservedtoJakarta.Asawhole,IndonesiahasthesecondlargestpopulationofFacebookusersworldwidewithover40million123totalusers.124Facebookpenetrationwas136.07percentoftheonlinepopulationin2011.125Morethanfourmillion126IndonesianusersjoinedFacebookinthesecondhalfof2011alone.127

GenderandagedividesexistwithinIndonesia’sFacebookcommunity.In2011,youthdominatedtheFacebookpopulationwith41percentormorethan16million128usersbeingbetweentheagesof18and24.12969percentwerebetweentheagesof13and24.130Malesoutnumberedfemales,makingup60percentofIndonesianFacebookusers.131ThedifferenceintheuseofsocialnetworkingplatformscouldbeduetolowerratesofInternetaccessforfemalesthanmalesorduetolackofinterest.

ThemainlanguageusedbyIndonesiansonFacebookwasBahasaIndonesiaat82.82percentwithanadditional16.9percentusingEnglish,makingitalocalizedtoolformanyusers.132

Micro-blogging gaining popularity IndonesiawasthethirdlargestTwitternationin2011,makingup15percentoftheworld’stweets.133InJanuary2010,Indonesianstweetednearly23milliontimes134andtherewerenearly5millionaccounts135intotal.ApluralityoftweetswasfromJakartaat16.33percent.136Twitteruserstweetedaboutanumberofdifferenttopicsincludingsoccer(20.17percent),events(10.81percent),memes137(8.11percent),andnews(5.20percent).138In2011,Indonesiansproducedroughly20milliontweetseachmonth,themajorityofwhichwereinBahasaIndonesia.139

122 SalingSilang.com, ‘Indonesia Social Media Landscape’, <http://www.slideshare.net/salingsilang/indonesia-social-media-landscape-saling-silang-report>, (Accessed 19 November 2011). 123 41,777,240 (as of December 17, 2011). 124 Social Bakers, ‘Indonesia Facebook Statistics’, <http://www.socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/indonesia/last-3-months>, (Accessed 19 November 2011). 125 Ibid. 126 4,350,320. 127 Ibid. 128 16,740,185. 129 Ibid. 130 Ibid. 131 Ibid. 132 Ibid. 133 SalingSilang.com, ‘Indonesia Social Media Landscape’, <http://www.slideshare.net/salingsilang/indonesia-social-media-landscape-saling-silang-report> (Accessed 19 November 2011). 134 22,707,725 135 4,883,228 136 Ibid. 137 Memes are photos, videos, phrases, websites, links, or other online content that are popular in the online community. 138 Ibid. 139 TNS, “ Gems Insights from Emerging Markets’, <http://www.tnsglobal.com/_assets/files/TNS_GEMS_March2011.pdf>, (Accessed 10 November 2011).

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User generated content: the rise of blogging AsofNovember28,2011,DirektoriBlog,thelargestblogdirectoryinIndonesia,hadatotalofoverfivemillion140blogsintheirnetwork.141AstudybyBCGfoundthatin2009,33percentofIndonesianInternetusershadablog.142In2010,therewereapproximately3.2millionbloggersinIndonesia.143AccordingtoSalingSilang,144themostpopularbloggingplatformswereBlogspot(80.65percent)andWordpress(14.5percent).145Thesamereportalsofoundthat27percentofblogswerewrittenaboutKoreanpop.146Globally,BahasaIndonesiawasthefourthmostpopularlanguageonWordpressat3.5percent,behindEnglish,Spanish,andPortuguese.147

IllustratingtheimportanceofbloggersinIndonesia,27OctoberwasdeclaredNationalBloggerDaybythethen‐MinisterofCommunicationsandInformationattheopeningofthefirstPestaBlogger(“BloggerParty”)conferencein2007.148Sincethen,theconferenceshaveattractedthesupportoftelecommunicationcompanies,theBritishCouncilandtheUSEmbassyinJakarta.149Thesizeofitsparticipantshasalsotripled,from500in2007150to1,600in2010.151

iii. Stagnante‐CommercesectorDespitetheirhighlevelsofparticipationinsocialmediasites,Indonesianshavebeenlessenthusiasticaboutpartakinginonlinecommercialactivities.A2011studybyNielsenfoundthatIndonesianInternetuserswerelesslikelytoconnectorinteractwithbrands,productsorcompaniesonline(20percenthavedonesoonsocialnetworkingsitesinthepreceding12months),comparedtoInternetusersinthePhilippines(65percent),Malaysia(60percent),Singapore(56percent)andThailand(42percent).152

ThisslowgrowthislikelyduetoIndonesians’relianceonmobileaccessandalackofmoreadvancedpaymentsystems,asmanyIndonesiane‐commercesitesrelyonbanktransfers.153AccordingtoNielsen’s2008MediaIndex,only3percentofIndonesianInternetusersboughtsomethingonline

140 5,331,451. 141 SalingSilang.com, ‘Direktori Blog’,<http://blogdir.salingsilang.com/>Accessed 28 November 2011). 142 Boston Consulting Group, “The Internet’s New Billion”, September 2010, <http://www.bcg.com/documents/file58645.pdf>, (Accessed 5 August 2011). 143 Siregar, Lisa, ‘Rise of Indonesia’s Bloggers’, <http://blogdir.salingsilang.com/>Accessed 15 November.) 144 Saling Silang is an Indonesian site which provides information about the Internet and social media sites in Indonesia. 145 SalingSilang.com, ‘Indonesia Social Media Landscape’, <http://www.slideshare.net/salingsilang/indonesia-social-media-landscape-saling-silang-report> (Accessed 19 November 2011). 146 Ibid. 147 Wordpress, ‘Statistics’, <http://en.wordpress.com/stats/>, (Accessed 13 November 2011) 148 Siregar, L. 2011. “Can Indonesia’s Bloggers Keep Their Audience?”, The Jakarta Globe 149 Maverick. <http://www.onoffid.org/history/> (Accessed December 22, 2011). 150 Ibid 151 Siregar, L. 2011. op.cit. 152 The Nielsen Company, 2011, 153 Rosendar, Yessar, ‘E-Commerce Still Doesn’t Quite Click with Cautious Indonesian Shoppers’, <http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/business/e-commerce-still-doesnt-quite-click-with-cautious-indonesian-shoppers/377992>, (Accessed 17 November 2011).

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comparedto80percentinSingaporeand43percentinThailand.154E‐commerceinIndonesiaisworthRp.200thousandmillion(US$21.8million)peryear.155Inastudyoffivehundred,20‐to30‐year‐oldsmart‐phoneusersbyDSResearch,38percentreportedbuyingsomethingonline.156Kaskus,alocalplatform,wasthemostpopulare‐commercesiteamongrespondentsandthemajorityofcustomerswhoboughtsomethingonlinereportedusingbanktransfers.157

INITIATIVES BothpublicandprivateactorshaveactivelyinvestedinICTdevelopmentthroughvariousinitiatives.Thefollowinginitiativeswereselectedbasedontheiradvancedstageofimplementation,thereputationoftheactorsinvolved,andtheavailabilityofrelevantinformation.WhilemanyoftheseinitiativeshavefocusedoneducationthroughICTadvancementinschoolsandyouthcommunities,othershavefocusedondevelopinggovernmentcapabilitiesandimprovingaccesstoICTsacrossthecountry.APresidentialDecisionpassedin2006appointedsevenflagshipprogramsfocusedonICTs,includingE‐Education(undertheMinistryofNationalEducation),E‐Budget(undertheMinistryofFinance)andthePalapaRing(undertheMinistryofCommunicationandInformation).158

a. EducationalinitiativesAPresidentialInstructiononeconomicdevelopment,159passedin2008,outlinedamorespecificfocusoneducation.ItcalledforaNationalEducationNetwork(JaringanPendidikanNasional/Jardiknas)toconnectgovernmenteducationaloffices,schools,anduniversitiesacrossallofIndonesia,andtoprovidefreeInternetconnectionstotensofthousandsofseniorsecondaryschools.160

TheMinistryofNationalEducationhasalsomadeavailablecloseto1,000titlesofelectronictextbooksandinteractivelearningmodulesonline.161TheMinistryhasstatedthattheunlimitedrightsofduplicationanddistributionofthesetextbooksmeanthatschoolswillbeabletoprintanddistributethe

154 Ibid. 155 Ibid. 156 DS Research, How Indonesia’s Youngsters Use E-Commerce, <http://dsresearch.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/dsresearch-ecommerce-may11.pdf>, (Accessed 16 November 2011). 157 Ibid. 158 Keppres No. 20/2006 tentang Dewan TIK Nasional 159 Inpres No. 5/2008 tentang Fokus Program Ekonomi tahun 2008 – 2009 160 Ibid 161 Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional, ‘Buku Sekolah Elektronik’, <http://bse.kemdiknas.go.id/>, (Accessed 28 December 2011).

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bookstotheirstudentsatamuchlowercostthanotherwise.162Sofar,thecountry’slowInternetpenetrationrateshavebeenagreatchallengeindistributingthesematerials.163

TheGovernmenthasalsopartneredwithotherinstitutionstoimplementeducationalinitiatives.InEastJava,JardiknaspartneredwithTelkomEastJavatorehabilitate2,200schools’infrastructureandprovidedtrainingontheuseofthegovernment’sSchool‐Netinitiativein2007.164Alsoin2007,IntelIndonesiasignedaMoratoriumofUnderstandingwithIndonesia’sMinistryofNationalEducationinitiatingtheIntel®TeachPrograminIndonesia.IntelalsopartneredwiththeDirectorateforQualityImprovementofTeachersandEducationPersonnel(PMPTK)intheMinistryofNationalEducation,USAID,UNESCO,theIndonesiaTeachingMovement,andtheMa’arifNahdlatulUlama.TheprogramtargetsK‐12teachersbyfacilitatingandincreasingtheirknowledgeanduseofICTsinschools.By2010,over50,000teachershadparticipatedintheprogramdemonstratingthefar‐reachingimplicationsofICTsintheeducationsector.165

b. ChildprotectionhotlinesAnumberofchildprotectionhotlinesexistnationally.In2006,thegovernmentestablishedatollfreehotlineprogramcalledTeleponSahabatAnak129(TESA129)inthefourmajorcitiesofBandaAceh,Jakarta,SurabayaandMakassar,166laterexpandedtoinclude20provinces.167TESA129isaimedtoprovideeasilyaccessiblesupportforchildrenwhorequireprotectionorareinanemergency,andchildreninneedofcounsellingsupport.168TheprogramisbasedonaMemorandumofUnderstandingbetweentheMinistryofSocialServices,MinistryforWomen’sEmpowermentandtheMinistryforCommunicationandInformation,withthecallcentrebeinghostedbytheMinistryforCommunicationandInformation.169InJanuary2010,TESA129EastJavareportedthatin2009,theyreceived155calls

162 Radar Lampung, ‘Buku Sekolah Elektronik Belum Efektif’, 8 July 2010, <http://radarlampung.co.id/read/pendidikan/17919-buku-sekolah-elektronik-belum-efektif>, (Accessed 28 December 2011). 163 Ibid. 164 Telkom Indonesia, ‘Telkom dan Diknas Jatim Adakan Program School-Net’, 2007, <http://www.telkom.co.id/telkom-peduli/kegiatan-pendidikan-budaya-olahraga/telkom-dan-diknas-jatim-adakan-program-school-net.html>, (Accessed 22 December 2011). 165Intel, "Indonesia." <http://www.intel.com/cd/corporate/csr/apac/eng/education/countries/id/385613.htm> (Accessed 22 December 2011). <http://www.intel.com/cd/corporate/csr/apac/eng/education/countries/id/385613.htm> 166 UNICEF, ‘Plus 5-Review of the 2002 Special Session on Children and World Fit for Children Plan of Action’, <http://www.unicef.org/worldfitforchildren/files/Indonesia_WFFC5_Report.pdf>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 167 Muhammad Ihsan, Kompasiana, 5 August 2011, ‘Telepon Sahabat Anak (TESA) 129 Apa Kabarnya?’, <http://hukum.kompasiana.com/2011/08/05/telepon-sahabat-anak-tesa-129-apa-kabarnya/>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 168 Kementrian Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindingan Anak RI, Aplikasi Data & Informasi PP dan KPA, ‘TESA 129’, <http://www.menegpp.go.id/aplikasidata/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=80:tesa-129&catid=36:glossary-kesejahteraan-dan-perlindungan-anak&Itemid=103>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 169 Ibid.

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forcounsellingrequestsfromthecommunity,anincreasefrompreviousyears.170ThiswasfollowedbyfourcasesinJanuaryandFebruaryof2010,whichcoveredonetraffickingcase,onechildabandonmentcase,onerunawaycaseandonehouseholdissuecasefollowingadivorce.171

Fromthecommunitysector,theNationalCommissionforChildProtection(KomnasAnak)hashostedanationalchildprotectionhotlineforoveradecade.172Theyhavealsosupplementedthehotlinewithanonlinereportingform.173In2011,theyreceived2,386casereportsviatheirhotline,almostdoublethe1,234reportstheyreceivedthepreviousyear.174

c. ThePalapaRingprojectThroughpublicandprivatecollaboration,theUS$1.5thousandmillionPalapaRingprojectaimstobuildafibreopticcablenetworkconnecting33provincecapitalsand440districtcapitalsacrossIndonesia.175Aconsortiumofsevencompanies,includingPTTelkom,BakrieTelecomandinternationalcompaniesQatarTelecomandSingTel,isco‐fundingtheproject.176TheMinisterforInformationandCommunicationsalsolaterinvitedsupportfromtheJapanesegovernment.177

Inthesecondhalfof2011,thePresidentDirectorofPTTelkom,178theMinisterforState‐OwnedEnterprises179andtheMinisterforInformationandCommunications180separatelystatedthatthe

170 Dinas Komunikasi dan Informatika Prov. Jatim, 23 February 2010, ‘Selama Januari-Februari, TESA 129 tangani empat kasus’, < http://www.jatimprov.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=7120&Itemid=2 >, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 171 Ibid. 172 Komnas Perlindungan Anak, Dukung Kami, ‘Mengapa Anak Harus Dilindungi?’, <http://peluk.komnaspa.or.id/node/2>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 173 Komnas Perlindungan Anak, ‘Form Pengaduan’, <http://www.komnaspa.or.id/Komnaspa/Form_Pengaduan.html>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 174 Wahyu Dhyatmika, Tempo, 20 December 2011, ‘Komnas Anak: Pemerintah Gagal Lindungi Anak’, <http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2011/12/20/079372815/Komnas-Anak-Pemerintah-Gagal-Lindungi-Anak>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 175Iskandar, PhD, Basuki Yusuf. Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, "Indonesia’s Initiatives to Deploy NGN." <http://www.itu.int/ITUD/treg/Events/Seminars/GSR/GSR07/Documents_presentations/5Feb_breakout_A_indonesia.pdf> (Accessed 22 December 2011). 176 BuddeComm, ‘Indonesia - Telecommunications Infrastructure and Forecast’, <http://www.budde.com.au/Research/Indonesia-Telecommunications-Infrastructure-and-Forecasts.html> (Accessed December 22 2011) 177 Burhani, Ruslan, ‘RI to involve Japan in Palapa ring project: Minister’, 6 January 2010, <http://antara.co.id/en/news/1262779451/ri-to-involve-japan-in-palapa-ring-project-minister>, (Accessed 26 December 2011). 178 ‘Palapa Ring Project for Economic Development Program’, 26 July 2011, <http://www.embassyofindonesia.org/news/2011/07/news078.htm>, (Accessed 26 December 2011). 179 Ahniar, Nur Farida and Kurniawan, Iwan. ‘Dahlan: Palapa Ring Revolusi Besar Internet’, 14 November 2011, <http://www.bumn.go.id/ptpn8/galeri/dahlan-palapa-ring-revolusi-besar-internet/>, (Accessed 26 December 2011)

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projectiscurrentlyenteringitsfinalstage,connectingthemainislandsinEasternIndonesia,withtheentire57,000kmcablenetworkproject–35,280underwaterand21,807overland–onscheduleforcompletionin2014.181

d. OthercommunityinitiativesICT‐basedcommunityorganisationsinIndonesiahaveattractedinternationalsupportandrecognition.ICTscaninturnprovideopportunitiesforcommunitygroupstogrowbyexpandingtheiradvocacyreach,disseminatingtheirworkandgainingfurtherexposureandfinancing.

Forexample,KampungHalaman,ayouth‐focusedcommunitynon‐profit,wasrecentlyawardedtheInternationalSpotlightAwardattheUSGovernment’sNationalArtsandHumanitiesYouthProgramAwardsin2011.182AsdescribedbyMichelleObamaduringtheawardsceremony,theorganisationencourages“studentsinIndonesia[tocreate]theirownvideostoraiseawarenessaroundissueslikepoverty,women’srights,andtheeffectsofnaturaldisasters”.KampungHalamanusesitswebsitetohostadatabaseofcommunityproductions,makingselectedvideosavailable,togainwideraudiencesforthelocally‐producedvideos.183

SatuDunia,orOneWorldIndonesia,isanothernon‐profitorganisationthatexiststosupportIndonesiancommunitygroupsutilisingtheInternetintheirwork.184TheorganisationwasestablishedthroughapartnershipbetweentheDutchdevelopmentorganisationHivos,theIndonesianICTorganisationYayasanJaring,andOneworldUK.185In2010,itreceivedagrantfromtheFordFoundationtodevelopaninteractiveonlineplatformformonitoringtheStrategicAllianceforPovertyAlleviationprograminfifteendistrictsandcities.186In2011,SatuDuniaundertookinitiativestoorganiseIndonesia’sICT

180 Firman, Muhammad, ‘354 Km Jalur Bawah Laut Indonesia Di-upgrade’, 20 December 2011, <http://us.teknologi.vivanews.com/news/read/273602-354-km-jalur-bawah-laut-indonesia-diupgrade>, (Accessed 26 December 2011). 181 Ahniar and Kurniawan, Op.Cit. 182 National Arts and Humanities Youth Program Awards, ‘Indonesia Youth Community Media Project’, 2011, <http://www.nahyp.org/awardees/2011-awardees/international-spotlight-award-indonesia-youth-community-media-project/>, (Accessed 22 December 2011). 183 Kampung Halaman, ‘Kampung Halaman Profile’, 9 October 2008, <http://www.kampunghalaman.org/en/about-us>, (Accessed 22 December 2011). 184 Satu Dunia, ‘Tentang Satu Dunia’, <http://www.satudunia.net/tentang-satu-dunia>, (Accessed 26 December 2011). 185 Ibid. 186 Ford Foundation, ‘Yayasan Satu Dunia’, <http://www.fordfoundation.org/grants/grantdetails?grantid=8359>, (Accessed 26 December 2011).

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community’sinputintoproposedlegislationonICTconvergence,byconductingapublicsurvey187andconvening‘ICTStudyCircle’discussionswithwell‐knownbloggersandgroups.188

Theseinitiatives,implementedthroughco‐operationwitharangeofpublicandprivatesectors,highlighttheincreasingimportanceandemphasisonICTdevelopmentinimprovingaccessandincreasingopportunitiesineducationandthepublicsector.

IDENTIFYING SAFETY RISKS

a. TheRisks:InthespiritofvariousarticlesoftheUNCRC(Articles33,34,etc.),StatePartiesshalltakeallappropriatemeasurestoprotectchildrenfromdifferenttypesofharm.189

Thereviewofavailableliteraturerevealedthatchildpornography,talkingtoandmeetingstrangers,trafficking,softwarepiracy,exposuretoextremistcontentandcyberbullyingareallsafetyrisksassociatedwithInternetuseinIndonesia.Theliteraturedidnotprovideevidencewithregardstogroomingandgambling,althoughthisisnottosaythatthesesafetyrisksdonotexistinIndonesia.

i.ChildPornographyandGroomingWiththeexistenceoftheInternet,childpornographycanbeviewedandsharedonline,makingtheexploitationderivingfromitsexistenceanditsusecontinuous.

WhentheUNCRCwasadoptedin1989,itwasbelievedthattheprovisionsconcerningchildprotection,notablyArticles19,32and34−36,providedasufficientframeworktoprotectchildrenfromallformsofexploitation.Withthe1996WorldCongressagainstCommercialSexualExploitationofChildren,itbecameincreasinglyclearthatadditionaleffortswereneededtoaddressthetrueextentofsexualexploitation.Moderntechnologieshavealsoledtonewchallengesandconcernswithseriousconsequenceswhenmisused.TheOptionalProtocoltotheConventionontheRightsoftheChildontheSaleofChildren,ChildProstitution,andChildPornography(OPSC),signedbyIndonesiain2001butnot

187 Satu Dunia, ‘Survei Publik Tentang RUU Konvergensi Telematika’, <https://spreadsheets.google.com/viewform?formkey=dG4zaEdFbEgyYWZMSHZzVTBUSlFER3c6MQ>, (Accessed 26 December 2011). 188 Firdaus, Satu Dunia, ‘Diskusi Lingkar Belajar, Blogger dan RUU Konvergensi Telematika’, 18 October 2011, <http://www.satudunia.net/content/diskusi-lingkar-belajar-blogger-dan-ruu-konvergensi-telematika>, (Accessed 26 December 2011). 189 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm> (Accessed 22 December 2011)

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ratified,190builtuponandenhancedthegeneralprinciplesoftheUNCRCbytakingfurthermeasuresinpreventingtheuseofchildreninpornography.TheOPSCdefineschildpornographyas:

“Anyrepresentation,bywhatevermeans,ofachildengagedinrealorsimulatedexplicitsexualactivitiesoranyrepresentationofthesexualpartsofachildforprimarilysexualpurposes.”

Passedin2008,Indonesia’sAnti‐PornographyLawdefineschildpornographyinitsElucidationArticle4,subsection(1)part(f)as:

“Anyformofpornographyinvolvingchildrenorinvolvingadultsportrayingoractingasachild.”

WhileArticle5oftheaforementionedActspecifiesthat:

“Everypersonisforbiddenfromlendingordownloadingpornography[…].”

Itdoesnotdirectlyandclearlyaddressaccessing,viewing,possessingand/orstoringofchildpornographyonline.

OtherlawsinIndonesia,suchastheChildProtectionAct(2002)andtheManpowerAct(2003),maybeusedtoprosecutecasesofchildpornography,eventhoughthereisnoclarificationwhetherornotthiscanbeappliedtocasesofchildpornographywhenperpetratedonline.

Visiblyaimedataddressingthiscaveat,theElectronicInformationandTransaction(ITE)LawwaspassedinMarch2008bytheIndonesianParliament(No.11/2008)andpertainstoallmattersregardinginformationandtransactionsinelectronicforms.AccordingtoChapterVII,Article27ofthelaw,activitiessuchastransmittingorallowingaccesstoelectronicinformationand/orelectronicdocumentationwithcontents(1)“againstpropriety”,(2)“ofgambling”,(3)“ofaffrontsand/ordefamation”,and/or(4)“ofextortionand/orthreats”areforbidden.Commentators191haveinterpretedArticle27(1),theprohibitionofactivities“againstpropriety”,ascoveringchildpornographybutthereisnodirectmentionofitthroughouttheAct.AccordingtotheAct,offenderscanbeprosecutedandsentencedtouptosixyearsimprisonmentandfineduptoRp1thousandmillion.192

Withregardstotheprivatesector,inJanuary2010,ResearchinMotion(RIM)beganfilteringoutpornographywebsitesforallBlackBerrysubscribersinIndonesia,inaccordancewithIndonesianlaw.193

190 11 .c Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, New York, 25 May 2000 , ‘STATUS AS AT : 30-12-2011 07:03:10 EDT’, <http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-11-c&chapter=4&lang=en>, (Accessed 30 December 2011). 191 ECPAT, < http://www.ecpat.net/EI/PDF/A4A_II/A4A2011_EAP_Indonesia_Final.pdf>, (Accessed December 12, 2011). 192 Unofficial translation of Electronic Information and Transaction Law (No. 11/2008). 193 PC World, ‘RIM to Block Access to Porn on BlackBerry in Indonesia in Indonesia’, 10 January 2011, <http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/216346/rim_to_block_access_to_porn_on_blackberry_in_indonesia.html>, (Accessed 30 December 2011).

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ThiswasinresponsetoBRTI’sannouncementthatitwouldconsiderblockingBlackBerryserviceinIndonesia.194

WhilegroomingisnotaddressedbytheITELaw,itisfound,albeitinvagueterms,intheAnti‐PornographyLaw,Article12thatprohibitsthe“invitation,coercion[...]ofchildrenintopornographyorpornographicrelatedproducts”,aligningitselfwithinternationalstandards,notablytheUNCRCGeneralComment13toArticle19,whichdefinesandprohibitsgroomingasthecasewhereanadultentersincontactwithachildforinvolvementinsexualactivities.

Althoughlittledataexistsregardingthenumberofchildpornographycases,in2010theNationalCommissionforChildProtection(KomnasAnak)reported1,238,584casesofcommercialexploitationofchildren,ofwhich39wererelatedtochildvictimsofpornography.195Thiswasanincreasefromthe22casesofchildvictimsofpornographyreportedin2009andeightcasesin2008.196However,thereviewwasunabletoidentifythroughwhichchannelchildpornographyhadbeenshared.

ii.TalkingtoandmeetingstrangersWhiletheGeneralComment13toArticle19oftheUNCRCrecognizesbeing“coerced,trickedorpersuadedintomeetingstrangersoff‐line”asarisk,anonlinesurveyof112childrenages10to17,commissionedbySymantecCorporationin2010,foundthat70percentofchildreninIndonesiahadhadstrangerstrytoaddthemasafriendonasocialnetworkingsiteand35percentchattedwithanonlinestrangerwhohadtriedtomeettheminperson.197InRiau,EasternIndonesia,theIntegratedServiceCentreforWomenandChildren(PusatPelayananTerpaduPemberdayaanPerempuandanAnak/P2TP2A)hasseenincreasedreportsofteenagerunawayswho,uponfurtherinvestigation,werefoundtohavelefthomebecauseofpersonstheymetonline.198

iii.TraffickingDefinedinTheProtocoltoPrevent,SuppressandPunishTraffickingagainstPersons,EspeciallyWomenandChildren,supplementingtheUnitedNationsConventionagainstTransnationalOrganizedCrime(‘PalermoProtocol’,2000),as:

194 Ibid. 195 Komnas Anak, Database Pelanggaran Hak Anak di Indonesia Tahun 2010, <http://www.komnaspa.or.id/Komnaspa/Halaman_Utama.html - December 12, 2011>, (Accessed December 12, 2011). 196 Ibid. 197 Symantec, 1 July 2010, ‘Norton Online Family Report 2010 Reveals 96 Percent of Indonesian Kids Have Had a Negative Online Experience’, <http://www.symantec.com/en/aa/about/news/release/article.jsp?prid=20100701_01>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 198 Antara, 18 November 2011, ‘Akibat Jejaring Sosial 10 Remaja Pekanbaru Hilang’, <http://id.berita.yahoo.com/akibat-jejaring-sosial-10-remaja-pekanbaru-hilang-092420437.html>, (Accessed 3 January 2012).

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“Therecruitment,transportation,transfer,harbouringorreceiptofpersons,bymeansofthethreatoruseofforceorotherformsofcoercion,ofabduction,offraud,ofdeception,oftheabuseofpowerorofapositionofvulnerabilityorofthegivingorreceivingofpaymentsorbenefitstoachievetheconsentofapersonhavingcontroloveranotherperson,forthepurposeofexploitation.Exploitationshallinclude,ataminimum,theexploitationoftheprostitutionofothersorotherformsofsexualexploitation,forcedlabourorservices,slaveryorpracticessimilartoslavery,servitudeortheremovaloforgans;”

ThePalermoProtocolcreatedafoundationforindividualcountriestobeginorstepupthefightagainsttraffickingofhumanbeings.

TheGovernmentofIndonesiahasmadesignificantprogressinthelastfewyearsincombatingtraffickingthroughtheintroductionofnewlaws,andpolicyreform,withagrowingrecognitionthatmuchmoreattentionandenergyneedstobegiventoleveraginganti‐traffickinginitiativesthataddresstherootcausesofhumantraffickingandotherchildrightsviolations.199

In2007,theGovernmentadoptedLawno.21ontheEradicationofCriminalActofTraffickingin

Personsthatadoptsacomprehensiveapproachtoaddressinghumantrafficking.TheGovernmenthasalsopassedtheDecreeoftheCoordinatingMinistryofPeople’sWelfarethatlegalizestheNationalPlanofAction(NPA)ontheEradicationofTraffickinginPersonsandSexualExploitationofChildren2009–2014.Additionally,locallegislationsandPlansofActionhavebeendevelopedandadoptedinseveralprovincesanddistrictsaddressingsexualexploitationandtraffickingofchildren.TheNPAguidesgovernmentMinistriesandprovincial/districtdepartments,throughtaskforces,toimplementprogrammestoeradicatetraffickinginpersonsandthesexualexploitationofchildren.200

TheGovernmentratifiedInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)ConventionNo.182ontheWorstFormofChildLabourin2000andthePalermoProtocolin2009.In2001,theGovernmentsignedtheOptionalProtocoltotheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChildontheSaleofChildren,ChildProstitutionandChildPornographybuthasyettoratifyit.201

InFebruary2010,TheJakartaGlobereportedthattheCommissionforChildProtectionhadreceived25reportssofarthatyearof“allegedchildkidnapping,harassment,andtrafficking”fromSurabayawhereFacebookwasusedtocontactthevictims.202Later,in2011,itwasreportedthatagroupoftraffickers

199 UNICEF Indonesia, Children in Indonesia-Child Trafficking, <http://www.unicef.org/indonesia/UNICEF_Indonesia_Child_Trafficking_Fact_Sheet_-_July_2010.pdf> (accessed 30 Dec 2011). 200 Ibid. 201 See footnote 190. 202 "Sexual Predators Hunt For Child Trafficking Victims On Facebook." Jakarta Globe, February 17, 2010. http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/sexual-predators-hunt-for-child-trafficking-victims-on-facebook/359141 (accessed December 26, 2011).

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werearrestedafterattemptingtosellsevengirlsonFacebook.203TheUN’sIntegratedRegionalInformationNetworks(IRIN)reportedanincreasingtrendofIndonesianssellingtheirkidneysonline,althoughexactfigureswereunknown.204Itisimportanttocarefullyinterprettheaforementioneddataconsideringitsanecdotalnature.Indeed,morethoroughresearchprovidinghardevidenceisnecessarytoclearlyunderstandthescopeofthisriskandtheintricaciesithas.Sofar,onlythesethreepiecesofevidencehavebeengathered.

iv.Softwarepiracy205TheprevalenceofsoftwarepiracyinIndonesiawasrelativelyhighin2008witharateof85percentoftotalsoftwareinstalledoncomputersfoundtobepiratedcomparedtoaregionalaverageof61percent.206In2008,Indonesiawasranked12thintheworldforpiracyand19thforgloballosses.207TheBusinessSoftwareAlliancefoundthat87percentofsoftwareonPCswaspiratedin2010foratotalvalueofUS$1.32thousandmillion.208209Symantec’sonlinesurveyofchildrenandparentsfoundthat78percentofchildrendownloadeddigitalcontentfromtheInternetwhileparentsonlyperceivedthat66percentdid.210Thistrendindicateslowlevelsofawarenessbyparentsofwhattheirchildrenweredoingonline.

V.ExposuretoExtremistContentIncertaincases,theInternethasbeenusedbyextremistgroupstoraisefunds,provideinformationtofollowers,andtotrainterrorists.InastudybytheAustralianStrategicPolicyInstitute,thenumberofradicalwebsitesincreasedfrom15in2007to117in2008.211Thefirstlocalbomb‐makingandweaponshandlingmanualswerepostedonlineinFebruaryandApril2008respectively.212InSeptember2011,theIndonesianChildProtectionCommission(KomisiPerlindunganAnakIndonesia/KPAI)expressedtheir203 Priliawito, Eko and Mahaputra, Sandy Adam, VIVAnews, 19 January 2011, ‘Indonesia Girls Sold through Facebook, <http://us.en.vivanews.com/news/read/200132-indonesia-girls-sold-through-facebook>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 204 IRIN, 8 January 2010, ‘INDONESIA: Internet facilitates illegal kidney trade’, <http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=87668>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 205 Software piracy is defined here as “the illegal use and/or distribution of software protected under intellectual property laws”. Business Software Alliance, <http://www.bsacybersafety.com/threat/software_piracy.cfm> (Accessed 14 December 2011). 206 International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA), ‘Indonesia 2010 Special 301 Report on Copyright Protection and Enforcement, <http://www.iipa.com/rbc/2010/2010SPEC301INDONESIA.pdf> (Accessed 10 November 2011). 207 Ibid. 208 billion = thousand million. 209 Business Software Alliance, ‘Eighth Annual BSA Global Software Piracy Study’, <http://portal.bsa.org/globalpiracy2010/index.html>, (Accessed 29 October 2011). 210 Symantec, “Norton Online Family Report 2010 Reveals 96 Percent of Indonesian Kids Have Had A Negative Online Experience”, 1 July 2010, <http://www.nortonopscenter.com/?p=201>, (Accessed 3 October 2011). 211 Australian Strategic Policy Institute,‘Countering Internet radicalism in Southeast Asia’, (accessed 28 September 2011) 212 Ibid.

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supportfortheblockingofradicalwebsites.213TheKPAIVice‐Presidentstatedthatintheinterestofchildprotection,theGovernmentmustcontrolthecontentofsitesthatspreadadeviantunderstandingofreligion,andteachesviolenceandhatredamongreligiousgroups.214Followingthe2005attacksinBali,newspapersreportedthatJemaahIslamiahhadattemptedtouseonlinecreditcardfraudtoraisefunds215andhadusedvirtualworldssuchasSecondLifetotrainterrorists.216

VI.CyberbullyingLimiteddatacurrentlyexistontheincidenceofcyberbullying,orevenbullyingingeneral,inIndonesia.SejiwaFoundation,anon‐profitnon‐governmentalanti‐bullyingorganisationbasedinJakarta,definesformsofbullyingasverbalbullying,physicalbullyingandpsychologicalbullying,andincludes“scaringviatelephone”and“threateningviaelectroniccommunicationtools”underverbalbullying.217RatnaJuwita,apsychologistattheUniversityofIndonesiawhoresearchesbullying,foundthatinastudyofthethreelargestcitiesinIndonesia(Jakarta,YogyakartaandSurabaya),theincidenceofbullyingatsecondaryschoolsinYogyakartaisthehighestamongthethreecities,at70.65percent.218InJuly2010,shefoundfromasmall‐scalestudythat29of97childrenincludedinherstudyhadexperiencedcyberbullying,intheformsofridicules,insults,orshaming.219

VII.AssessingonlinesafetyrisksWhenitcomestoonlinesafetyrisks,suchasthosementionedabove,importantconsiderationsshouldbetakenintoaccount.First,thereisnoevidenceofnewtypesofsafetyrisksbeingposedbytheInternet.Rather,theInternethasonlymagnifiedcertainrisksandoffencessuchastraffickingandpiracy,providingnewchannelsthroughwhichtheycanoccur.Second,theInternetisnotinherentlydangerous.Rather,itistheoff‐linehumanbehaviourthatisreflectedonline.AsevidencedbyastudyconductedintheUKbySoniaLivingstoneandEllenHelsper,children’sonlinecommunicationactivitiescanbe

213 Antara News, 2011, ‘KPAI Dukung Pemblokiran Situs Penyebar Radikalisme’, <http://www.antaranews.com/print/1317181610/kpai-dukung-pemblokiran-situs-penyebar-radikalisme>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 214 Ibid. 215 Sipress, Alan, Washington Post, 14 December 2004, ‘An Indonesian Prisoner Memoir Takes Holy War into Cyberspace’, <http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A62095-2004Dec13?language=printer>, (Accessed 28 September 2011) 216 Obrien, Natalie, The Australian, ‘Virtual Terrorists’, 31 July 2007, <http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/features/virtual-terrorists/story-e6frg6z6-1111114072291>, (Accessed 30 December 2011). 217 Yayasan Sejiwa, ‘Bullying A-Z-‘, 23 March 2010, <http://sejiwa.org/a-z/>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 218 Portal Seminar, ‘Seminar Nasional: School Bullying; Deteksi dan Intervensinya’, 24 June 2009, <http://seminar.uii.ac.id/news/kesehatan/seminar-nasional-school-bullying-deteksi-dan-intervensinya.html>, (Accessed 3 January 2012). 219 Linus, ‘ “Cyber” Ancaman bagi Anak’, 31 July 2010, <http://cetak.kompas.com/read/2010/07/31/03301621/cyber.ancaman.bagi.anak>, (Accessed 3 January 2012).

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predictedbytheirofflinecharacteristics,particularlytheirlevelsoflifesatisfactionandrisk‐taking.220Similarly,asarguedbydanahboydfromHarvard’sBerkmanCenterforInternet&Society,“[p]eoplemayhaveatendencytoblamethetechnologythatforcesthemtoconfrontdisturbingbehaviors—notrealizingthattechnologyisonlythemessenger”.221

Laws and Regulations: Seeking Balance between Protection and Freedoms Likeinmanyothercountriesthatareexperiencinganincreaseindigitalaccess,theIndonesiangovernmentisfacedwiththechallengeofmeetingitsresponsibilitytoprotectthesafetyofchildrenandyouthinthedigitallandscapewhilestillsafeguardingtheirfreedoms.

AccordingtoFreedomHouse,therewereatleasteightcasesinwhichcitizenshavebeenindictedondefamationchargesundertheITElawforcommentsmadeone‐maillists,blogsorFacebookasofJune2010.222Oneofthecases,datedFebruary2010,involvedteenagerNurFarahfromBogor,WestJavawhowasconvictedbasedonareportthatshehadinsultedoneofherfriendsbyaddressingherasa“dog”onFacebook.223

Defamationechoesthelimitstotherightoffreedomofexpression,arightprotectedunderArticle28EoftheIndonesianConstitution.InlinewiththeUNCRC,alegallybindingdocument,thatIndonesiaisasignatoryto,whichgrantstherighttoaccessinformation,aswellasfreedomofexpression(Article13)toallchildren,theIndonesianChildProtectionAct(2002),Article10specifies:

“Everychildhastherighttoexpresshis/heropinionandhaveitheard,receive,seekandimpartinformationaccordingtohis/herlevelofintelligenceandageforhis/herself‐developmentinaccordancetomoralvaluesandappropriateness”.224

Article56furtherstates:

220Livingstone,SoniaandHelsper,Ellen(2007)‘Takingriskswhencommunicatingontheinternet:theroleofofflinesocial‐psychologicalfactorsinyoungpeople'svulnerabilitytoonlinerisks.Information,communicationandsociety’,10(5).pp.619‐643.<http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/4254/1/Taking_risks_wheandHelsper,Ellen(2007)‘Takingriskswhencommunicatingontheinternet:theroleofofflinesocial‐psychologicalfactorsinyoungpeople'svulnerabilitytoonlinerisks.Information,communicationandsociety’,10(5).pp.619‐643.<http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/4254/1/Taking_risks_when_communicating_on_the_internet_%28LSERO_version%29.pdf>n_communicating_on_the_internet_%28LSERO_version%29.pdf>,(Accessed26December2011). 221 boyd, dana, Berkman Center for Internet & Society, Harvard University, ‘Special Report: Kids, Data, and Internet Safety’, 30 March 2010, <http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/publications/2010/Kids_Data_Internet_Safety#cybermyths>, (Accessed 30 December 2011). 222 Freedom House, 2011, ‘Freedom on the Net – Indonesia’, <http://freedomhouse.org/images/File/FotN/Indonesia2011.pdf>, (Accessed 30 December 2011). 223 Anwar Hidayat, “Terbukti Menghina Lewat Facebook, Farah Divonis 2 Bulan Bui” [Proven to have insulted someone through Facebook, Farah sentenced to 2 months in Jail], Detik.com, February 16, 2010, http://www.detiknews.com/read/2010/02/16/134623/1300580/10/terbukti-menghina-lewat-facebook-farah-divonis-2-bulan-bui. 224 Unofficial translation of Child Protection Act (2002).

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“TheGovernmentinundertakingcareandmaintenanceshallstriveforandassistchildren,sochildrencan:

a. Participateb. Befreetoexpressopinionsandthinkaccordingtotheirconscienceandreligion;c. Befreetoreceiveinformationverballyorinwritingaccordingtotheirageanddevelopmental

stage;[…]”Inlinewiththefactthatfreedomofexpressionisnotanabsoluteright,225theUNCRCalsostatesthat“thefreedomto[...]expresswrittenandoralopinions,etc.shallberegulatedbylaw.”Littleinternationaldirectionexistsastowheretodrawthelinebetweenfreedomofexpressionanddefamationwhenexpressedonline.Nevertheless,guidancehasbeenprovidedwiththeUNReportoftheSpecialRapporteuronthePromotionandProtectionoftheRighttoFreedomofOpinionandExpressionissuedinApril2011whichemphasizesthatduetotheuniquecharacteristicsoftheInternet,regulationsorrestrictionswhichmaybedeemedlegitimateandproportionatefortraditionalmediaareoftennotsowithregardstotheInternet.Forexample,regardingthedefamationofindividuals’reputations,theRapporteurfurtheradvisedthatgiventheabilityoftheindividualconcernedtoexercisehis/herrightofreplyinstantlytorestoretheharmcaused,thetypesofsanctionsthatareappliedtoofflinedefamationmaybeunnecessaryordisproportionateforonlineactions.226InlightoftheUNReport,decisionstakentoprosecutetheinstigatoroftheonlinedefamatorystatementsinIndonesiarequirerevisiting.

Article28(1)oftheITElawaddsthatnopersonshould“knowinglyandwithoutauthoritydisseminatefalseandmisleadinginformationresultinginconsumerlossinelectronictransactions”and/or“knowinglyandwithoutauthoritydisseminateinformationaimedatinflictinghatredofdissensiononindividualsand/orcertaingroupsofcommunitybasedonethnicgroups,religions,racesandintergroups”.Finally,whileArticle29articulatesthat“anypersonwhoknowinglyandwithoutauthoritysendselectronicinformationand/orelectronicrecordsthatcontainviolentthreatsorscaresaimedpersonally”iscommittinganoffense.

MoreoverarchingisArticle40whichstatesthatthe“governmentshallprotectthepublicinterestfromanytypeofthreatasaresultofmisusingelectronicinformationandelectronictransactionsthatoffendspublicorder,inaccordancewithprovisionsofLawsandRegulations”.

AnotherimportantmodificationbroughtbytheITElawistheheavierpenaltyforcriminaldefamationthanissetoutinthepenalcode:anyoneconvictedofcommittingdefamationonlinemayfaceuptosixyearsinprisonandafineofupto1thousandmillionrupiah(US$111,000).227

225 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1948 226 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, Frank La Rue, <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/17session/A.HRC.17.27_en.pdf> (Accessed 30 December 2011) 227 Unofficial translation of the Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions.

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DiscussionsamonggovernmentagenciestoamendtheITElawtookplacebutnoconcreteactionhadbeentakenasofDecember2010.

Whilestillintheirdraftforms,twobillshavebeenthesubjectofmuchcontroversyinIndonesia.TheICTConvergenceBillannouncedasareplacementtotheTelecommunicationsLaw,BroadcastingLawandpossiblytheITELaw,suggeststhatICTproviders(potentiallyincludingwebsiteadministrators),bothcommercialandnon‐commercial,arerequiredtoobtainalicensefromtheMinistryofCommunicationandInformation,andaccordingtoitsArticle37arenotpermittedto“provideand/ordistributeservicesthatarecontrarytothepublicinterest,morality,safetyand/orpublicorder”.228Accordingtosomecritics,thevaguenessoftheseprovisionsplacerestrictionsonfreedomofexpressionaswellasfortheopensourcecommunityandexpansionofWiFihotspots.229230SeeminglypraisedbytheprivateactorsinIndonesia,thebillissaidtobe“absolutelynecessaryconsideringthattelecommunicationserviceshavebeguntocoincidewithbroadcastingindustry”.231

TheproposedMultimediaContentBill,ifimplemented,wouldrequireISPstofilterorotherwiseremovecertainmaterials.Thetypesofcontentlistedinclude,accordingtoitsArticle3,“pornographiccontent”,and“othercontentthataccordingtothelawiscategorizedascontentthatviolatesmorality”.Articles4and5addtothelistofforbiddencontent“gambling”,“contentthatincludesactionsthatdegradethephysical,intellectual,serviceconditionandabilityandphysicalandnon‐physicalaspectofanotherparty”.TheregulationcontinueswiththecreationofaMultimediaContentScreeningTeamconsistingof30people,halfofwhichwouldbefromthegovernmentwiththeotherbeingfromthecommunity‐describedasexpertsandprofessionals.Fearedbycritics232233asholdingessentiallythefunctionofan“Internetcensorshipbody”,theannouncementoftheregulationpromptedstrongoppositionandseveralinterventionsbytheMinisterofCommunicationandInformation,whoreassuredinFebruary2010thatheis“onewhobelievesinfightingforfreedomofthepress”.234AccordingtotheMinister,thedisseminationoftheBillwasmeanttobea“publictest”,addingthat“ifthisBilldoesindeedrestrict

228 Unofficial translation of Rancangan Undang Undang Republik Indonesia Tentang Konvergensi Telematika. 229 Cahyani, Firdaus, Yayasan Satudunia, ‘Kenapa Pembahasan RUU Konvergensi Telematika Harus Dihentikan?’, Brief Paper, <http://www.satudunia.net/system/files/Brief%20Paper-RUU%20Konvergensi.pdf>, (Accessed 28 December 2011). 230 Freedom House, 2011, ‘Freedom on the Net – Indonesia’, <http://freedomhouse.org/images/File/FotN/Indonesia2011.pdf>, (Accessed 30 December 2011). 231 Bisnis Indonesia, ‘RI Butuh Segera RUU Konvergensi Telematika’, 21 Juni 2011, <http://www.bisnis.com/articles/ri-butuh-segera-ruu-konvergensi-telematika>, (Accessed 28 December 2011). 232 A Facebook page for ‘SOS Internet Indonesia’, whose tagline is ‘Reject RPM Content, Let's Protect Freedom", has been 'liked' by 21,771 people. <http://www.facebook.com/tolakrpmkonten>, (Accessed 30 December 2011). 233 Nasution, Enda, ‘Selamat datang lembaga sensor internet Indonesia’, 12 February 2012, <http://politikana.com/baca/2010/02/12/selamat-datang-lembaga-sensor-internet-indonesia.html>, (Accessed 30 December 2011). 234 Khumaini, Anwar, ‘Tifatul: RPM Konten Multimedia Cooling Down Dulu’, detikNews, 24 February 2010, <http://us.detiknews.com/read/2010/02/24/122226/1305812/10/tifatul-rpm-konten-multimedia-cooling-down-dulu>, (Accessed 28 December 2011).

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freedomofthepress,automaticallyhe[I]willcrossitout”.235Asoftoday,theproposalhasstillnotbeenformallyterminatedandthefutureofthebillremainsunclear.

235 Kompas, ‘Tifatul Batalkan RPM Konten Multimedia’, 19 February 2010, <http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2010/02/19/08532990/Tifatul.Batalkan.RPM.Konten.Multimedia>, (Accessed 28 December 2011).

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GLOSSARY

Access:Theright,opportunity,and/ormeansoffinding,usingorretrievinginformation.(Source:InternationalStandardISO/TR15489‐1,Clause3.1).

Adolescent:Malesandfemalesaged10‐19years.(Source:UnitedNationsChildren‘sFund(UNICEF),‘TheStateoftheWorld‘sChildren2011’,<http://www.unicef.org/sowc2011/pdfs/SOWC‐2011‐Main‐Report_EN_02092011.pdf>).

Blog:AWebsitethatcontainsdatedtextentriesinreversechronologicalorderaboutatopic.Blogsservemanypurposesfrompersonaljournalstoonlinenewsletters.Writtenbyonepersonoragroupofcontributors,entriesmaycontaincommentary,observationsandopinionsaswellasimages,audio,video,andlinkstoothersites.(Source:PCMagazine,<http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=blog&i=38771,00.asp>).

Broadband:Atransmissioncapacitywithsufficientbandwidthtopermitcombinedprovisionofvoice,dataandvideo,withnolowerlimit.BroadbandisimplementedmainlythroughADSL,cablemodemorwirelessLAN(WLAN)services.(Source:ITU,<http://www.itu.int/wsis/tunis/newsroom/stats/The_Portable_Internet_2004.pdf>).

Childpornography:Childpornographymeansanyrepresentation,bywhatevermeans,ofachildengagedinrealorsimulatedexplicitsexualactivitiesoranyrepresentationofthesexualpartsofachildforprimarilysexualpurposes.However,sincetheWorldCongressIIIagainstSexualExploitationofChildrenandAdolescentsin2008,thereisagrowingconsensusthattheterminologychildpornographydoesnotadequatelycapturetheexploitationthatchildrensufferinthesesituations.Ratherthetermchildabuseimagesmakesmoreexplicittheabuseandexploitationthatistakingplace.Theterminologyusedinthisdocumenttorefertochildpornographyisthereforechildabuseimages.However,thereisnointernationallyagreeddefinitionofchildabuseimages(Source:Article2oftheOptionalProtocoltotheCRConthesaleofchildren,childprostitutionandchildpornography(OPSC)).

Cyberbullying:Willfulandrepeatedharminflictedthroughtheuseofcomputers,cellphones,andotherelectronicdevices(Source:CenterforInternationalDevelopmentatHarvardUniversity,InformationTechnologiesGroup,<http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/sites/cyber.law.harvard.edu/files/RAB_Lit_Review_121808_0.pdf>).

Cybercafe/Internetcafe:PublicestablishmentsofferingaccesstoInternet‐enabledterminalsinadditiontootherservices,suchasfoodanddrink.Alsoknownasan‘InternetCafé’.(Source:CenterforInternationalDevelopmentatHarvardUniversity,InformationTechnologiesGroup,<http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/readinessguide/glossary.htm>).

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DigitalBehaviour:Thewayinwhichanindividualbehavesandinteractswithotherusersonlineandingroups.

DigitalDivide:Thegapbetweenindividuals,households,businessesandgeographicareasatdifferentsocio‐economiclevelswithregardtotheiropportunitiestoaccessinformationandcommunicationstechnologies(ICTs)aswellastousetheInternet.(Source:Patricia,J.P,(2003)‘E‐government,E‐AseanTaskforce,UNDP‐APDIP’,<http://www.apdip.net/publications/iespprimers/eprimer‐egov.pdf>).

E‐commerce:Theconductoftransactionsbyelectronicmeans.(Source:CenterforInternationalDevelopmentatHarvardUniversity,InformationTechnologiesGroup,<http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/olds/ecommerce/introduction.html>).

Email(electronicmail):Acomputer‐basedformofsendingandreceivingmessagesviatheInternet.Usersmayhavetheirowne‐mailaccountoruseasharedaccount.(Source:CenterforInternationalDevelopmentatHarvardUniversity,InformationTechnologiesGroup,<http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/readinessguide/glossary.html>).

Grooming:―AschildrenincontactwithothersthroughICT,childrenmaybebullied,harassedorstalked(child―luring‖)and/orcoerced,trickedorpersuadedintomeetingstrangersoff‐line,being―groomed‖forinvolvementinsexualactivitiesand/orprovidingpersonalinformation.‖<CommitteeontheRightsoftheChildCRC/C/GC/13,Fifty‐sixthsession,Geneva,17January‐4February2011>

Informationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs):ThebuildingblocksoftheNetworkedWorld.ICTsincludetelecommunicationstechnologies,suchastelephony,cable,satelliteandradio,aswellasdigitaltechnologies,suchascomputers,informationnetworksandsoftware.(Source:CenterforInternationalDevelopmentatHarvardUniversity,InformationTechnologiesGroup,<http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/readinessguide/glossary.html>).

Internet:Alinkedglobalnetworkofcomputersinwhichusersatonecomputercangetinformationfromothercomputersinthenetwork.(Source:InternationalTelecommunicationUnion,<http://www.itu.int/wsis/tunis/newsroom/stats/The_Portable_Internet_2004.pdf>).

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Internet‐serviceproviders(ISPs):ISPsprovideend‐users,andotherISPs,accesstotheInternet.ISPsmayalsooffertheirownproprietarycontentandaccesstoonlineservicessuchase‐mail.(Source:ITU(2009),Glossary,AcronymsandAbbreviations,<http://www.itu.int/ITUD/ict/publications/wtdr_99/material/glossary.html>).

Internetusers:SubscriberswhopayforInternetaccess(dial‐up,leasedline,andfixedbroadband)andpeoplewhoaccesstotheworldwidecomputernetworkwithoutpayingdirectly,eitherasthememberofahousehold,orfromworkorschool.ThenumberofInternetuserswillalwaysbemuchlargerthanthenumberofsubscribers,typicallybyafactorof2–3indevelopedcountries,andmoreindevelopingcountries.(Source:InternationalTelecommunicationUnion,<http://www.itu.int/ITU‐D/ict>).

ITU:InternationalTelecommunicationUnion.TheUnitedNationsspecializedagencyforTelecommunications,<http://www.itu.int/>.

MaliciousSoftware:(Alsoknownasmalware)Anysoftwareprogrammedevelopedforthepurposeofdoingharmtoacomputersystemorcreatemischief.ThemostcommonareViruses,Worms,andSpyware.(Source:BusinessSoftwareAlliance,CyberSafetyGlossary,<http://www.bsacybersafety.com/threat/malware.cfm>).

MobilePhone:Portabletelephonedevicethatdoesnotrequiretheuseoflandlines.Mobilephonesutilizefrequenciestransmittedbycellulartowerstoconnectthecallsbetweentwodevices.Amobiletelephoneserviceprovidedbyanetworkofbasestations,eachofwhichcoversonegeographiccellwithinthetotalcellularsystemservicearea.(Source:ITU,<http://www.itu.int/wsis/tunis/newsroom/stats/The_Portable_Internet_2004.pdf>).

MobileInternet:InternetaccessedviamobiledevicessuchasmobilephonesthroughadvancedwirelesstechnologieslikeWi‐Fi,WiMax,IMT‐2000,ultrawidebandandradiofrequencyidentification(RFID)tags.Theseoperateatlong,mediumandshortranges.HandhelddevicesthatareInternetenabledcouldopenuptheinformationgatewayinanewandexcitingmarket,thatcouldhelpfurtherthegoalsofuniversalaccesswhilechallengingmanufacturersandserviceproviderstomeetdifferentusers’needsacrosstheglobe.(Source:ITU,<http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/publications/portableInternet/ExecSummFinal2.pdf>).

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NewsSites:Websitesprovidingnewsmaterial.PopularTurkishnewssitesinclude,Hurriyet,VatanandMilliyet.

Online:AresourcethatisavailableovertheInternetoranetwork.(Source:CenterforInternationalDevelopmentatHarvardUniversity,InformationTechnologiesGroup,<http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/readinessguide/glossary.html>).

OnlineContent:Informationthatisavailableonline.The"message"ratherthanthe“medium”.(Source:CenterforInternationalDevelopmentatHarvardUniversity,InformationTechnologiesGroup,<http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/readinessguide/glossary.html>).

Penetration:Ameasurementofaccesstotelecommunications,normallycalculatedbydividingthenumberofsubscriberstoaparticularservicebythepopulationandmultiplyingby100.(Source:ITU(2009),Glossary,AcronymsandAbbreviations,<http://www.itu.int/ITUD/ict/publications/wtdr_99/material/glossary.html>).

Platform:Ahardwareand/orsoftwarearchitecturethatservesasafoundationorbase.(Source:PCMagazine,<http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0percent2C2542percent2Ctpercent3Dplatform&ipercent3D49362percent2C00.asp>).

Population:Thenumberofallresidentsinacountry,regardlessoflegalstatusorcitizenship,excludingrefugeesnotpermanentlysettledinthecountryofasylum.Dataaremidyearestimates.(Source:WorldBank,‘CountryataGlancetechnicalNotes‘,<http://go.worldbank.org/WG51XXDWB0>).

Portal:referstothestartingpoint,oragatewaythroughwhichusersnavigatetheWorldWideWeb,gainingaccesstoawiderangeofresourcesandservices,suchase‐mail,forums,searchenginesandshoppingmalls.(Source:ITUGlossary1‐ITU(2009),Glossary,AcronymsandAbbreviations,<http://www.itu.int/ITUD/ict/publications/wtdr_99/material/glossary.html>).

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Rural:Theurban/ruralclassificationinIndonesiaisbasedonascorederivedfrommeasuresofpopulationdensity,percentageofhouseholdsinagriculture,andtheavailabilityofurbanfacilitiessuchasschools,markets,hospitals,tarredroad,andelectricity.(SeealsoUrban).(Source:BadanPusatStatistik,‘KlasifikasiPerkotaan/Perdesaan’,KamusSensus<http://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/kamus/index>,Accessed28December2011).

SearchEngine:Awebsitethatmaintainsanindexandshortsummariesofbillionsofpagesontheweb.ExampleincludesGoogle.(SourcePCMagazine,<http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=Web+search+engines&i=54339,00.asp>).

SMS:ShortMessageService.Aserviceavailableondigitalnetworks,typicallyenablingmessageswithupto160characterstobesentorreceivedviathemessagecentreofanetworkoperatortoasubscriber‘smobilephone.(Source:ITU,<http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/publications/portableInternet/ExecSummFinal2.pdf>).

SocialNetworkingSite:Aweb‐basedservicethatallowsindividualsto(1)constructapublicorsemi‐publicprofilewithinaboundedsystem,(2)articulatealistofotheruserswithwhomtheyshareaconnection,and(3)viewandtraversetheirlistofconnectionsandthosemadebyotherswithinthesystem.Thenatureandnomenclatureoftheseconnectionsmayvaryfromsitetosite.ExamplesIncludeFacebookandMyspace.(Source:Boyd,d.m.,&Ellison,N.B.(2007),‗SocialNetworkSites:Definition,history,andscholarship,<http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1/boyd.ellison.html>).

Software:Theprogrammesorother‘instructions’thatacomputerneedstoperformspecifictasks.Examplesofsoftwareincludewordprocessors,e‐mailclients,webbrowsers,videogames,spreadsheets,accountingtoolsandoperatingsystems.(Source:CenterforInternationalDevelopmentatHarvardUniversity,InformationTechnologiesGroup,<http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/readinessguide/glossary.html>).

Spam:Theabuseofelectronicmessagingsystemstosendunsolicitedbulkmessages,whicharegenerallyundesired.(Source:InternationalTelecommunicationUnion,<http://www.itu.int/ITU‐D/cyb/cybersecurity/spam.html>).

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TheConventionfortheProtectionofHumanRightsandFundamentalFreedoms(ECHR):Draftedin1950bythethennewlyformedCouncilofEurope,theConventionfortheProtectionofHumanRightsandFundamentalFreedoms(commonlyknownastheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights(ECHR)isaninternationaltreatytoprotecthumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsinEurope.(Source:TheConventionfortheProtectionofHumanRightsandFundamentalFreedoms,<http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/html/005.htm>).

TheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(CRC):TheConventionontheRightsoftheChildisthefirstlegallybindinginternationalinstrumenttoincorporatethefullrangeofhumanrights—civil,cultural,economic,politicalandsocialrights.In1989,worldleadersdecidedthatchildrenneededaspecialconventionjustforthembecausepeopleunder18yearsoldoftenneedspecialcareandprotectionthatadultsdonot.Theleadersalsowantedtomakesurethattheworldrecognizedthatchildrenhavehumanrightstoo.TheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(CRC,1989)guaranteestherighttoexpressviewsandtobeheard(Art.12),freedomofexpression,includingthefreedomtoseek,receiveandimpartinformation(Art.13),thefreedomofassociationandpeacefullyassembly,andtherighttoinformation(Art.17)amongstothers.(Source:TheConventionontheRightsoftheChild,<http://www.unicef.org/crc/>).

Urban:Theurban/ruralclassificationinIndonesiaisbasedonascorederivedfrommeasuresofpopulationdensity,percentageofhouseholdsinagriculture,andtheavailabilityofurbanfacilitiessuchasschools,markets,hospitals,tarredroad,andelectricity.(SeealsoRural).(Source:BadanPusatStatistik,‘KlasifikasiPerkotaan/Perdesaan’,KamusSensus,<http://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/kamus/index>,Accessed28December2011).

WorldWideWeb:ThecompletesetofelectronicdocumentsstoredoncomputersthatareconnectedovertheInternetandaremadeavailablebytheprotocolknownasHTTP.TheWorldWideWebmakesupalargepartoftheInternet.(Source:InternationalTelecommunicationUnion,<http://www.itu.int/ITU‐D/ict>).

Youth/YoungPeople:Malesandfemales,aged14‐24yearsold.(Source:UnitedNationsChildren‘sFund(UNICEF),TheStateoftheWorld‘sChildren2011,<http://www.unicef.org/sowc2011/pdfs/SOWC‐2011‐Main‐Report_EN_02092011.pdf>).

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