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Indian Removal
• Before the DST:– two strategies in response to American expansion• nativists vs. accommodationists
– neither approach could guarantee a place in American society
– shift in American policy• from civilization to removal• New kind of treaty: exchange of land rather than
cession of land
– division within Native American nations:• Opponents of removal• Those who saw relocation as inevitable
Acculturation
• By 1815 many NA in the southeast were raising cattle and pigs and planting crops.– Most as individual families – Some had African slaves
• A planter elite of mixed ancestry developed.• Christian missionaries operated schools.
The signs of ‘civilization’
• Farming: corn, cotton, and livestock• Infrastructure: roads, bridges, ferries• Government: National Council, written laws,
police force, law courts• Change in values: – Private property– Paternal authority
Sequoyah’s syllabary (1821)
‘talking leaves’
Cherokee Phoenix (1828- present)
Library of Congress / Cherokee Phoenix
University of Georgia
5 new states in the Mississippi Valley: Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), Missouri (1821)
Andrew Jackson
1824 portrait by Thomas Sully. Source: U.S. Senate
Indian Removal Act (1830)
• NA that cede land east of Mississippi will receive land west of Mississippi ‘forever’
• U.S. will pay NA for improvements they made to the land (houses, farms, etc.)
• U.S. will pay for cost of relocation plus first year in new location
• U.S. agents will protect Indians in their new homes
Elias Boudinot and John Ross
Library of CongressOklahoma Historical Society
• The Treaty Party (Boudinot) traveled west in 1837 to join the ‘Old Settlers’ already living north of the Arkansas River
• The National Party (Ross) was forced to move by the U.S. army in 1838
Trail of Tears
North Carolina Digital History
Nunna dual Tsuny – The trail where they cried
1942 painting by Robert Lindneux PBS.org (The Granger Collection).
Continued tensions
• Old Settlers, National Party, Treaty Party
• Boudinot and two other leaders of Treaty Party were killed for “treason” in 1839
• The 3 factions made peace in 1846
‘Indian Territory’