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A 'Failed' Unison or Conscious Differentiation: The Notion of 'Heterophony' in North IndianVocal PerformanceAuthor(s): John NapierSource: International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, Vol. 37, No. 1 (Jun., 2006

), pp. 85-108

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2/25

J.

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'HETEROPHONY'

IN

NORTH

INDIA,

IRASM

37

(2006)

1,

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85

A

'FAILED'

UNISON OR CONSCIOUS

DIFFERENTIATION:

THE

NOTION OF

'HETEROPHONY'

N

NORTHINDIAN

VOCALPERFORMANCE

JOHN

NAPIER

School

f

MusicandMusic Education

University f

New SouthWales

SYDNEY

052,

Australia

E-mail:

[email protected]

UDC:

78.021(540)

Original

Scientific

Paper

Izvorniznanstveni

rad

Received:

uly

29,

2005

Primljeno:

9.

srpnja

2005.

Accepted:

November

7,

2005

Prihvadeno:

.

studenog

2005.

Abstract

-

Resumei

This

paper

is

inspired

in

part by

the

ne-

cessity

for

examination of

the

cross-cultural

ap-

plication

of

musical

terminology,

and

suggests

that

such

examination

is

illuminating

of

both

our

understanding

and

of

our

own

interpretative

as-

sumptions.

I

examine the

term

>>heterophony


3/25

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(2006)

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85-108

An

example,

appropriate

o this

paper,

is

the use of the word

'drone' to

describe

the

pitch

complex

that

accompanies

all

instrumentaland vocal

music

in

the

Indian

classicaltraditions.This complex consists of a pitch that is consideredthe tonic,

the

note

approximately

either

700,

500 or 1100cents

higher,

and

an

upper

tonic.

It

is

traditionally

and most

commonly

played

on

the

tambfira,

n

unstopped

long-

necked lute.

The

inadequacy

of

the borrowedterm

'drone',

with

its

folksy implica-

tions,2

should

be

obvious,

and

has been

challenged,

n

reference o both the

com-

plex,

overtone rich sound

of the

tambfira

nd its

musicalfunction.The sound

pro-

duced

by

the

tambfira

epresents

ar more than

a

pitch-reference.

t

provides

both

a

filling-out

of the overall

textureof

performance,

nd a total

continuity

of sound.

In

a

fascinating

analysis

of the

aesthetics of the

tambtira,

Ashok

Ranade

empha-

sises the

importance

of both

these effects. He

argues

that to use word drone for

whathe calls the>>tanpurahenomenon< s to downgradea fundamental unction

in

Indian

music as also to

display unnecessary

terminological

poverty

combined

with

conceptual

confusion

(1997:41).

His

suggested

term for the sound

produced,

adhara-swara,

trongly

reinforces

the

effect of

>>filling-outymoreof an

atmosphericagent

than

a mere

supply

of one basic note etc.the

term

s best known

in

connection

with

bagpipesgoonj<

1997: 1).

One of

my

teachersuses the

expres-

sion

>tambfrad-druti


4/25

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87

ing

>how

she can test the tolerance

of her

own

language

for

assuming

unaccus-

tomed

forms>heterophonythe

erm

heterophony

as invented

to

distinguish many

world musical

styles

from

Western

polyphony.>cohesion

eing

left to

chance>uni-

sondmelodic

accompanimentx<

nd

sangat

have

already indulged

in

a

little translation

on the

one

hand,

introduceda

non-Western ermon the

other,

such

that

I

must

engage

in

description

that

is,

I

hope,

not too

verbose. Perform-

ances of North

Indian or

Hindustani

classical vocal

music involve three essential

elements: the vocal

solo,

a

rhythmic accompaniment,

and

the 'drone' or

tambu~a-


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5/25

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sruti

discussed above.

In

addition a fourth

element is

commonly

added,

a

melodic

accompaniment,

known

as

sangat,

played

on

either the

sairangL,

bowed,

fretless

lute, or the harmonium, an Indian modification of the free-reed, keyboard

aerophone

developed

in

Europe

during

the

nineteenth

century.4

In

the most

gen-

eral

terms,

the

melodic

accompanist

imitates or doubles

the

singer's

lines,

either

completely,

in

outline,

or with

some

degree

of

variation,

and continues

playing

whilst

the soloist is not

singing.

At

least three

perspectives

may

be taken on the

role of the

accompanist.

From

the

perspective

of

'what is

accompanied',

the ac-

companist

follows the soloist

at a close

interval,

echoing

what

the soloist

sings.

The

accompanist

may attempt

to

replicate every

nuance of the soloist's line. In

the

case of

faster or more

complex

improvised passages,

or

should the soloist

so

de-

mand,

the

accompanist may

follow in

outline

only.

From

the

perspective

of

'what

is heard', the melodic accompanist 'fills out' the sound, and fills in the spaces whilst

the

soloist

rests,

takes a drink

of

water,

or thinks of what

to do

next.

From a

third

perspective,

the

accompanist

shares a direct

role,

understood to be

perceived by

the

audience,

in

developing

the

raga.

The

accompanist may

also

suggest

new ideas

to the

soloist,

or even

fulfil

the rather more mundane task of

'keeping

the

soloist

in

tune'.

Scholarship

has

understood

and

represented sangat

in

various

ways.

Dis-

cussions

may emphasise

performance

as a

site,

feeding ultimately

an

antagonistic

interpretation

of

the dialectic between

performers.

Musical

authority

is

contested,

both

in

abstract and

as manifested

in

control of the

particular performance.

Bor

emphasises

an

overt

musical

rivalry,

sometimes

friendly,

sometimes

not,

that he

regards as a lost but loved practice, characterised by vocalists who used to recog-

nize the

accompanist

as an

artist of

equal

merit,

and

welcomed

a

lively

and

spon-

taneous

interplay

between voice and instrument

(1986-87: 112).

Alternatively, descriptions

of and

prescriptions

for this

practice may

focus on

music-sound,

emphasising

notions of

identity

and

simultaneity:

the

singer just

sings

on

...

seemingly

oblivious of his

accompanist

..

just

a

split

of a

second after

him,

within a

hair breath's nterval of

time,

the

instrument s made to

produce

the same identical

notes,

in

the same

speed,

and

with

the same embellish-

ments

(SAHUKAR

n.d.:

64).

He can play exactly the same thing as you, at exactly the same time (Gunendra

MUKHERJEE,

nterview,

1996)

In

a similar

fashion,

accounts

may emphasise generative

or

textural

aspects:

to

complement

the vocal

line

of the

soloist,

by playing

in

heterophony

a

split

second

behind as the soloist

improvises,by repeating

earlier

phrases

during longer

breaks,

should

the soloist so desire

(WADE

1984:

33).

4

The

term

may

also

apply

to the

rhythmicaccompaniment.

There are other

possible

melodic

accompaniments,

ut these are the

main

two.




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Neuman

similarly

emphasises

the

generative, calling

the

accompaniment

>>heterophonica


7/25

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standing,

a

vague

and

non-committal

expression

s useful

However,

the

notion of

the

abstract xistence of

a

melody

on

the

one

hand,

and

the

presentation

of

a

'true'

versionsimultaneouslywith its variationon theother are issues of someimport n

the

discussion

of

sangat.

Unlike those later

writers

who

have aimed for

concise

description

of

effect,

Sachs addresses

heterophony

as

a

process,

albeit

inadequately

and

inconsistently.7

He first

states

that

from the

time of

Stumpf's

(1901)

reintroduction

of the

term,

it

has stood for

>the

simultaneous

appearance

of a

theme

in

two or more

voice

parts

with a

freedom that the

nature of

the

competing

voices or

instrumentsand

the

players'

fancy might

prompt>compet-

ing>unconscious

heterophonyu

is

perceived:

>the

performers

as well

as

the listeners

accept

it as

homophonicprofessional


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91

and

pure

intonation

...

Apt

to detract from the sacred words

and

the mood

of

devotion,

they

seem

irrelevantor even

undesirablebadzunison,

justified

on the

grounds

of

contingency,

and,

would

seem,

on the

naivety

of its

practitioners.

Compare

this to Bake

writing

of melodic

accompaniment

n Indian

folk music:

The

singer

or

person ccompanyinglaysalong

with

thevoice.

Owing

o the

free

and

indispensable

ariations,

owever,

he

accompanistsually

omes

ome

beatsbehind

the

voice,

or arrives ooner

t

theendof each

period.

Theeffect s to

destroy

not

only

the

melody,

butalsothemusical

nderstanding

f

player

ndhearer

..

The

result s

a

torture

nly

fullyappreciated

y

thosewho have

undergone

t

(1931: 3-4).

Dichotomouscategorieshave a dangeroustendencyto multiply:we may be

aware

of

>>anarchic>inchoate

owling>music,

o be

personally nvolving

and

socially

valuable,

must

be 'out of

time' and 'out

of tune'<

(1994:96).

Nevertheless,

though

most

of the

orchestra

were

certainly

conscious of the

supposedly

>>unconscious

eterophony<

produced,

it

can

hardly

be said to have been an

>>intentional

nrichment~

of

which

Sachs writes

in

his

description

of

>conscioust

heterophony.

The

orchestrahad

in

fact

produced

an

>>unintentional

nrichmentconscious

eterophony>old

ay< hymn

singing.




9/25

92

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attractiveness

of

difference

s

important.

However,

the

jury

is

foreverout as

to

the

irrelevance

of

>whetheror

not

coincidentvariation eads to

dissonances

and

grat-

ing frictionsDissonancesthe

ur-

rent

concept

of

heterophony

collapses

when

and

where its freedom and

naivety

are

subjected

o the criticalcontrol of

vertical

awarenessconsciouse

heterophony,

Sachs

again

gets

into

difficulty.

Switching

to

a

perceptual

orientation,

he writes that

heterophony

is

>>seemingly

anarchicthe

wilful

maladjustment

of similar melodic lines has often

a

particular

charm

n

its

blissful

impression

of

personal

freedom

against

mechanis-

tic

bondageEuropean

otated

music

appropriating

mprovised

formsw.

He

closes

with the disclaimer that

>Notated or

not,

such forms

are

heterophonic

as

long

as

they

derive

from

improvisation

and

preserve

its

unmis-

takeablespiritf>spirit

f

generationindividual

people,

who in

the

singing

fellowship

[sic]

reserve

he

freedom o bear

witness to theirrelation o

God

on a

personal

basis


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93

Cultivationof

precision,

at

least

hypothetically

and

intellectually,

n

discourse

about

music,

objectification

f

it

as

a

goal,

predisposes

certain

ways

of

discussing

such relationships. These enforce the pejorative, invoking 'difference' and

'otherness'.The standarddefinitions

ummarise

musicaleffect

n

these

terms,

rather

than

in

terms of

sameness and

proximity,

whereas

perception

may

just

run

in

the

other direction.

Sachs elevates 'difference'

n

effect to

a

symbolic

or

homologic

level,

but

cannot

escape

a

logocentric

predicament

n

the

description

of

such

dif-

ference."

Though

he writes of

>>cultivated<

nd

>>uncultivated<

eterophonies,

Sachs

n

actuality

overlooks

the

procedural

nature

of 'difference'and

'otherness',

and

gives

us two

definitions

that

focus on the

perceptual,

or what he assertsto be

the

percep-

tual.

Brinner

maintains

that the term

heterophony

s too broad

and

>ignores

the

fundamental nteractivedifferencebetween a number of distinctways of making

musicthe

simultaneousvariationof the same

melodysimultaneousvariation< n the absent

entities

of

these

melodic

frag-

ments.

At the

same

time,

if

the

authority

of the soloist

is

accepted,

and their line

is

understoodas

'prime',

t

may

be

interpreted

s the 'normal' ersion

presented

at the

same time

as one

or more

accompanying

oices

actuallypresent

the

heterophony'.

11

Cooke ares ittlebetter his

with

his distinction etween>accidental<

nd

>deliberate<

1980,

37).




11/25

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I will turn

now

to

some more concrete

examples

of the

relationship

between a

sung

line and

its

instrumental

angat.

As

part

of a

larger

study

of

sangat

NAPIER

2001),I investigated in some detail the notions of

>>as

oon as possibleas

faithfully

as

possible


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95

The

average

distance

ranged

from 686 milliseconds

(Rajurkar-Thatte)

o

1565

milliseconds

(Pandit-Ghosh).

This

might

suggest

that

an

easy judgement

about

the relativeskill of the two accompanistsshould be made. However, Ghosh has

recounted his decision

to

replicate

at

a

greater

distance

(>>about

second or

two0),

at the

suggestion

of

a

soloist

(interview,

1997).

In this

instance,

a

particular

olo-

ist's

preferenceappears

to

have

been

adopted

as

an

accompanist'sgeneral

style.

Though

Ghosh

says

that he has

intentionally

ncreased

his

following

distance,

the

other

averages

are

interesting:

This

suggests

the

possibility

that,

originally,

Ghosh

may

have followed at a

very

close

interval,

or that his

following

distance

is not

actually unusually great.

In

a theoretical

articleentitled

>>Improvisation:

ethods and

ModelsAs

quickly

as

possible<

is

not a

primarygoal.

Though

delay

is the

norm,

there are

places,

frequently involving

the move

to a

clear

goal,

where soloist

and

accompanist

are

in

near

simultaneity.

The

most

common of

these is the

mukhda,

short

phrase,

drawn from a

pre-extant compo-

sition,

which

acts as

a

cadence

marker

at

the

end of

one

or

more time

cycles.

An

entire

known

composition may

be

performed

in

near

simultaneity,

as

may

the

final

phrase

of a

tihdif:

thrice

iterated

phrase, usually

cadential

in

quality.

Other

places may

be

less

predictable,

such as the climactic movement to

the

upper

tonic,

or the

repetition

of a

phrase.

All of these

exemplify

a conscious

manipula-

tion of the

following

distance,

and

involve

substantially reducing

the

following

distance under

specific

circumstances.The notion of

>as soon as

possibled

might

thus be

invoked,

not as a

'general

rule of

accompaniment',

but

as

an

expressive

exception.

Furthermore,

moments of

near-simultaneity

noted

above

suggest

one form of

departure

rom

>faithful<

eplication,

n

that

the

accompanist

must

vary

the

rhythm.

This

variation

s more

widespread

than

such

circumstances

equire,

ince

in

five of

the six

performances,

the

greatest

number

(though

not

always

a

plurality)

of

rep-




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licationsare

measurably

horter han the

phrases

hey

reproduce.14

n

other

words,

though

accompanists

do

not commencetheir

phrases

as soon as

possible,

they

are

neverthelessengaged in a constantprocessof 'catchingup' with the soloist.I will

offer a few

examples.

Phrases

may

be

shortened

by simply speeding

them

up,

or

by

some

process

of

simplification

or elision.

Example

1:

Shortening

of

following

phrases

-

1

16:14

3 24:5

:,v

11 1

F4,

s"f-

3---1

ssaongi

LmIs'a p

1w

-IfPC0t

m m n

p l W f i a t o n

m u r k i

s i m p f i f i e d

s p e

The

above

examples,

from

Sadolikar-Kunte,

emonstrate

both

rhythmic

sim-

plification

and accelerationof

the

phrase.

In

the first

example,

a six note

phrase

lasting

an entire beat is

replicated by

a

single

rapid

mfnd

(slide).

In the

second,

Kunte

halves the value

of

every

note,

and either attenuates

or omits

the

upper

ornamentation.

Three

examples

from LK Pandit-Ghosh how

further

approaches

o shorten-

ing

the

phrase,

and

thus

departure

romthe

model

of

'faithful'or

exact

replication.

In

the

first,

Ghosh

anticipates

Pandit's

trajectory,

hereby

arriving

on sa

(C)

very

soon after the

singer.

In

phrase

16B,

he

responds

more

quickly

to

each

(sequential)

sub-phrase,reacts to replicate he leap mi-ri,(F#-Db) hen elides directlyto ni (B)

an

eighth

of a beat afterthe

singer.

The

third

example

arguably

represents

a case

of

necessity.

Pandit

interrupts

Ghosh's

sawal-jawab

'question-answer')

ype

replica-

tion

of

the

previous

phrase. Consequently,

Ghosh's

replication

commences

very

late. Ghosh

responds

by eliding

the

phrase

substantially,

esponding

clearly

to the

mfnd

from

ni to

m~.

14

The

percentage

of

shorter

phrases

ranged

from 24%

Girija

DeviMishra)

to

85%

Sadolikar-

Kunte).




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Example

2:

Shortening

of

following

phrases

- 2

11:14

11B

9'21

r

r3g

I I

1,

arangi

anticipatesrajectory:

16:6

16B

shortens a

5r31

5

1

beat

0.77 beats

elided

v

3-

0.75beats

0.375beats

25:7

25C

elides

r6

6

-3--

7

3

1

sj

of

precedinghrase

abandons

1.375

beats

.625beats




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Authority

nd

Difference

Though the shorteningrecounted above exhibitsa degree of differentiation

between

the

lines of

soloist

and

accompanist,

ts rationale

s

aesthetic.It

thus

does

not contradict that

paradigm

of

sangat,

and thus of

any heterophony

that

may

ensue,

which

is

predicated

on

the

absolute

authority

of

the

soloist over the accom-

panist.

This

authority

s most

clearly

manifest

in

the

willingness

of

accompanists

to

attempt

o

unexceptionally

and

accurately

eproduce

he

soloist's

melody.

There

are other

types

of

departure,

ones that

may

involve

challenges

to

the soloist's

mu-

sical

authority,

that

may

be more subtle

than those

lauded

by

Bor.Neuman's so-

ciological

work on traditional

specialisation

and

hierarchy

examines

an

ongoing,

often

covert musical

rivalry

between soloist

and

accompanist

1977,

1980:

Chapter

4). This

rivalry

is

only

partially

restrainedboth

by

the musical convention

encap-

sulated

within his

definition

of

accompaniment,

hat

of

the

hegemony

of the solo-

ist,

and

the

social

hierarchy

which

long

supported

such

hegemony,

the

traditional

recruitment

of

specialist

soloists

and

accompanists

from

distinct,

hierarchically

ranked

social

groups.

If,

through

the

breakdown

of such

specialization,15

uthor-

ity

is

not

automaticallyunderpinned

by

social

hierarchy,

t

is

necessary,

at least

at

the

level

of discourse

and

probably

n

practice,

hat

different

concepts

and

proc-

esses are

involved.

Although

soloists

hold

specific

musical

authority

over

decision

making,

both

they

and

accompanists

may

claim

a

general

musical

authority

based

on what in Englishlanguagediscourseis often called 'seniority'.In addition,the

musical

hegemony

of

the

soloist,

frequently

rhetorically

buttressed

by

a sense of

seniority,

has been reinforced

practically

by

an

economic

one:

soloists

select,

en-

gage,

and

frequently

pay

their

own

accompanists.

The

accompanist

cannot

ightly

force

his

or her mode

of

accompaniment

on the

soloist:

n addition

to the immedi-

ate

onstage

reprimand

hat this

might

invite,

it

would also risk

the

far more drastic

long-term

sanction of

unemployment.

Particularly

onfident

accompanists,

or

ac-

companists

not

greatly

interested

in

accompanying

a

specific

soloist

thereafter,

might play

more>>as

they

wish


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99

A

common

wisdom

is

that

saraigfyas

will

repeat

mistakes made

by

the solo-

ist.

This

may

be

interpreted

as

complimentary

of the

saraligiyas

kill,

(following

so

accurately

hat he

plays

a

note or

phrase

that is in violation of the

rag),

or

deroga-

tory

(so

ignorant

of

the

rag

that

they reproduce

the

obvious flaw

in

the soloist's

performance).

The

accompanist,

f

aware of the

mistake,

must

immediately

decide

how to deal with it: an audible

repetition

of the

error

might

draw the audiences

attention

to

it,

while a correctionof it

might

be

interpreted

as

upstaging.

Similarly,

much

attention has been

given

to

the

possibility

that the

accompanistmight

chal-

lenge

the soloists'

authority,

by departing

from

straightforward eplication

n

a

number

of

ways,

most

particularly

by

playing

higher pitches,

faster

notes,

and

more

emphatic

articulation,

hus

appropriating

he

developmental trajectory

of

the

performance

NAPIER

2001,

under

review).

These are

complex

and subtle is-

sues.

In

that

they

represent

a

potentially

wilful

usurpation

of

authority, they

fall

beyond

the

scope

of this

paper.

Variation

may

be more 'neutral'and

microscopic:

articulation

may

be varied

by

the

accompanist,

ornaments

reproduced

as

more substantial

notes,

slides

as

discrete

notes,

discrete notes as slides. Subtle inflections of the

rhythm

may

be

regularised,

and vice

versa. On

the other

hand,

variation

may

be

quite

obvious.

Complex

vocal lines

might

be

simplifiedby

the

accompanist.

Though

Sorrell

1980:

60)

attempted

to characterise his as a

negative

feature of harmonium

players,

it

may

occur

regardless

of the instrument.

Conversely,

elaborate

replication

on

har-

monium has been

suggested by

several

Calcuttabased harmonium

players

as

a

solution to the

instrument's

two most

obvious

limitations,

the

inability

to

play

mfnds slides)and the problemof tuning.The elaborationof some players replica-

tion extends

far

beyond

the

demands

of such

contingencies,

and offers evidence

that there

is

a

particular

>>Calcutta

style<

of

playing

the

harmonium.'6

I will

offer one

example

from

Amir

Khan-Ghosh.

Jyan

PrakashGhosh's ac-

companying

style

is

highly

elaborate,

often

moving

to

an

almost

ndependent

evel

of

polyphony.

Elaboration eaches

a

peak

in twart

even. The

first

stave

of the fol-

lowing

notation

shows

voice,

the second

the

harmonium.The

third

shows the har-

monium

line

stripped

to the barest

possible replication:

all elaboration

and

inter-

vening

solos have

been

removed,

leaving

only

those

notes

that

have been

sung.

16

The

reports

of

accompanists,

itherunsolicitedor in

response

o direct

questioning,

remain he

main

data for

the difficultdetermination f

'intent'.

This

has been touchedon

in

the

summary

of

Sachs,

should be

evident from the discussion

of melodic

accompaniment.

No

amountor detail of notationor

aural

analysis

of

performances

an

actuallyunpackage

intent'

or

'motivation'.The

difficulty

n dem-

onstrating

how

such 'intent'

might

translate nto sound

is

clearly

shown

by

Lomax's

multiple

defini-

tions.

>In

heterophony

he voices

sing

the same

melody,

but

out

of

step

with

each other

... a

diffuse

organization

of

parts... deliberately

sung]

out

of

step

with

each

other .. a

carefully

plannedexample

of

diffuse co-ordination<

1976:

Tape

1B).

Of

course,

f

the

temporal

relationship

between

parts

(and

Lomax

ocuses

only

on

this,

eaving

alone

ssues

of

ornamentation,

nflection

tc)

s

>>carefully

lanned>a

lan-

less

plan<

(1976:

Tape

1A).




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Example

3:

Jnan

Prakash

Ghosh's

elaboration

.

7'32




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101

It

is

apparent

from the

examples

offered

and from further

analysis

that ac-

companiment

is not characterised

by

an

automated,

unexceptionable

replication

of

the

voice,

achieved

in the

shortest

possible

time.

There

are

many

variables

hat

help to determinethedistance at whichanaccompanist ollows, and there s much

variation within

a

performance.

The

singer's

style,

the

accompanist's

acquaint-

ance with

that

style,

the nature

of

particular hrases,

he

placement

of

those

phrases

within

the

performance,

he

accompanist's

own

style

and

background,

and

'at the

moment' choices would

all

seem to influence the

following

distance,

how

long

the

accompanist

waits,

and

when

and

whether

their

replication

has a

demonstrable

relationship

to

the

underlying

beat

(see

NAPIER

2002).

The

notion of 'as

accurately

as

possible',

if

relevant,

may

be one

that is ef-

fected

with a

wide

degree

of

subjectivity

on

the

part

of

accompanists.Many

of

the

distinctive differencesbetween voice

and

accompaniment

eem

contingent

on the

limitationsof the instrument.Forothers,no other reasonshould be guessed than

that the

accompanist

iked

it,

or

even

just

did

it,

that

way.

That all of these

accom-

panists

are considered

'good'

is evidence that

this level

of

difference

(or

sameness)

remains

within the notions of

sangat.

The notions

of

as

quickly

and as

accurately

as

possible,

a

simple

way

of

introducing

or

summarisingsangat,

do not do

justice

to

the

richness,

the

flexibility

and the

multiply

determined

'messiness',

to

borrow

Clifford

Geertz's

term,

that

go

to make

up

this

practice. ronically,

he

interpreta-

tive

view of

accompaniment

which

focuses

on accurate

replication

see

above),

is

the one

most

likely

therefore

to

note the

differences,

unintentionalor

otherwise,

that

ensue,

and

give

it the

quality

we call

heterophonic.




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Sangat,GoingTogether,

Sith',

and

'One-Sound'

In

discussing accompaniment,

Indian

musicians

may

make

little

or no dis-

tinction

between

the words

sangat

and sith.

>>Accompaniment:

The word

conveys

a

sense

of

togetherness

as well.

This

is

also

referred

to

as

sangat-saath


20/25

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103

however from intuitive

comparison

o

an

innately

restrictivenotion

of a

European

'unison'.

Therewould

appear

to

be some

reasonablecorrelation t a semantic evel

of sathand sangat, 'so-ness'and 'to go together',to unison, 'to sound as one',but

this

correlationseemed

to

fall

down in

practice.

However,

closer attention

to

the

way

the word

'unison'

is used

in

European

discourse is

telling.

The

definition in

Grove Online

accepts

octave

equivalence,

or

example.

Thesimultaneousxecution

f one

polyphonic

artby

more

han

one

performer

r

performing roup(e.g.

the firstviolin

section

of

an

orchestra),

itherat

exactly

he

same

pitch

or

at

the

nterval f an

octave,

double

octave tc.

(RUSHTON

005)

Harwood's notion of

chunking,

originallyapplied

to 'melodic

fission',

might

be evoked here

(1976:526):

how

many

octave

displacementsmight

occur

before

the

listener

splits

the

texture into

two

layers?

In

discourse,

other factors such as

articulation

are

frequently

overlooked. It would be

hypotheticallypossible

to find

the

simultaneous

performance

of

the

opening

of the

Adagio

of Mahler's

irst

sym-

phony

described as

a

unison,

even

if

the double bass were doubled

by

the

xylo-

phone, played

with sforzandi.

More

realistically,

hough

less

obviously,

the

uni-

son of an

orchestral

tring

section draws

much

of its

quality

from those

things

that

are not 'in

unison': the

discrepancies

of

timbre,

tuning,

vibrato and

timing

be-

tween the

various instruments.

Thinking

ess

minutely,

a well-used

textbook,

re-

ferring

o

prescriptively

notated

discrepancies

of articulation

n

an orchestral

uni-

son' by d'Indy,

writes of

>an

imaginative

undercurrentof

activityadding

subtle

flavour to the

otherwise

single-minded

statement<

(ADLER

1989:

461).

I

would

not be

surprised

if

such a

description

were

given

to

sangat.

The notion

of 'one

sound',

'going together'

as

opposed

to

walking

rather

dif-

ferently

and a little

bit

behind,

is

of

course

culturally

bound,

but

I

propose

that

what is heard in

these

performances

may

be no

less 'the same

thing

at the same

time'

as

d'Indy's

tutti,

or

a

string

orchestral

ection:

all

three

can

be dissected into

component

parts, delays

and

discrepancies.

All

three

may equally

be

experi-

enced as a

unity.

I am not

suggesting

that

delay

and difference are unheard or

unnoticed,

it

is, however,

>>going

ogether


21/25

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then

these

might feasibly

be

achieved

by

reverberation,

lectronic

delay,

and

a

supporting

singer,

active

whilst the soloist

rests. But there are

good

reasons

why

the use of a liberalapplicationof artificial everberation,orexample, s inadequate,

why

the role

of

the

supporting

singer

shows

no

sign

of

increasing

o

the

constancy

of

the

melodic

accompaniment,

and

why

Modak's

automated

accompanying

de-

vice

(a

crude

delay

unit),

lies

on the shelf.19

The

possibility

of

using

artificial

echo

is

largely

unexplored:

an

aestheticrationale

may

be

found

in

the tension

between

following

at

a distance and

near-simultaneity.

The sudden

move

from

delayed

replication

to

the

coterminous

arrival

of voice and

melodic

and

rhythmic

accom-

paniment

at

the

snim,

he

first

beat of a

new

time

cycle,

is intended to

provide

a

cadential

sense,

and

generally

evokes

audience satisfaction.But I think that

some-

thing

more

than

aesthetics

s

implicated

n the

preference

or

sangat.

n

as

much

as

there aresocial structuresand economicrelationships hat impel towardsa near-

identity

of

the lines

of

soloist and

accompanist,

there

are

social attitudes

which

may

contribute o their

partial

ndependence.

Thus,

n

a classic

division-of-labour,

aesthetic

qualities

that could

feasibly

be created

by

electronicenhancementof the

voice alone

are reinforced

through

reliance

on

a differentiated

voice.

Qureshi

has

pointed

out

that

n

Indian

cultures,

greaterprestige

accrues o

a

person

who,

though

capable

of

performing

a

particular

unction

for

themselves,

takes on the role

of

patron,

and

engages

the

service

of another

(2000:

31).

Thus it

may

be seen

that

the

practice

of

accompaniment,

call

it

'heterophonic'

or

not,

is

sustained

by

a tension

between

social

structureand

economic

relationships

on the

one

hand,

social atti-

tude on the other.Theformer,by determiningthe subordinationof accompanist

to

soloist,

pulls

the

sangat

owards

identity

with the

replicated

ine. At the same

time,

the

latter demands

the

patronage

of a

performer

whose

product

is demon-

strably

ndividualised.

The

overarching

mpression

s of

complementarity

nd

rap-

prochement.

Unlike the

corollary

of

a

model

of

interpretation

hat

emphasises

ex-

actness as an

expectation,

thus

leading

to a

potentially negative

focus on differ-

ence,

and the

evocation

of the

term

'heterophony',

he term

sangat

mphasises

this

flexible

rapprochement

of

the two

or more

lines,

what

they

share

in

common,

as

much as their

points

of difference. t

is

not a

heterophonyaspiring

to the condition

of a

unison.

Rather

would

suggest

that

it

is a

texture

hat

may

be heard

>flexiblyu:

as a unison, as a heterophonyor as polyphony.

This

flexibilitymay

be

thought

of as

a

continuum

n

'ways

of

hearing'.

At one

end

of the

continuum,

a traditionalnotion

of

a

unison

emphasises hearing

those

features

in

common or in

proximity

between

two or

more

melodic

lines.

In

heterophony

the reverse is to be heard. It

may

be

possible

to

not

only

subsume

19

The >>automatic

ccompanist


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105

both

terms

within

the

ideal of

sangat,

but to reverse the

way

in which

they

are

traditionally

heard,

hearing

in

heterophony

common

features,

in unison

discrep-

ancies. Keil's >>out f tuneness< and >>out f timeness< emphasises the participa-

tory,

the

procedural

and

the textural.

(Perhaps)

without

intending

it,

Keil,

in

writ-

ing

of

unisons,

has written the

most

sympathetic

text on

heterophony.

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Samuel. 1989.

The

Studyof

Orchestration.

ew York:Norton.

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NDIA,

RASM7

(2006)

,

85-108

Safetak

>NEUSPJELIHETEROFONIJE<

VOKALNOM ZVODILAjTVU

JEVERNENDIJE

Ovaj

e

tekst

djelomice

nadahnut

potrebom

za

ispitivanjem

medukulturalnih

rimjena

glazbene terminologije.

Nakon

kratkog

navodenjaprimjera

a

takve

probleme spitivanjem

primjene

termina

'drone'

(trubanj) ugerira

se da takvo

ispitivanje

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osvijetliti

nate

razumijevanje

lastitih

interpretativnih

retpostavki.

Ispituje

e

termin

heterofonija'

ako

op4enito

ako

u

uporabi

pri opisivanjumelodijske

pratnje,

li

sangata,

u

sjevernoindijskoj okalnojglazbi.

Prvo se donosi

uvid u

rane

opise

heterofonijespitivanjem

ekih

rajnih retpostavki.

ada e

preciznije

sredotocuje

a

sangat,

ispituju6i

nekoliko razlikovnih

otaka

izmedu solistove

melodije pratefeg

sloja

za

koji

se

ka2e da predstavljanjegov odjek('eho').Naglagavase va2nostrazumijevanja lazbenih

procesa

te

estetiCkih

druStveno-glazbenih

imbenika

kojipoma2u

da se odredi

sangat koji

su

u

njemu

predstavljeni.Sugerira

se da tradicionalne

hijerarhijske

ruStvene

strukture

kojeodreduju

odnose medu

izvoditeljima

moderne

analogije

akvihstruktura rge

pritisak

na

stvaranjeglazbene

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stodobno,

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strane

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te tako

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neizbje2ni tupanj

neslaganja.

Navode

se

argumenti

da

vrijednostheterofonije

kao termina eti

u

njegovojpostojanoj

polivalentnosti

i

njegovojnepreciznosti,pa

da se

glazbu

o

kojoj

e

ovdje

radi mo2e

slugati

leksibilno:

kao

teksturu

koja e poseban

tip unisonog,

ili

polifonija,

li

heterofonija.

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