PROJECT REPORT

ON

INCREASE IN PARTICULATE MATTER IN

ATMOSPHERE DUE TO FIREWORKS

AND CONSEQUENT EFFECT ON

HUMAN HEALTH:

LITERATURE REVIEW

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY

DR. SIBY JOHN ABHISHEK KOUL

PROFESSOR 13201001

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGG M.E ENVIRONMENTAL ENGG

List of Contents

Topic Page No.

1. Introduction .........................................................................1

2. Particulate Matter.................................................................2

3. Monitoring Particulate Concentration...................................3

3.1 Filter based Gravimetric Samplers...................................3

3.2 TEQM Analysers...............................................................3

3.3 Optical Analysers..............................................................4

3.4 Personal Samplers............................................................4

3.5 Measurement of PM2.5 concentrations............................4

4. Case Studies...........................................................................5

5. Health Effects.........................................................................9

References............................................................................10

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1. Introduction

Fireworks have emerged as one of the ways devised by the people of different

countries to express their feelings. People burn crackers on different occasions to

express their happiness. Deepawali, the festival of lights, is celebrated with

enthusiasm all over India, every year. Bursting of Crackers is one of the prominent

activities of Deepawali. Also, In India, it has become a practice of celebrating various

functions/occasions (marriage ceremony, birthday parties, New Year celebration) by

burning fireworks. Unlike western countries (Austria, Italy, Germany, and United

States etc.) where large fireworks displays are arranged at one place, home fireworks

displays are allowed in India, without any prior permission.

These fireworks emit trace gases and particulate matters (PM) including metals into

the atmosphere, which causes generation of dense clouds of smoke, concentration

of which depends on the composition of sparklers and crackers. Generally crackers

contains potassium nitrate, charcoal, sulphur, potassium and trace elements, which

severely affects environment as well as human health. Levels of PM10 and PM2.5

(particulates with diameters less than 10 μm and 2.5 μm respectively) are found to

increase to large extent during these occasions.

Various studies have been conducted in different parts of our country about air

quality during such fireworks display, especially in the months of October and

November, when Deepawali festival is being celebrated. These studies usually

determine the concentration of PM, SOx, NOx and trace metals before and after the

festival. It has been that reported that their concentration is usually increased by 4 to

6 times than any normal day concentration.

Various studies on air pollution effects on health have indicated a strong relationship

between air pollutant concentrations and observed health effects. There is also

strong evidence that fine particles (PM < 2.5 μm) play an important role in the

observed health effects. Coarse particles (2.5 μm < PM < 10 μm) are effectively

removed in the upper part of respiratory track while fine particles (PM < 2.5μm) are

deposited on the bronchi walls in the bronchi tree. Particles smaller than 0.1μm

experiences Brownian Motion as a result of which they get collected in the bronchi.

However, particles lying between 0.1 -1 μm are too large for Brownian Motion and

too small to be trapped in the upper part of the trachea. Hence, they get deposited

in the lungs, thus increasing airway resistance.

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2. Particulate Matter

Particulate Matter is a widespread air pollutant, consisting of a mixture of solid and

liquid particles suspended in the air. Commonly used indicators describing PM that

are relevant to health refer to the mass concentration of particles with a diameter of

less than 10 μm (PM10) and of particles with a diameter of less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5).

PM2.5, often called fine PM, also comprises ultrafine particles having a diameter of

less than 0.1 μm. In most locations in Europe, PM2.5 constitutes 50–70% of PM10.

PM between 0.1 μm and 1 μm in diameter can remain in the atmosphere for days or

weeks and thus be subject to long-range transboundary transport in the air.

PM is a mixture with physical and chemical characteristics varying by location.

Common chemical constituents of PM include sulphates, nitrates, ammonium, other

inorganic ions such as ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and chloride,

organic and elemental carbon, crustal material, particle-bound water, metals

(including cadmium, copper, nickel, vanadium and zinc) and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAH). In addition, biological components such as allergens and

microbial compounds are found in PM.

Particles can either be directly emitted into the air (primary PM) or be formed in the

atmosphere from gaseous precursors such as sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen,

ammonia and non-methane volatile organic compounds (secondary particles).

Primary PM and the precursor gases can have both man-made (anthropogenic) and

natural (non-anthropogenic) sources.

Anthropogenic sources include combustion engines (both diesel and petrol), solid-

fuel (coal, lignite, heavy oil and biomass) combustion for energy production in

households and industry, other industrial activities (building, mining, manufacture of

cement, ceramic and bricks, and smelting), and erosion of the pavement by road

traffic and abrasion of brakes and tyres. Agriculture is the main source of

ammonium.

Secondary particles are formed in the air through chemical reactions of gaseous

pollutants. They are products of atmospheric transformation of nitrogen oxides

(mainly emitted by traffic and some industrial processes) and sulphur dioxide

resulting from the combustion of sulphur-containing fuels. Secondary particles are

mostly found in fine PM.

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3. Monitoring Particulate Concentration

There is a variety of monitoring methods available for the measurement of mass

concentrations of PM in ambient air. These include both direct reading instruments,

which provide continuous measurements of particle concentrations, and filter-based

gravimetric samplers that collect the particulate material onto a filter, which must

then be weighed subsequently in a laboratory.

Commonly used methods for the mass measurement of PM in ambient air include:

• Filter-based gravimetric samplers

• Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM)

• Optical analysers;

• Personal samplers.

� Filter-based gravimetric samplers

Three sampling devices that may be used:

• Super high volume sampler

• High-volume sampler

• Low-volume sampler

Each of these samplers consists of a PM10 sampling inlet that is directly connected

to a filter substrate and a regulated flow controller. Following completion of the

sampling period, the PM10 mass collected on the filter is determined gravimetrically.

The filter is conditioned at 20°C and 50% relative humidity prior to weighing.

It is important to emphasise that the PM10 concentration measured by the

reference method is simply that – it is not an absolute measure of PM10 mass

in the atmosphere. The reference method will be subject to both positive

(for example, due to an increase in particle-bound water) and negative artefacts

(for example, due to loss of semi-volatile compounds) during sampling.

� TEOM Analysers

The TEOM analyser is used for measuring continuous concentrations of PM. The

instrument is based on the principle that the frequency of oscillation of a glass,

tapered tube (element) changes by an amount that is directly proportional to the

mass of the tube. Therefore, any change in mass of the tube, due to the deposition

of particles onto a small filter affixed to one end, will result in a change in the

resonant frequency- this change is proportional to the additional mass. Due to the

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need to eliminate the effect of changing humidity on the mass measurement, the

TEOM is required to maintain the sample filter at an elevated temperature.

� Optical Analysers

Optical particle monitors utilise the interaction between airborne particles and

visible, infrared or laser light.

Nephalometer and/or transmissometers are used to determine visibility loss due to

airborne particulate material. Transmissometers operate over a long open path of 1–

10 km and measure total light extinction by determining the loss of light (due to

scattering and absorption of the intervening atmosphere) from an artificial light

source of known luminescence. Nephalometers, which operate over a short closed

path, measure light scattering, which is responsible for the majority but not all of the

total light extinction.

� Personal Samplers

An increasingly wide range of measurement techniques for various metrics of PM are

being applied to personal exposure analysis. The requirement of exposure analysis is

that sampling should be from the breathing zone of an individual, which extends

approximately 30 cm from their nose and mouth, and moves with them from one

microenvironment to the next.

Particle size selection for these filter sampling techniques is achieved by conventional

impactor or cyclone techniques or specially designed more lightweight methods such

as the conical inhalable sampler using treated foam to remove particles larger than

10 or 2.5 μm at a given low or high flow rate.

Measurement of PM2.5 concentrations

The PM2.5 fraction of PM differs from the PM10 fraction solely in the size of the

particles included. The fundamental difference in methods for PM2.5 compared

to PM10 measurement in most cases is, therefore, just the design of the size selective

inlet. The methods used for PM10, therefore, can be adapted for use with PM2.5 with

no other changes. The exceptions to this are instruments that use optical methods,

which determine the size fraction by means other than a size-selective inlet.

However, optical instruments for PM2.5 are essentially similar to those for PM10, with

commercial instruments capable of monitoring the different size fractions in a rapid

cycle.

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The size-selective inlets for PM2.5 measurements are generally designed to operate at

the same sampling flow rate as those for PM10, so that the instruments can be

converted for the different size fractions with minimal effort.

In practice, the measurement of PM2.5 differs from PM10 because there will be a

smaller quantity of PM to measure, and the coarse fraction, which tends to consist of

windblown dust and other non-volatile material, is excluded. Both these factors

make accurate PM2.5 measurement more difficult than PM10 measurement.

4. Case Studies showing PM increase due to fireworks

Following are the various studies conducted in different parts of our country,

showing the increase in the PM concentration in atmosphere during the Deepawali

Festival.

1. Air Pollution from fireworks during festival of lights (deepawali) in Howrah, India

The objective of the this study was set to monitor air quality parameters such as

SPM, NRPM (non respirable particulate matter), PM10 or RPM (respirable particulate

matter), PM2.5 or FPM (Fine Particulate Matter), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen

Dioxide (NO2) on and around the day of Deepawali in the year 2007. The results are

compared with typical winter day concentration levels for the chosen parameters

and with the ambient air quality standards.

Salkia, a densely populated residential area located at Howrah within the limits of

Greater Calcutta (Kolkata) Metropolitan Area, was chosen as the monitoring site for

the present study.

The monitoring station was chosen on the terrace of a two–storied private building

in a densely populated residential area. The terrace was chosen for sampling because

the nearby houses have roof spaces which are generally used by the residents for

firework display. In addition, this height can be considered as the respirable zone for

people in 2–3 storey buildings.

The monitoring work was done for a total number of eight days spanned between

November 7 to 25, 2007 and divided into two segments. The pollutant parameters

measured during the study include different particulate species viz. SPM, NRPM,

PM10, and PM2.5, and gaseous pollutants such as SO2 and NO2.

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Standard gravimetric method of high–volume sampling was used to measure the

mass concentrations of SPM, NRPM, and PM10. The instrument employed was

respirable dust sampler (RDS) with provision for gaseous sampling. Gravimetric

method was also used for measuring the mass concentration of PM2.5. The

instrument employed was fine particulate sampler (FPS).

2. Ambient Air Pollution Levels - Deepawali, 2013; by Central Pollution Control Board

The Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi conducted an in-depth Ambient air quality

monitoring for the city of Delhi during celebration of Deepawali festival for the year

2013 (November 3, 2013) to see the overall impact of bursting of crackers.

The intensive ambient air monitoring was carried out a selected seven locations. Air

pollution levels during 2013 Deepawali day with respect to SO2 and NO2 showed a

decreasing trend except at one location and increasing trend was observed for PM10

as compared to Deepawali, 2012.

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3. Fine particles (PM2.5) in ambient air of Lucknow city due to fireworks on Diwali

festival

The monitoring of fine particles was carried out by the Haz-Dust, Environment

Particulate Air Monitor (EPAM-5000), which is a high sensitivity (1 to 2000 μg m-3)

instrument. The real time particulate monitor designed for ambient environment and

indoor air quality applications is based on the principle of forwarding the scattering

of an infrared light source position at 90- degree angle from a photo detector. The

airborne particles enter the infrared beam, scatter the light and the amount of light

received by the photo detector is directly proportional to the aerosol concentration.

To know the effect of ‘Diwali episode’, 24 hr continuous monitoring of PM2.5 was

done in Vikas Nagar in 2005 on 30th

October (two days before Diwali), 31st October

(day before Diwali), 1st November (Diwali day) and 2nd November (day after Diwali).

For simplification, these days are named respectively as “normal day”, “pre Diwali

day”, “Diwali day” and “post Diwali day”.

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24 hr (6 - 6 AM) mean PM2.5 (μg m-3) of normal day, pre Diwali day,Diwali day and post

Diwali day

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5. Health Effects

Particulate matter has recently become an issue of increasing importance in

pollution studies due to its noticeable effects on human health. Various studies on air

pollution effects on health have indicated a strong relationship between air pollutant

concentrations and observed health effects.

Particle behaviour in the lung is dependent upon the aerodynamic characteristics of

particles in flow streams. The aerodynamic properties of particles are related to their

size, shape and density. The deposition of particles in different regimes of the

respiratory system depends on their sizes. The nasal openings permit very large dust

particles to enter the nasal region, along with much finer airborne particulates.

PM10 and PM2.5 include inhalable particles that are small enough to penetrate the

thoracic region of the respiratory system. The health effects of inhalable PM are well

documented. They are due to exposure over both the short term (hours, days) and

long term (months, years) and include:

• respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity, such as aggravation of asthma,

respiratory symptoms and an increase in hospital admissions.

• mortality from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and from lung cancer.

There is good evidence of the effects of short-term exposure to PM10 on respiratory

health, but for mortality, and especially as a consequence of long-term exposure,

PM2.5 is a stronger risk factor than the coarse part of PM10.

Susceptible groups with pre-existing lung or heart disease, as well as elderly people

and children, are particularly vulnerable. For example, exposure to PM affects lung

development in children, including reversible deficits in lung function as well as

chronically reduced lung growth rate and a deficit in long-term lung function. There

is no evidence of a safe level of exposure or a threshold below which no adverse

health effects occur. The exposure is ubiquitous and involuntary, increasing the

significance of this determinant of health.

Exposure to PM2.5 reduces the life expectancy of the population of the Region by

about 8.6 months on average. It could be increased by approximately 20 months if

the long-term PM2.5 concentration is reduced.

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References

1. Barman, S.C., Singh, Ramesh., Negi, M.P.S., Bhargava, S.K., Fine particles (PM2.5) in

ambient air of Lucknow city due to fireworks on Diwali festival, Journal of

Environmental Biology (2009).

2. Ambient Air and Noise Pollution Levels – Deepawali, 2013; Press Release, Central

Pollution Control Board, Delhi.

3. Thakur, B., Chakraborty, S., Debsarkar, A., Srivastava, R.C., Air Pollution from

fireworks during festival of lights (Deepawali) in Howrah, India – A Case Study,

Atmósfera vol.23 no.4 México Oct. 2010

4. Singh, D.P., Gadi Ranu, Mandal, T.K., Study of temporal variation in ambient air

quality during Diwali festival in India, Environmental Monitoring Assessment

(2010).

5. Health effects of Particulate Matter, World Health Organization.

6. Jimoda, L.A., Effects of Particulate Matter on Human Health, the Ecosystem,

Climate and Materials: A Review, Working and Living Environmental Protection

Vol. 9, 2012.

7. Methods for Monitoring Particulate Concentrations, Department for Environment

Food and Rural Affairs, UK