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Improving Student Learning by Addressing Student and Teacher Misconceptions about How People Learn
Stephen L. ChewDepartment of Psychology
Samford University Birmingham, Alabama
Indiana State UniversityMarch 13, 2012
Goals of the Presentation• Discuss misconceptions about how people
learn can undermine both teaching effectiveness and student performance
• Demonstrate how cognitive research can improve teaching and learning
• Provide you with accurate and practical information for improving teaching and learning from cognitive research
• Explain the complexities of effective teaching and learning
Three Kinds of Knowledge for Effective Teaching
EffectiveTeaching
Knowledge ofYour Field
Knowledge Of How PeopleLearn
Knowledge of How People Learn Your Field
Beliefs about How People Learn• Teaching requires a mental model of how people
learn. – Most teachers cannot articulate their model of
learning, but they have one.• Determines which teaching methods are selected,
how they are implemented and assessed, and how to adjust if there are problems.
• If the model is accurate, the teacher will be effective
• If it is flawed or simplistic, the teacher will be less effective
Beliefs about How People Learn• Students also base their study behavior based
on their models of how people (specifically themselves) learn.
• Determines whether or not they go to class, if and how well complete assignments, how they study material, and when material is mastered.
• The better the model, the better the student learns
• If the model is flawed or simplistic, it will undermine student learning
Some Teacher Beliefs that are Related to Poor Teaching Effectiveness
• I teach, but it isn’t my responsibility whether students learn
• I teach this way because my integrity prevents me from “watering down” the material
• Students won’t appreciate my teaching until later• My teaching is good enough; there is no need to
improve• Good teachers are born, not made• Teaching well only requires a good knowledge of
the material
Beliefs about Learning that Make You Stupid
• Learning is fast• Being good at a subject is a matter of
inborn talent rather than hard work, • Knowledge is composed of isolated facts• I’m really good at multi-tasking, especially
during class or studying
A Demonstration of Multi-tasking
• Countdown from 10 to 0 out loud as quickly as you can
• Say the letter of the alphabet from A to K out loud as quickly as you can
• Now alternate the two: Start with 10 – A, and countdown with numbers and up with letters, out loud as fast as you can.
When I Began Teaching I Believed:• Even at its best, teaching is no more than an
invitation to learn– Whether students learn is not up to me
• Teaching quality is measured in terms of how current the information is, the accuracy of the information and how clearly it is explained.
• The measure of a good test is that it yields a good spread of scores.
• Rigorous teachers give hard assignments and hard exams, and that’s the best way for students to learn.
• Really effective teachers get bad evaluations. It means that students had to work hard and learn.
• Teachers who get high evaluations are probably more popular than good.
Consequences of Traditional Model of Teaching and Learning
• Lack of helpful advice to struggling students– Study harder and study longer– You are stupid and lazy
• Teaching is still fad driven– Teaching methods change, but teaching does not
advance• Lack of a framework to help teachers improve
– You can’t fix a component of teaching that you don’t know exists
“Enlightened” Beliefs about Teaching and Learning
• Passive learning, like lecture and note taking is bad; active learning, like collaboration and discussion, is good.
• The teacher as expert is bad; the teacher as facilitator is good. – Sage on the stage vs. the Guide from the side
• Multiple choice exams test facts and are easy; essays test understanding and are hard.
• Teaching quality is determined by the methods you use (collaborative, active, interactive, etc.)– I use PBL, or clickers, or service learning, so I must be effective
Teaching vs. Learning• These beliefs about teaching are based on what
the teacher does, and not what the student learns. • Student learning is the sole criterion of effective
teaching– What is your evidence of student learning?
• Teaching becomes a problem in applied psychology– As complex as any research problem– Mastering teaching takes a lifetime, and there is always
more to learn– The scholarship of teaching and learning
Put another way• If teaching is nothing more than explaining
material well, then it is easy and most anyone can learn to do it.
• If teaching is about developing student understanding, then teaching is challenging and you will spend your entire career mastering it.
So how accurate are your beliefs about how people learn?
Which of the following is the MOST important ingredient for successful learning?
1. The intention and desire to learn2. Paying close attention to the material as you
study3. Learning in a way that matches your
personal Learning Style?4. The time you spend studying5. What you think about while studying
Read the instructions for the demonstration to yourselves and do your best to follow them.
Levels of Processing• Shallow processing focuses on spelling,
appearance and sound. – Rote memorization of facts– Flashcards
• Deep processing focuses on subjective meaning. – Relating new information to prior knowledge– Making information personally meaningful
Rate each word
• Do you find the word Pleasant?
• Does the word contain an E or G?
These are orienting tasks that cause you to think in deep or shallow ways, regardless of your intention
Deep processing: You are relating the words to your own meaningful experiences.
Shallow processing: You are focusing on spelling.
Four different conditionsFront
Deep Warned about Recall
DeepNot Warned
ShallowNot Warned
Shallow Warnedabout Recall
RightLeft
Be forewarnedyou will be asked torecall all the words
Study Conditions
Front
Deep Warned about Recall
DeepNot Warned
ShallowNot Warned
Shallow Warnedabout Recall
RightLeft
1. If motivation to learn matters, the front tablesshould recall best
3. If both deep processing and motivation matter, the front right should recall best
2. If deep processing matters, The two right sections should recall best
Intention vs. Level of Processing
Shallow: E Checking Deep: Pleasantness Control0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
43
6967
39
68
Intentional Incidental
Level of Procssing
% R
ecal
l
Which of the following is the MOST important ingredient for successful learning?
1. The intention and desire to learn2. Paying close attention to the material as you
study3. Learning in a way that matches your
personal Learning Style?4. The time you spend studying5. What you think about while studying
Learning Strategies• Intention and motivation to learn are not
important • Attention and amount of study is necessary, but
not sufficient for learning• Deep level of processing is critical for learning
– elaborative, distinctive, personal, appropriate• Students have highly practiced poor learning
strategies• Consider your learning activities in terms of level
of processing– Assignments, problem sets, questions, examples– Studying, note taking, reading, writing, listening
These findings are strongly counterintuitive
• The more students study, the more they learn– All study is effective, only amount and intensity
matter• Motivation automatically improves study
effectiveness• Learning is hard work, but not all hard work
leads to learning
Achieving Deep Processing while Studying
As you study, follow these principles: • Elaboration: How does this concept relate to other
concepts? • Distinctiveness: How is this concept different from
other concepts?• Personal: How can I relate this information to my
personal experience?• Appropriate to Retrieval and Application: How am I
expected to use or apply this concept? • These properties lead to development of connected
understanding
Video Series: How to Get the Most Out of Studyinghttp://www.samford.edu/how-to-study/
How to Get the Most Out of Studying• Video 1: Beliefs That Make You Fail…Or Succeed
– The first video examines common mistaken beliefs students often possess that undermine their learning.
• Video 2: What Students Should Understand About How People Learn– The second video introduces a simple but powerful theory of memory,
Levels of Processing, that can help students improve their study. • Video 3: Cognitive Principles for Optimizing Learning
– The third video operationalizes the concept of level of processing into four principles that students can use to develop effective study strategies.
• Video 4: Putting the Principles for Optimizing Learning into Practice– The fourth video applies the principles of deep processing to common
study situations, including note taking and highlighting while reading. • Video 5: I Blew the Exam, Now What?
– This video addresses what students should and should not do when they earn a bad grade on an exam.
So shouldn’t we design pedagogies that make students use deep processing all the time?
Cognitive Load Theory
• Mental effort is the amount of concentration that a person has available to devote to tasks
• Mental effort is always a limited resource• Cognitive Load is the total amount of mental effort a
task requires to complete it • A person can do multiple tasks at once as long as the
total cognitive load does not exceed available mental effort
• If cognitive load exceeds available mental effort, then performance suffers
Student mental effort must meet the demands of instructional mental load
Teachers design instruction
Students possessprior knowledge, learning strategies and mental effort
Tasks and conceptspossess difficulty
AvailableMental Effort
Germane Load(Optimize)
Extraneous Load(Minimize)
Cognitive Load
Intrinsic Load(Manage)
Name the days of the week out loud and in order as fast as you can
About this Activity
• Were you engaged?• Were you engaged in active problem solving?• Were you working hard and struggling? • What was the 4th day in the list?
Name the Days of the Week as Quickly as You Can
In Alphabetical Order• Friday• Monday• Saturday• Sunday• Thursday• Tuesday• Wednesday
Implications of Cognitive Load Theory
• If the cognitive load demanded of students exceeds their available mental effort, then learning will not occur
• If the cognitive load demanded of students takes up most or all of available cognitive effort, then there will not be enough mental effort available for learning or schema formation
• Deeper level of processing causes greater cognitive load• Teachers must monitor, manage and minimize cognitive
load to allow schema development as well as design activities to promote schema development
Cognitive Load of Various Tasks(adapted from Piolat, Olive & Kellogg, 2004)
0 100 200 300 400
Text Copying
Incidental learning
Intentional learning
Reading sentences
Reading a text
Playing Chess (novices)
Playing Chess (experts)
Notetaking from a lecture
Composing a text
Translating
Revising
PlanningTas
k..
Cognitive effort (IRT in ms.)
About Engagement, Active Learning, and Struggle
• Engagement, being “active”, and mental struggle do not always lead to effective learning
• Neither does deep processing if cognitive load is too great
• Teachers must balance deep processing and cognitive load
• Teaching is an interaction of competing forces
The Complexity of Teaching• The number of teaching methods is large and diverse• No teaching method is without limitations and pitfalls• Teaching is contextual; teaching effectiveness involves the
dynamic interaction of multiple factors• Teaching is a contextual interaction. The best method for
any situation depends on: • the outcomes that are desired by• the characteristics of the students by• the characteristics of the instructor by• the curriculum and content
• No single best way to teach• An effective teacher must be knowledgeable about
multiple teaching methods, select appropriately among them to achieve desired goals, and make adjustments during teaching.
Teaching As a Contextual Outcome of Multiple Agents (TACOMA) Model
Topic, Content, andLearning Goals
Level of Student Understanding
Characteristics of the Teacher
Post-event Reflection
Manipulate
Monitor,Manage,Manipulate Monitor Manipulate
Student-Teacher Rapportand Classroom Atmosphere
In-the-Moment Reflection Pre-event
Reflection
Form of Assessment
TeachingStrategies
Characteristics of the Learner
LearningStrategies
Take Home Message for Learning• The measure of effective teaching is student learning• Levels of Processing:
– Engagement and active learning aren’t enough• Cognitive Load
– Must always consider cognitive load of pedagogy• Must create pedagogy keeping them in balance• Teaching is a complex interaction of factors that the
teacher must manipulate, manage, and monitor– No single best teaching method– Requires constant monitoring to keep students on track.
