Impact of Drugs on the Environment

7/30/2019 Impact of Drugs on the Environment

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Running Head: THE IMPACT OF DRUGS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

The Impact of Drugs on the Environment

Jamie A. Adesso

Empire State College

Author Note

This paper was prepared for Nature in American History taught by Professor Cassetta


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THE IMPACT OF DRUGS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

For centuries, people have sought out cures and treatments for illnesses and

diseases. During ancient times, natural and herbal remedies were common to use, as

well as holistic methods of healing. As times changed and technology advanced,

modern prescription medicines came into existence and with them, environmental

hazards. Although prescription drugs have been around for almost a century, research

regarding the environmental impact of these substances did not start until the 1980's,

and even then, the public was not aware of the discoveries. When information was

finally available to the public in the early 90's, it caused much concern among

environmentalists as the impact of pharmaceutical drugs on soil, water, and wildlife,

along with illegal substances, was discovered to be detrimental to nature, as well as to

the animals ingesting products from the contaminated areas.

When you think about the number of prescription and over the counter drugs in

your home, you can probably say that you have at least five bottles of some type of pain

reliever, cough or allergy medicine, or other treatments for illnesses. Some of this

medicine probably never gets used or is past the expiration date, which is when you

decide to throw the bottles full of pills away. Sure, your five or even ten vials may not

harm the environment but think about the worlds 6.7 billion people and all of their

discarded drugs. That is a lot of medicine being flushed into water systems and

penetrating the soil at various dumpsites. Add to that, all of the illegal drugs that are

unused, dropped, or lost, as well as the chemicals released during manufacturing. So

what, you say; if medicine is good for people to take then it must be okay for the

environment to decompose of it, right? Wrong! While this may sound logical, it really is


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not; in fact, it is quite ignorant. Improper disposal of drugs, legal or illegal, negatively

affects the environment and its inhabitants.

Types of Drugs

Beta, orB-Blockers, are commonly and heavily used to treat patients with heart

disease, high blood pressure, and glaucoma. Stewart Owen, Emma Giltrow, Duane

Huggett, Thomas Hutchinson, JoAnne Saye, Matthew Winter, and John Sumpter (2007)

showed that in Germany alone, over 100 to 250 tons of B-blockers are prescribed per

year and in Europe, Canada, and North America, this drug is prevalent in sewer

systems, rivers, and other waterways (Cleuvers, 2005). Morphine, ketamine, codeine,

and methamphetamines are all painkillers, the last of which is an ingredient in crystal-

meth, a street drug that is highly abused and has serious side effects. In a 2010 study

conducted by Angela Lin, Xiao-Huan Wang, and Cheng-Fang Lin, the previously

mentioned painkillers, along with their compounds, were shown to exist in high levels in

rivers, hospital effluents, and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) located in Taiwan.

The existence of these drugs in Taiwans water systems poses health risks to human

and marine life and the surrounding environment.

Sulfonamides are a common base ingredient in veterinary antibiotics and are

highly absorbed by soil, as proven by Zhaosheng Fan, Francis Casey, Heldur Hakk,

Gerald Larsen, Eakalak Khan (2011). Prophyphenazone and aminopyrine, drugs that

help to reduce fevers and relieve pain, along with antipyrine, a medicine prescribed to

those suffering with ear infections, were found at dominantly high levels in Croatian

landfills and along the surrounding area (L.H. Keith, L.L. Needham, T.L. Jones-Lepp,


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2000). This same study also showed high levels of these drugs in nearby waterways,

though it did not mention the impact of the drugs on neighboring wildlife.

Waterways and Fish

Of the 18 different types of prescribed Beta Blockers, 12 of them were found

either in the sewer systems, waterways, or both on the North American continent.

These drugs are created so that people with heart disease may be treated and live a

longer and healthier life. People are much larger than fish and other aquatic animals

that live in the water, not to mention the significant differences in body composition.

Keeping this in mind, think about the side effects this medication has on human beings,

such as weakness, fatigue, increase of asthma symptoms, or the potential to make a

persons diabetes worse (Skye Schulte and Rebecca Stahl, 2010). Now, think about the

impact this drug can have on fish.

In a study conducted by Owen et al. (2007), fish that come into contact with this

particular drug decrease in numbers and produce fewer eggs, of which less actually

hatch. This problem arises from just two days of exposure to these drugs at minimal

levels (Huggett et al., 2002). Higher levels of exposure are associated with growth

impairment and a huge decrease in glucose production while any exposure at all can

affect brain functions in regards to breeding cycles, behavior, and sleep patterns, the

last of which is also a side effect of the drug in humans (Owen et al., 2007). Among all

of these side effects, the worst one occurs when a fish cannot respond to a change in

oxygen levels and as a result, dies (Owen et al., 2007). It is unfortunate that animals

must suffer because we are so careless and what is worse is that this impact is only

from one type of drug.


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Many other drugs, such as controlled substances, make their way into water

systems and negatively affect the environment and its inhabitants. Controlled

substances are worse than other drugs because they are highly addictive, which means

that doctors are not the only source of obtaining these medications. Many controlled

substances often become available on the street after alterations occur that enhance

the original drugs side effects. The biggest problem with controlled substances is that

they last a long time, which means that they have a high level of potency that causes

the drug to remain strong even after it makes contact with the sewer system (Lin, 2010).

As a result, biomagnification, which is the transmission of a toxin through the food

chain, or bioaccumulation, which is the accumulation of a chemical in higher than

normal amounts, occurs (United States Geological Society [USGS], 2010).

A hypothetical example of the biomagnification of mercury in water up through the food chain and into a wading bird's eggs (USGS,2010).


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These occurrences are due to substance abuse and human waste products that enter

the sewage treatment plants, which are not designed to manage controlled substances

(Lin, 2010). As a result, the drugs escape the WWTPs and enter the waterways,

contaminating the environment and its wildlife.

Taiwans Environmental Protection Agency sets the standards for WWTPs and

reports that they are currently only taking minimal safety precautions as required by law

(Lin, 2010). These low standards have resulted in high levels of morphine, codeine,

methamphetamine, ketamine, cocaine, and components that make up these drugs, in

Taiwans rivers, hospital effluents, and in deionized water, which is water in its purest

form. Unfortunately, Taiwan is not the only country whose WWTPs are not upgrading

their safety standards. Codeine and morphine exist in four of Spains rivers and in

almost every river and lake in Italy, the United Kingdom, and Switzerland. In the United

States, researchers found methamphetamine in surface waters, which are directly

affected by WWTPs (Lin, 2010). Additionally, there are people and organizations that

have anonymously admitted to dumping their prescription waste directly into rivers,

making it hard to determine just how much of the problem lies with wastewater

treatment plants.

When fish come into contact with morphine, it causes their heart rate to decrease

and then rapidly increase to an excessive rate, where it stays for at least two days. As a

result, a negative, though less severe impact, affects the respiratory rate of the fish

(Nathalie Newby, Kurt Gamperl, Don Stevens, 2007). Codeine has not been studied

specifically on fish, but it can harm animals by causing convulsions and respiratory

depression, either of which can be fatal (Nathan Eddy, Hans Friebel, Klaus Hahn, Hans


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Halbach, 1968). Studies show that methamphetamines, like codeine, have toxic effects

on animals in general. Brain and nerve damage is one possible side effect depending

on the amount of the dose, which, at high levels, can cause convulsions and elevated

body temperatures that are sometimes fatal (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2011). It

is important to note that these drugs do impact animals other than fish because many

species come to the water to drink, swim, or prey on fish, so while the drugs are

concentrated in water systems, they are not limited to impacting only marine life.

Unlike the other controlled substances mentioned, Ketamine, when properly

administered, does not negatively affect fish. Cocaine, on the other hand, greatly affects

their behavior as it causes the fish to go through withdrawal periods that last five days

and experience high levels of anxiety when the drug is not present. When it is present,

the fish experience various types of abnormal brain activity (Marcos Lpez-Patio, Lili

Yu, Howard Cabral, Irina Zhdanova, 2008). Luckily, fish are not a threat to the well-

being of people but this psychotic state caused by cocaine in their environment can

create an unsafe environment for other aquatic species. However, researchers still need

to conduct studies to determine if there are any harmful side effects to people who

consume these drugged fish.

Usable Water

Water is the most abundant of all the Earths natural resources, yet less than

three percent of water is freshwater. Freshwater is the only source of drinkable water for

human beings and in the United States alone; people consume 94,000 gallons of water

in a single year. More than half of this consumed water comes from lakes, reservoirs,

and rivers; however, an EPA study conducted in 2000 showed that just under 40


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percent of U.S. rivers and 45 percent of lakes are polluted (Patricia Hemminger, n.d.).

This surface water is susceptible to pollution from the air, pipes, waste, personal care

products, and more recently, pharmaceuticals.

The remaining percentage of drinking water comes from the ground, and the

majority of Americas rural population consumes this water, as wells are used in place of

water lines, like those prevalent in the city. Groundwater is mostly protected by the

filtering action of soil; however, soil is often prone to contamination from a variety of

sources, including, pharmaceuticals. Potential health hazards from consuming

contaminated water include kidney damage, reproductive problems, stomach ailments,

and intestinal illnesses (Hemminger, n.d.). For these reasons, it is crucial for water

suppliers to closely monitor drinking water to ensure that the EPA standard levels are

met.

During the time of Hemmingers report, written sometime after 2000, the EPA

was still investigating the impact of pharmaceuticals in waterways and of specific

concern were birth control pills and hormone replacement drugs. The EPA wanted to

determine whether these drugs posed a threat to aquatic species, wildlife, or people

upon entering the water systems. This investigation, as well as others done by the EPA

to determine the impact of pharmaceuticals on water systems and marine life, is

possible because of the Water Quality Act amendments of 1987. These amendments

established a $400-million program to help states to develop and implement nonpoint

source management programs based on watershed protection (Hemminger, n.d.).

Thanks to this particular piece of legislation, the EPA was able to successfully conclude

its investigation, but the outcome, which took eight years to achieve, was not good.


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Birth control containing ethinyl estradioland other hormone replacement therapydrugs have a huge impact on people and aquatic species. Studies showed that all birth

control pills affect children, causing men to have smaller genitals, a lower sperm count,

breasts, testicular cancer, and a greater number of girls, who are suffering from obesity

and going through puberty earlier, being born. In regards to a study conducted on fish,

the sexual development was delayed so much that the population of the fish became

significantly reduced (Lloyd Alter, 2009). This is a big problem and unfortunately, it

occurs at very low hormone levels, so there is currently no way to further filter the drugs

out of the water systems, making them unsafe for public use.

Soil

Pharmaceutical medicines and other drugs are making their way into the

environment via human and animal waste, manufacturing processes, and improper

disposal of unused and expired products. In addition to ending up in the water, these

harmful toxins are also appearing in the soil through a number of different modes of

transportation. What is worse is that these medicines are causing bacteria in the soil to

become resistant to the drugs that once killed them, allowing the germs to thrive and

cause harm to live stock, wild life, and even people.

The most obvious means by which contamination is making its way into the soil

is through the water. Disposed pharmaceuticals easily affect the surrounding riverbanks

while some areas of farmland are often exposed to the poisons by local processing

plants that use minimal safety precautions or through area hospital effluents that are not

properly lined to prevent toxic fluids from seeping into the ground. Some studies have

even shown traces of drugs in tap water, which means soil can easily be exposed to


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pharmaceuticals when watered with a hose or watering can. Farmland is further subject

to disposed medications with the addition of manure and sewer sludge to the fields, the

leading causes of pharmaceuticals in soil, which leads to contamination of crops and

illness in grazing animals (M. Diaz-Cruz, Maria Lopez de Alda, Damia Barcelo, 2003).

This problem is something that affects us all and a solution must be found soon.

Two studies done on soil proved that the sludge from sewage that fertilized fields

contained 24 different pharmaceuticals and 12 types of sulfonamides, which is the base

drug for some antibiotics (Diaz-Cruz, 2003). This same sewage sludge was also used in

landfills and in sea dumping, which further threatens nearby soil, groundwater, and

aquatic life. Another study showed that sulfonamides are easily absorbed and quickly

transported by soil through cracks, worm holes, plant debris or via particulate-facilitated

transport (Fan, et al., 2011).In the landfills alone, high levels of the drugprophyphenazone, a pain killer and fever reducer, were found, along with significantly

lower levels of aminopyrine, another pain killer and fever reducing drug, and antipyrine,

a medicine used to relieve pain from ear infections (Diaz-Cruz, 2003). These and other

drugs that make their way into landfills, leak into the groundwater, drainage water, and

surface run-off fluids, each of which carries the contaminants to surface waters.

A study conducted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

focused on the municipal sludges in Florida and Chicago to determine how the soil-

plant-water systems are impacted and how the effects of the sludges come full circle

when they reach animals and even people. The study determined that cattle, pigs, and

poultry that ingested sludge, grain, or foliage from soil containing toxic components,

suffered from physiological, pathological, growth, and reproductive damage or


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disorders. Mice were also part of this study; however, they were fed body tissues from

the animals that ingested the toxins. The mice suffered a variety of health effects,

including reproductive problems (EPA, 1981). In regards to meat intended for human

consumption, it was deemed a health hazard and cannot be sold or served. It is easy to

imagine that this thirty-year-old study has been forgotten or overlooked, as it is hard to

believe that all farm animals consume only the food they are given and that farm soil is

completely free of pharmaceuticals or other toxic waste elements.

Resolution

Originally, people were told to dispose of drugs by flushing them down the toilet

(Tom Watson, 2007). After scientists discovered the harm this was doing to waterways,

the SMARxT DISPOSAL campaign was founded by the United States Fish and Wildlife

Services along with the American Pharmacists Association to encourage people not to

flush their drugs but to instead return them to a pharmacy for proper disposal (Watson,

2007). Additionally, other companies, such as Covanta Energy Corporation, are hosting

take-back events throughout 2011, as 2012 dates have not yet been determined

(Anonymous, 2010). Thus far, the company has collected 30,000 pounds of

pharmaceutical drugs and is disposing of them in such a way that the water is protected

and air quality is controlled. The company started its program after becoming aware that

flushed prescription drugs and those that end up in landfills reach surface waters,

harming fish and other wildlife, as the contaminants are not removed through water

treatment facilities (Anonymous, 2010). These particular take-back events are free as

the company converts the waste into sellable energy and saves money for

municipalities. Unfortunately, not all take-back events are free and the ones that are do


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not frequently occur. This discourages people from properly disposing of their waste; it

is bad enough they have to pay for the prescriptions and they are not going to pay to get

rid of them. No solution to this problem exists as of yet but it is something that

environmentalists need to work on with politicians and pharmaceutical companies.

In October 2010, the take-back programs gained the full support of President

Obama when he signed a federal law allowing the drugs to be disposed of safely and

legally through hospitals and pharmacies. This issue became a priority when studies

showed that discarded drugs were making their way into public drinking water (Charlotte

Tucker, 2011). While highly successful events thus far, take-backs are difficult to

organize because they require law enforcement to be present, as stated in the

Controlled Substances Act. To make collection easier, the DEA is working to enforce a

new law that would allow pharmacies to take-back the drugs without the presence of

law enforcement. Collection sites are also trying to come up with ways to cover their

costs, as charging consumers to get rid of their prescriptions is a deterrent.

Currently, the pharmaceutical companies are not paying for or contributing to the

take-back programs, which not only need the money to pay employees but also need it

to dispose of the drugs through incineration. Contrary to popular belief, it is not safe to

dispose of drugs via cat litter or coffee grinds, as they eventually contaminate the

ground, so the only current solution is to burn them at special plants that provide air

quality control (EPA).

Another resolution to this environmentally toxic problem is for people to use

expired drugs instead of disposing of them. According to medical authorities and the

Harvard University Medical School Family Health Guide Website, prescription drugs are


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safe to take years after they expire, with the exception of antibiotics, nitroglycerin,

insulin, and tetracycline (Watson, 2007). The expiration date simply tells the consumer

that the manufacturer guarantees the medicine up until the date on the bottle. After this

date, the medication may or may not work and is assumed safe to take. Studies have

yet to confirm this assumption. While this may prevent drugs from being thrown into

landfills, it still does not eliminate the problem. Many of the drugs ingested by people

later exit the body and get flushed down the toilet, into the waterways. At this point, the

potency of the drugs are reduced, as much of it has been absorbed by the body, but

traces of the pharmaceuticals are still making their way into the water. For this reason,

doctors are being encouraged to write fewer prescriptions and only give out what is

necessary, if anything at all.

A new project involving the use of iron to combat pollutants has proven to be

quite successful. Large amounts of iron in water are detoxifying pollutants and

neutralizing hazards such as fertilizers, heavy metals, pesticides, and toxic materials in

a fraction of the time as other, traditional methods (Rhodes, 2011). Research has yet to

determine how this new method will affect the impact of pharmaceuticals in the water

but if it can clean up toxic waste, there may still be hope that it can also deactivate the

negative effects of disposed drugs.

Conclusion

The impact of drugs, legal or illegal, on the environment is massive. Even in the

smallest quantities, some drugs are still strong enough to negatively affect the quality of

life for aquatic and wild species, as well as human beings. This problem has been going

on for decades and no one was aware of it until the 1980s, possibly the 1970s when it


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is most likely that research began, though there is little, if any, documentation from this

time period. Thankfully, the research is ongoing and efforts are being made to reverse,

prevent, and combat the impact of drugs on the environment.


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Documents

Impact of Drugs on the Environment