Typology of fixed expressionsTypology of fixed expressions

Typology of fixed expressionsTypology of fixed expressions

Fixed expressions are not a unified Fixed expressions are not a unified phenomenon, phenomenon, no generally agreed set of no generally agreed set of categories, no generally agreed set of terms, categories, no generally agreed set of terms, so so no clear classifications are possible.no clear classifications are possible.

This typology is based on reasons why each This typology is based on reasons why each potential FEI might be regarded lexicographically potential FEI might be regarded lexicographically as a holistic unit, i.e. whether the string is as a holistic unit, i.e. whether the string is problematicproblematic and and anomalousanomalous on grounds of on grounds of lexicogrammarlexicogrammar, , pragmaticspragmatics , or , or semanticssemantics. . This led to This led to three macrocategories of FEIsthree macrocategories of FEIs..

3 macrocategories3 macrocategories

Anomalous collocationsAnomalous collocations – problematic in – problematic in terms of lexicogrammarterms of lexicogrammar

FormulaeFormulae - problematic in terms of - problematic in terms of pragmaticspragmatics

MetaphorsMetaphors - problematic in terms of - problematic in terms of semanticssemantics

Anomalous collocationsAnomalous collocations

Anomalous collocationsAnomalous collocations are problematic are problematic in in lexicogrammaticallexicogrammatical terms – they are terms – they are syntagmatically or paradigmatically syntagmatically or paradigmatically aberrant. Therefore, they cannot be aberrant. Therefore, they cannot be decoded purely compositionally nor decoded purely compositionally nor encoded freely.encoded freely.

Subclassification of anomalous Subclassification of anomalous collocationscollocations

Anomalous collocations are subdivided according to the nature of the Anomalous collocations are subdivided according to the nature of the anomaly into:anomaly into:

(1)(1) Ill-formed collocationsIll-formed collocations – break the conventional grammatical rules of – break the conventional grammatical rules of English (e.g. English (e.g. at allat all, , by and largeby and large, , of courseof course, , stay put)stay put)

(2)(2) Cranberry collocationsCranberry collocations – include items that are unique to the string and – include items that are unique to the string and not found in other collocations (e.g. not found in other collocations (e.g. in in retrospectretrospect, , kith kith and kinand kin, , on on behalfbehalf of someone/somethingof someone/something, , short short shriftshrift, , to and to and frofro))

(3)(3) Defective collocationsDefective collocations – cannot be decoded purely compositionally – cannot be decoded purely compositionally mostly because a component item has a meaning not found in other mostly because a component item has a meaning not found in other collocations or contexts, although it has other compositional meanings; or collocations or contexts, although it has other compositional meanings; or because one or more of the component items is semantically empty (e.g. because one or more of the component items is semantically empty (e.g. at at leastleast, , a a foregoneforegone conclusion conclusion, , in in effecteffect, , beg beg the questionthe question, , in in timetime))

(4)(4) Phraseological collocationsPhraseological collocations – consist of cases where there is a limited – consist of cases where there is a limited paradigm in operation and other analogous strings may be found, but paradigm in operation and other analogous strings may be found, but where the structure is not fully productive (e.g. where the structure is not fully productive (e.g. inin action, action, intointo action, action, out out ofof action action; ; on on showshow, on , on display;display; to a ____ to a ____ degreedegree, to a ____ , to a ____ extentextent))

FormulaeFormulae

FormulaeFormulae are problematic because of are problematic because of their their discoursal functionsdiscoursal functions: they are : they are specialized pragmatically. They generally specialized pragmatically. They generally conform to lexicogrammatical conventions conform to lexicogrammatical conventions of English, and are generally of English, and are generally compositional semantically, although compositional semantically, although some similes and proverbs are obscure or some similes and proverbs are obscure or metaphorical.metaphorical.

Subclassification of formulaeSubclassification of formulae(1)(1) Simple formulaeSimple formulae – routine compositional strings; nevertheless, – routine compositional strings; nevertheless,

they have some special discoursal function or are iterative or they have some special discoursal function or are iterative or emphatic, as well as syntagmatically fixed (e.g. emphatic, as well as syntagmatically fixed (e.g. alive and wellalive and well, , I’m I’m sorry to saysorry to say, , not exactlynot exactly, , pick and choosepick and choose, , you knowyou know))

(2)(2) SayingsSayings – include formulae such as quotations, catch-phrases – include formulae such as quotations, catch-phrases and truisms (e.g. and truisms (e.g. curiouser and curiouser, don’t let the bastdardcuriouser and curiouser, don’t let the bastdardss grind you down, that’s the way the cookie crumblesgrind you down, that’s the way the cookie crumbles))

(3)(3) ProverbsProverbs – metaphorical proverbs (e.g. – metaphorical proverbs (e.g. you can’t have your cake you can’t have your cake and eat it, every cloud has a silver liningand eat it, every cloud has a silver lining), non-metaphorical ), non-metaphorical proverbs (proverbs (enough is enoughenough is enough, , first come first servedfirst come first served))

(4)(4) SimilesSimiles – institutionalized comparisons that are typically – institutionalized comparisons that are typically transparent, but not always, and are signalled by transparent, but not always, and are signalled by asas or or likelike (e.g. (e.g. as good as goldas good as gold, , as old as the hillsas old as the hills, like lambs to the slaughter, , like lambs to the slaughter, live like a kinglive like a king))

Subclassification of formulaeSubclassification of formulae

don’t let the bastdarddon’t let the bastdardss grind you down grind you down = = Often Often given in the Latin version - 'nil carborundum given in the Latin version - 'nil carborundum illegitimi'. The phrase originated during World illegitimi'. The phrase originated during World War II. Lexicographer Eric Partridge attributes it War II. Lexicographer Eric Partridge attributes it to British army intelligence very early in the warto British army intelligence very early in the war.. The phrase was adopted by US Army general The phrase was adopted by US Army general "Vinegar" Joe Stillwell as his motto during the "Vinegar" Joe Stillwell as his motto during the warwar. . It was later further popularized in the US by It was later further popularized in the US by 1964 presidential candidate Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential candidate Barry Goldwater curiouser and curiousercuriouser and curiouser = from = from Alice in Alice in WonderlandWonderland by Lewis Carroll by Lewis Carroll

MetaphorsMetaphors

MetaphorsMetaphors are strings that are non- are strings that are non-compositional because of their compositional because of their semanticssemantics: : they include they include pure idiomspure idioms. Sublassification . Sublassification of metaphors reflects of metaphors reflects degrees of degrees of transparencytransparency..

Subclassification of metaphorsSubclassification of metaphors(1)(1) Transparent metaphorsTransparent metaphors – are those that are institutionalized but the – are those that are institutionalized but the

image or vehicle of the metaphor is such that the reader/hearer can be image or vehicle of the metaphor is such that the reader/hearer can be expected to decode it successfully by means of his real-world knowledge expected to decode it successfully by means of his real-world knowledge (e.g. (e.g. alarm bells ringalarm bells ring, , behind someone’s backbehind someone’s back, , breathe life into breathe life into somethingsomething, , on someone’s doorstepon someone’s doorstep, , pack one’s bagspack one’s bags))

(2)(2) Semi-transparent metaphorsSemi-transparent metaphors – require some specialist knowledge in – require some specialist knowledge in order to be decoded. Not all speakers of a language may understand the order to be decoded. Not all speakers of a language may understand the reference. If the institutionalized idiomatic meaning is unknown, there reference. If the institutionalized idiomatic meaning is unknown, there may be two or more possible interpretations (e.g. may be two or more possible interpretations (e.g. grasp the nettlegrasp the nettle, , on an on an even keeleven keel, , the pecking orderthe pecking order, , throw in the towelthrow in the towel, , under one’s beltunder one’s belt). ). Grasp the nettleGrasp the nettle – means ‘tackle something difficult with determination – means ‘tackle something difficult with determination and without delay’, but someone not knowing the metaphor might easily and without delay’, but someone not knowing the metaphor might easily interpret it as ‘do something foolish which will have unpleasant interpret it as ‘do something foolish which will have unpleasant consequences’.consequences’.

(3)(3) Opaque metaphorsOpaque metaphors – are pure idioms, and in them compositional – are pure idioms, and in them compositional decoding and interpretation of the image are practically impossible decoding and interpretation of the image are practically impossible without knowledge of the historical origins of the expression (without knowledge of the historical origins of the expression (bite the bite the bulletbullet, , kick the bucketkick the bucket, , over the moonover the moon, , red herringred herring, , shoot the breezeshoot the breeze))

Collocation and chunkingCollocation and chunking

CollocationCollocation

Language is strongly patterned: many Language is strongly patterned: many words occur repeatedly in certain words occur repeatedly in certain lexicogrammatical patterns.lexicogrammatical patterns.

Psycholinguistic research – language is Psycholinguistic research – language is processed in chunks. The basic unit for processed in chunks. The basic unit for encoding and decoding may be the group, encoding and decoding may be the group, set phrase, or set phrase, or collocationcollocation, rather than , rather than ortographic word.ortographic word.

Collocation - definitionCollocation - definition

‘‘Collocation is the occurrence of two or Collocation is the occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each more words within a short space of each other in a text.’ (J.M. Sinclair, other in a text.’ (J.M. Sinclair, Corpus, Corpus, Concordance, CollocationConcordance, Collocation, OUP, 1991), OUP, 1991)Collocation denotes frequently repeated or Collocation denotes frequently repeated or statistically significant co-occurrences, statistically significant co-occurrences, whether or not there are any special whether or not there are any special semantic bonds between collocating semantic bonds between collocating items.items.

CollocationCollocation

CollocationCollocation – simple co-occurrence of – simple co-occurrence of itemsitems

Anomalous collocationAnomalous collocation – designates a – designates a class of FEIs, with subtypes (class of FEIs, with subtypes (ill-formed ill-formed collocationcollocation, , cranberry collocationcranberry collocation, , defective collocationdefective collocation, , phraseological phraseological collocationcollocation))

Kinds of collocationKinds of collocationCollocations are the lexical evidence that words do not combine randomly Collocations are the lexical evidence that words do not combine randomly but follow rules, principles, and real-world motivations. Different kinds of but follow rules, principles, and real-world motivations. Different kinds of collocation reflect different kinds of phenomenon.collocation reflect different kinds of phenomenon.The simplest kindThe simplest kind arises through semantics: co-occurrence of co-members arises through semantics: co-occurrence of co-members of semantic fields, represenring co-occurrence of the referents in the real of semantic fields, represenring co-occurrence of the referents in the real world, e.g.world, e.g. wordword jam jam co-occurs with other words from the lexical set ‘food’, co-occurs with other words from the lexical set ‘food’, such as such as tartstarts, , buttybutty, , doughnutsdoughnuts, , marmalademarmalade, , apricotapricot, , strawberrystrawberry..A second kindA second kind of collocation arises where a word requires association with of collocation arises where a word requires association with a member of a certain class or category of item, and such collocations are a member of a certain class or category of item, and such collocations are constrained lexicogrammatically as well as semantically, e.g. word constrained lexicogrammatically as well as semantically, e.g. word rancid, rancid, adjadj. . is typically associated with is typically associated with butterbutter, , fatfat, and foods containing butter or fat., and foods containing butter or fat.In other cases, a word has a particular meaning only when it is in collocation In other cases, a word has a particular meaning only when it is in collocation with certain other words, e.g. with certain other words, e.g. face the truth/facts/problemface the truth/facts/problem. Also, selection . Also, selection restrictions on verbs may specify certain kinds of subject or object, e.g. the restrictions on verbs may specify certain kinds of subject or object, e.g. the verb verb drinkdrink normally requires a human subject and a liquid as object. normally requires a human subject and a liquid as object.

Kinds of collocationKinds of collocation

A A third kindthird kind of collocation is syntactic, of collocation is syntactic, and arises where a verb, adjective, or and arises where a verb, adjective, or nominalization requires complementation nominalization requires complementation with, for example, a specified particle. with, for example, a specified particle. Such collocations are grammatically well Such collocations are grammatically well formed and highly frequent, but not formed and highly frequent, but not necessarily holistic and independent, e.g. necessarily holistic and independent, e.g. to beto be, , one ofone of, , had beenhad been, , you knowyou know, , thank thank you very muchyou very much, , are going to beare going to be, etc., etc.

Two principles underlying languageTwo principles underlying language

The open choice principleThe open choice principleThe idiom principleThe idiom principleThese two principles are diametrically opposed,and both are required in These two principles are diametrically opposed,and both are required in order to account for language.order to account for language.The open choice principle – a way of seeing language text as a result of a The open choice principle – a way of seeing language text as a result of a very large number of complex choices. At each point where a unit is very large number of complex choices. At each point where a unit is completed (a word or a phrase or a clause) a large range of choices opens completed (a word or a phrase or a clause) a large range of choices opens up, and the only restraint is grammaticalness.up, and the only restraint is grammaticalness.The idiom principle – a language user has available to him a large number The idiom principle – a language user has available to him a large number of semi-prestructured phrases that constitute single choices.of semi-prestructured phrases that constitute single choices.Thus at a point in text where the open choice model would suggest a large Thus at a point in text where the open choice model would suggest a large range of possible choices, the idiom principle restricts it over and above range of possible choices, the idiom principle restricts it over and above predictable semantic restraints that result from topic or situational context. A predictable semantic restraints that result from topic or situational context. A single choice in one slot may be made which dictates which elements will fill single choice in one slot may be made which dictates which elements will fill the next slot/s, and prevents the use of free choice.the next slot/s, and prevents the use of free choice.

Two principles underlying languageTwo principles underlying language

Example: Example: of course – of course – orthography and orthography and the open choice modelthe open choice model suggests that this suggests that this sequence comprises two different choices: sequence comprises two different choices: one at the one at the ofof slot, and one at the slot, and one at the coursecourse slot.slot.– the idiom principlethe idiom principle suggests that it is a suggests that it is a

single choice which coincidentally occupies single choice which coincidentally occupies two word spaces.two word spaces.

The idiom principleThe idiom principle

This principle is seen not only in fixed strings (e.g. This principle is seen not only in fixed strings (e.g. of of coursecourse) but also in other kinds of phraseological unit, ) but also in other kinds of phraseological unit, e.g. greetings and social routines demonstrate the idiom e.g. greetings and social routines demonstrate the idiom principle. Sociocultural rules of interaction restrict principle. Sociocultural rules of interaction restrict choices within an exchange which may be realized in choices within an exchange which may be realized in fairly fixed formulations.fairly fixed formulations.Sayings, similes, and proverbs also represent single Sayings, similes, and proverbs also represent single choices, even when they are truncated or manipulated, choices, even when they are truncated or manipulated, and they may be prompted discoursally as stereotyped and they may be prompted discoursally as stereotyped responses, e.g. responses, e.g. (every cloud has) a silver lining; no news (every cloud has) a silver lining; no news is good newsis good news – these are predictable comments on – these are predictable comments on common experiences.common experiences.

The idiom principleThe idiom principle

There are also recurrent clauses and other There are also recurrent clauses and other units that demonstrate the idiom principle, units that demonstrate the idiom principle, e.g. from e.g. from can I come in?,can I come in?, are you ready?are you ready? to to it’s as easy as falling off a logit’s as easy as falling off a log..

Memorized clauses and clause sequences Memorized clauses and clause sequences form a high proportion of the fluent form a high proportion of the fluent stretches of speech heard in everyday stretches of speech heard in everyday conversation.conversation.

Psycholinguistic aspects of Psycholinguistic aspects of chunkingchunking

Research into language acquisition – Research into language acquisition – suggests that language is learned, stored, suggests that language is learned, stored, retrieved, and produced in multi-word retrieved, and produced in multi-word items, not just as individual words or items, not just as individual words or terms.terms.

Processing of FEIsProcessing of FEIsResearch into the psycholinguistic processing of FEIs adresses questions Research into the psycholinguistic processing of FEIs adresses questions such as: how FEIs are recognized; how they are stored in the mental such as: how FEIs are recognized; how they are stored in the mental lexicon; whether idiomatic meanings are retrieved before, after, or lexicon; whether idiomatic meanings are retrieved before, after, or simultaneously with literal meanings; how variations and inflections are simultaneously with literal meanings; how variations and inflections are handled.handled.In attempting to find out how FEIs are processed, the notion of the ‘idiom In attempting to find out how FEIs are processed, the notion of the ‘idiom list’ has been incorporated into the hypothesis that idioms are stored list’ has been incorporated into the hypothesis that idioms are stored separately in the mental lexicon. The analysis of the literal meaning occurs separately in the mental lexicon. The analysis of the literal meaning occurs separately from the idiomatic meaning. The literal meaning is normally separately from the idiomatic meaning. The literal meaning is normally processed first, and when the processing fails to yield an interpretation for processed first, and when the processing fails to yield an interpretation for the context, the ‘idiom list’ is accessed.the context, the ‘idiom list’ is accessed.According to another hypothesis, idioms are stored and retrieved like single According to another hypothesis, idioms are stored and retrieved like single words and idiomatic and literal meanings are processed simultaneously. words and idiomatic and literal meanings are processed simultaneously. The experiments show that subjects decode idiomatic meanings faster than The experiments show that subjects decode idiomatic meanings faster than literal ones.literal ones.There is a third hypothesis, which introduces the notion of the ‘key’ word, There is a third hypothesis, which introduces the notion of the ‘key’ word, which is a component word in an FEI that triggers recognition of the whole.which is a component word in an FEI that triggers recognition of the whole.

LexicalizationLexicalization

With respect to FEIs, With respect to FEIs, llexicalization exicalization is the process by is the process by which a string of words and morphemes becomes which a string of words and morphemes becomes institutionalized as part of the language and develops its institutionalized as part of the language and develops its own specialist meaning or function.own specialist meaning or function.Lexicalization of FEIs results from a three-way tension Lexicalization of FEIs results from a three-way tension between quantitative criterion of institutionalization, the between quantitative criterion of institutionalization, the lexicogrammatical criterion of fixedness, and the lexicogrammatical criterion of fixedness, and the qualitative criterion of non-compositionality, but there are qualitative criterion of non-compositionality, but there are problems with all these criteria: institutionalization and problems with all these criteria: institutionalization and frequency are not enough on their own, fixedness can be frequency are not enough on their own, fixedness can be misleading (there is instability of forms), non-misleading (there is instability of forms), non-compositionality is dependent on the ways in which the compositionality is dependent on the ways in which the meanings of individual words are analysed both in meanings of individual words are analysed both in dictionaries and notional lexicons.dictionaries and notional lexicons.

Diachronic considerationsDiachronic considerations

Instituationalization is a diachronic process – much of the lexical, Instituationalization is a diachronic process – much of the lexical, syntactic and semantic anomalousness of FEIs results from syntactic and semantic anomalousness of FEIs results from historical processes. Cranberry collocations such as historical processes. Cranberry collocations such as to and froto and fro and and kith and kinkith and kin contain lexical items that were formerly current. contain lexical items that were formerly current.The ill-formed collocation The ill-formed collocation through thick and thinthrough thick and thin is an ellipsis of is an ellipsis of through thicket and thin woodthrough thicket and thin wood, and , and of courseof course is an ellipsis of is an ellipsis of a a matter of coursematter of course, or , or of course and customof course and custom, or , or of common courseof common course..FEIs disappear, and others emerge.FEIs disappear, and others emerge.Metaphors, initially transparent, come in from sporting, technical, Metaphors, initially transparent, come in from sporting, technical, and other specialist domains, e.g. business metaphors such as and other specialist domains, e.g. business metaphors such as there’s no such thing as a free lunch. there’s no such thing as a free lunch. As neologisms become As neologisms become institutionalized and divorced from their original contexts of use, the institutionalized and divorced from their original contexts of use, the explanation or motivation for the metaphor may become lost or explanation or motivation for the metaphor may become lost or obscure.obscure.

Diachronic considerationsDiachronic considerations

Some metaphorical FEIs and proverbs may be Some metaphorical FEIs and proverbs may be traced back to classical or Biblical sayings or traced back to classical or Biblical sayings or historical events, historical events, e.g.better late than never, all e.g.better late than never, all roads lead to Rome, an eye for an eye, burn roads lead to Rome, an eye for an eye, burn one’s bridges/boatsone’s bridges/boats..

Catchphrases drawn from cinema, television, Catchphrases drawn from cinema, television, politics, journalism and so on become politics, journalism and so on become institutionalized as sayings and other kinds of institutionalized as sayings and other kinds of formula – this is an obvious way in which English formula – this is an obvious way in which English fixed expressions realize intertextuality:fixed expressions realize intertextuality:

Diachronic considerationsDiachronic considerationsAnd now for something completely differentAnd now for something completely differentDidn’t she do wellDidn’t she do wellGo ahead, make my dayGo ahead, make my dayI think we should be toldI think we should be toldI’ll be backI’ll be backI’ll have what she’s havingI’ll have what she’s havingPass the sick bag, AlicePass the sick bag, AliceThat will do nicelyThat will do nicelyThere is no alternative There is no alternative (abbreviated as TINA)(abbreviated as TINA)This could be the beginning of a beautiful friendshipThis could be the beginning of a beautiful friendshipThe white heat of this revolutionThe white heat of this revolutionWe wuz robbedWe wuz robbedIt takes two to tango It takes two to tango (song by Hoffman and Manning)(song by Hoffman and Manning)When the going gets tough, the tough get going When the going gets tough, the tough get going (popularized by Joseph (popularized by Joseph Kennedy)Kennedy)The opera isn’t over until the fat lady sings The opera isn’t over until the fat lady sings (Dan Cook)(Dan Cook)

Diachronic considerationsDiachronic considerations

The catchphrases above are associated with a memorable event or The catchphrases above are associated with a memorable event or film sequence, or consistent media use, they are repeated as film sequence, or consistent media use, they are repeated as commentary devices, greetings and so on, and become situationally commentary devices, greetings and so on, and become situationally or culturally bound.or culturally bound.In other cases, FEIs become established as pithy ways of In other cases, FEIs become established as pithy ways of expressing or referring to concepts; hyphenation is an indicator of expressing or referring to concepts; hyphenation is an indicator of the process of institutionalization and lexicalization. The catenation the process of institutionalization and lexicalization. The catenation of strings into quasi-single words signals the writer’s intention to of strings into quasi-single words signals the writer’s intention to consider a string as a unit, e.g.:consider a string as a unit, e.g.:on a on a first-come-first-servedfirst-come-first-served basis basishis his charity-begins-at-homecharity-begins-at-home appeal appeala a don’t-take-no-for-an-answer don’t-take-no-for-an-answer messagemessageSix months ago it (sc. a hotel) changed owners, but remained in the Six months ago it (sc. a hotel) changed owners, but remained in the hello-how-may-I-help-youhello-how-may-I-help-you-realm-realmThe chaos might amuse the man who belonged to the lThe chaos might amuse the man who belonged to the live-fast-die-ive-fast-die-young-have-a-good-looking-corpseyoung-have-a-good-looking-corpse school. school.