Idiomi, Lecture 02, 1011

Typology of fixed expressionsTypology of fixed expressions

Typology of fixed expressionsTypology of fixed expressions

Fixed expressions are not a unified Fixed expressions are not a unified phenomenon. Therefore, no clear phenomenon. Therefore, no clear classifications are possible.classifications are possible.

This typology of FEIs involves identifying This typology of FEIs involves identifying reasons why each potential FEI might be reasons why each potential FEI might be regarded lexicographically as a holistic regarded lexicographically as a holistic unit, i.e. whether the string is unit, i.e. whether the string is problematicproblematic and and anomalousanomalous on grounds of on grounds of lexicogrammarlexicogrammar, , pragmaticspragmatics , or , or semanticssemantics. This led to three . This led to three macrocategories of FEIs.macrocategories of FEIs.

3 macrocategories3 macrocategories

Anomalous collocationsAnomalous collocations – problematic in – problematic in terms of lexicogrammarterms of lexicogrammar

FormulaeFormulae - problematic in terms of - problematic in terms of pragmaticspragmatics

MetaphorsMetaphors - problematic in terms of - problematic in terms of semanticssemantics

Anomalous collocationsAnomalous collocations

Anomalous collocationsAnomalous collocations are problematic are problematic in in lexicogrammaticallexicogrammatical terms – they are terms – they are syntagmatically or paradigmatically* syntagmatically or paradigmatically* aberrant. Therefore, they cannot be aberrant. Therefore, they cannot be decoded (i.e. understood) purely decoded (i.e. understood) purely compositionally nor encoded (produced) compositionally nor encoded (produced) freely.freely.


SYNTAGMATIC - pertaining to a SYNTAGMATIC - pertaining to a relationship among linguistic elements that relationship among linguistic elements that occur sequentially in the chain of speech occur sequentially in the chain of speech or writing, as the relationship between or writing, as the relationship between the the sunsun and and is shiningis shining or or thethe and and sunsun in in the sentence the sentence The sun is shiningThe sun is shining..


PARADIGMATIC - pertaining to a PARADIGMATIC - pertaining to a relationship among linguistic elements that relationship among linguistic elements that can substitute for each other in a given can substitute for each other in a given context, as the relationship of context, as the relationship of sunsun in in The The sun is shiningsun is shining to other nouns, as to other nouns, as moonmoon, , starstar, or , or lightlight, that could substitute for it in , that could substitute for it in that sentence, or of that sentence, or of is shiningis shining to to was was shiningshining, , shoneshone, , will shinewill shine, etc., as well , etc., as well as to as to is risingis rising, , is settingis setting, etc., etc.

Subclassification of anomalous Subclassification of anomalous collocationscollocations

Anomalous collocations are subdivided according to the nature of the Anomalous collocations are subdivided according to the nature of the anomaly into:anomaly into:

(1)(1) Ill-formed collocations Ill-formed collocations – break the conventional grammatical rules of – break the conventional grammatical rules of English (e.g. English (e.g. at allat all, , by and largeby and large, , of courseof course, , stay putstay put))

(2)(2) Cranberry collocations Cranberry collocations – include items that are unique to the string and – include items that are unique to the string and not found in other collocations (e.g. not found in other collocations (e.g. in in retrospectretrospect, , kith kith and kinand kin, , on on behalfbehalf of of someone/somethingsomeone/something, , short short shriftshrift, , to and to and frofro))

(3)(3) Defective collocations Defective collocations – cannot be decoded purely compositionally mostly – cannot be decoded purely compositionally mostly because a component item has a meaning not found in other collocations or because a component item has a meaning not found in other collocations or contexts, although it has other compositional meanings; or because one or contexts, although it has other compositional meanings; or because one or more of the component items is semantically empty (e.g. more of the component items is semantically empty (e.g. at at leastleast, , a a foregoneforegone conclusion conclusion, , in in effecteffect, , beg beg the questionthe question, , in in timetime))

(4)(4) Phraseological collocations Phraseological collocations – consists of cases where there is a limited – consists of cases where there is a limited paradigm in operation and other analogous strings may be found, but where paradigm in operation and other analogous strings may be found, but where the structure is not fully productive (e.g. the structure is not fully productive (e.g. inin action, action, intointo action, action, out ofout of action action; ; on on showshow, on , on display;display; to a ____ to a ____ degreedegree, to a ____ , to a ____ extentextent))

FormulaeFormulae

FormulaeFormulae are problematic because of are problematic because of their their discoursal functionsdiscoursal functions: they are : they are specialized pragmatically. They generally specialized pragmatically. They generally conform to lexicogrammatical conventions conform to lexicogrammatical conventions of English, and are generally of English, and are generally compositional semantically, although compositional semantically, although some similes and proverbs are obscure or some similes and proverbs are obscure or metaphorical.metaphorical.

Subclassification of formulaeSubclassification of formulae

(1)(1) Simple formulae Simple formulae – routine compositional strings; nevertheless, – routine compositional strings; nevertheless, they have some special discoursal function or are iterative or they have some special discoursal function or are iterative or emphatic, as well as syntagmatically fixed (e.g. emphatic, as well as syntagmatically fixed (e.g. alive and wellalive and well, , I’m I’m sorry to saysorry to say, , not exactlynot exactly, , pick and choosepick and choose, , you knowyou know))

(2) (2) SayingsSayings – include formulae such as quotations, catch-phrases – include formulae such as quotations, catch-phrases and truisms* (e.g. and truisms* (e.g. curiouser and curiouser, don’t let the bastdards curiouser and curiouser, don’t let the bastdards grind you down, that’s the way the cookie crumblesgrind you down, that’s the way the cookie crumbles))

(3) (3) ProverbsProverbs – metaphorical proverbs (e.g. – metaphorical proverbs (e.g. you can’t have your cake you can’t have your cake and eat it, every cloud has a silver liningand eat it, every cloud has a silver lining), non-metaphorical ), non-metaphorical proverbs (proverbs (enough is enoughenough is enough, , first come first servedfirst come first served))

(4)(4) Similes Similes – institutionalized comparisons that are typically – institutionalized comparisons that are typically transparent, but not always, and are signalled by transparent, but not always, and are signalled by asas or or likelike (e.g. (e.g. as as good as goldgood as gold, , as old as the hillsas old as the hills, , like lambs to the slaughterlike lambs to the slaughter, , live like live like a kinga king))


TRUISM - TRUISM - an undoubted or self-evident an undoubted or self-evident truthtruth

CATCH-PHRASE - a phrase or expression CATCH-PHRASE - a phrase or expression recognized by its repeated utterance. recognized by its repeated utterance. Such phrases often originate in popular Such phrases often originate in popular culture and in the arts, and typically culture and in the arts, and typically spread through a variety of mass media spread through a variety of mass media (such as literature and publishing, motion (such as literature and publishing, motion pictures, television and radio), as well as pictures, television and radio), as well as word of mouthword of mouth


don’t let the bastdards grind you downdon’t let the bastdards grind you down = = Often Often given in the Latin version - 'nil carborundum given in the Latin version - 'nil carborundum illegitimi'. The phrase originated during illegitimi'. The phrase originated during World War IIWorld War II. . LexicographerLexicographer Eric PartridgeEric Partridge attributes it to British army intelligence very early attributes it to British army intelligence very early in the warin the war.. The phrase was adopted by US Army The phrase was adopted by US Army general general "Vinegar" Joe Stillwell"Vinegar" Joe Stillwell as his motto as his motto during the warduring the war. . It was later further popularized in It was later further popularized in the US by 1964 presidential candidate the US by 1964 presidential candidate Barry GoldwaterBarry Goldwater curiouser and curiousercuriouser and curiouser = from = from Alice in Alice in WonderlandWonderland by Lewis Carroll by Lewis Carroll

MetaphorsMetaphors

MetaphorsMetaphors are strings that are non- are strings that are non-compositional because of their compositional because of their semantics:semantics: they include they include pure idiomspure idioms. . Sublassification of metaphors reflects Sublassification of metaphors reflects degrees of transparencydegrees of transparency..

Subclassification of metaphorsSubclassification of metaphors(1)(1) Transparent metaphors Transparent metaphors – are those that are institutionalized but the image – are those that are institutionalized but the image

or vehicle of the metaphor is such that the reader/hearer can be expected to or vehicle of the metaphor is such that the reader/hearer can be expected to decode it successfully by means of his real-world knowledge (e.g. decode it successfully by means of his real-world knowledge (e.g. alarm alarm bells ringbells ring, , behind someone’s backbehind someone’s back, , breathe life into somethingbreathe life into something, , on on someone’s doorstepsomeone’s doorstep, , pack one’s bagspack one’s bags))

(2)(2) Semi-transparent metaphors Semi-transparent metaphors – require some specialist knowledge in order – require some specialist knowledge in order to be decoded. Not all speakers of a language may understand the to be decoded. Not all speakers of a language may understand the reference. If the institutionalized idiomatic meaning is unknown, there may reference. If the institutionalized idiomatic meaning is unknown, there may be two or more possible interpretations (e.g. be two or more possible interpretations (e.g. grasp the nettlegrasp the nettle, , on an even on an even keelkeel, , the pecking orderthe pecking order, , throw in the towelthrow in the towel, , under one’s beltunder one’s belt).).

Grasp the nettleGrasp the nettle – means ‘tackle something difficult with determination and – means ‘tackle something difficult with determination and without delay’, but someone not knowing the metaphor might easily interpret without delay’, but someone not knowing the metaphor might easily interpret it as ‘do something foolish which will have unpleasant consequences’.it as ‘do something foolish which will have unpleasant consequences’.

(3)(3) Opaque metaphors Opaque metaphors – are pure idioms, and in them compositional decoding – are pure idioms, and in them compositional decoding and interpretation of the image are practically impossible without knowledge and interpretation of the image are practically impossible without knowledge of the historical origins of the expression (of the historical origins of the expression (bite the bulletbite the bullet, , kick the bucketkick the bucket, , over the moonover the moon, , red herringred herring, , shoot the breezeshoot the breeze))

Collocation and chunkingCollocation and chunking

CollocationCollocation

Language is strongly patterned: many words Language is strongly patterned: many words occur repeatedly in certain lexicogrammatical occur repeatedly in certain lexicogrammatical patterns.patterns.

Psycholinguistic research – language is Psycholinguistic research – language is processed in chunks. The basic unit for processed in chunks. The basic unit for encoding and decoding may be the group, set encoding and decoding may be the group, set phrase, or phrase, or collocationcollocation, rather than ortographic , rather than ortographic word.word.

This is relevant to FEIs because it may shed This is relevant to FEIs because it may shed light on how they are processed, how they light on how they are processed, how they fossilize, and on their function in discourse.fossilize, and on their function in discourse.

Collocation - definitionCollocation - definition

‘‘Collocation is the occurrence of two or Collocation is the occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each more words within a short space of each other in a text.’ (J.M. Sinclair, other in a text.’ (J.M. Sinclair, Corpus, Corpus, Concordance, CollocationConcordance, Collocation, OUP, 1991), OUP, 1991)Collocation denotes frequently repeated or Collocation denotes frequently repeated or statistically significant co-occurrences, statistically significant co-occurrences, whether or not there are any special whether or not there are any special semantic bonds between collocating semantic bonds between collocating items.items.

CollocationCollocation

CollocationCollocation – simple co-occurrence of – simple co-occurrence of itemsitems

Anomalous collocationAnomalous collocation – designates a – designates a class of FEIs, with subtypes (class of FEIs, with subtypes (ill-formed ill-formed collocationcollocation, , cranberry collocationcranberry collocation, , defective collocationdefective collocation, , phraseological phraseological collocationcollocation))

Kinds of collocationKinds of collocationCollocations are the lexical evidence that words do not combine randomly Collocations are the lexical evidence that words do not combine randomly but follow rules, principles, and real-world motivations. Different kinds of but follow rules, principles, and real-world motivations. Different kinds of collocation reflect different kinds of phenomenon.collocation reflect different kinds of phenomenon.The simplest kindThe simplest kind arises through semantics: co-occurrence of co-members arises through semantics: co-occurrence of co-members of semantic fields, represenring co-occurrence of the referents in the real of semantic fields, represenring co-occurrence of the referents in the real world, e.g.world, e.g. wordword jam jam co-occurs with other words from the lexical set ‘food’, co-occurs with other words from the lexical set ‘food’, such as such as tartstarts, , buttybutty, , doughnutsdoughnuts, , marmalademarmalade, , apricotapricot, , strawberrystrawberry..A second kindA second kind of collocation arises where a word requires association with of collocation arises where a word requires association with a member of a certain class or category of item, and such collocations are a member of a certain class or category of item, and such collocations are constrained lexicogrammatically as well as semantically, e.g. word constrained lexicogrammatically as well as semantically, e.g. word rancid, rancid, adjadj. . is typically associated with is typically associated with butterbutter, , fatfat, and foods containing butter or fat., and foods containing butter or fat.In other cases, a word has a particular meaning only when it is in collocation In other cases, a word has a particular meaning only when it is in collocation with certain other words, e.g. with certain other words, e.g. face the truth/facts/problemface the truth/facts/problem. Also, selection . Also, selection restrictions on verbs may specify certain kinds of subject or object, e.g. the restrictions on verbs may specify certain kinds of subject or object, e.g. the verb verb drinkdrink normally requires a human subject and a liquid as object. normally requires a human subject and a liquid as object.

Kinds of collocationKinds of collocation

A A third kindthird kind of collocation is syntactic, of collocation is syntactic, and arises where a verb, adjective, or and arises where a verb, adjective, or nominalization requires complementation nominalization requires complementation with, for example, a specified particle. with, for example, a specified particle. Such collocations are grammatically well Such collocations are grammatically well formed and highly frequent, but not formed and highly frequent, but not necessarily holistic and independent, e.g. necessarily holistic and independent, e.g. to beto be, , one ofone of, , had beenhad been, , you knowyou know, , thank thank you very muchyou very much, , are going to beare going to be, etc., etc.

Two principles underlying languageTwo principles underlying language

The The open choice principleopen choice principleThe The idiom principleidiom principleThese two principles are diametrically opposed,and both are required in These two principles are diametrically opposed,and both are required in order to account for language.order to account for language.The open choice principleThe open choice principle – a way of seeing language text as a result of a – a way of seeing language text as a result of a very large number of complex choices. At each point where a unit is very large number of complex choices. At each point where a unit is completed (a word or a phrase or a clause) a large range of choices opens completed (a word or a phrase or a clause) a large range of choices opens up, and the only restraint is grammaticalness.up, and the only restraint is grammaticalness.The idiom principleThe idiom principle – a language user has available to him a large number – a language user has available to him a large number of semi-prestructured phrases that constitute single choices.of semi-prestructured phrases that constitute single choices.Thus at a point in text where the open choice model would suggest a large Thus at a point in text where the open choice model would suggest a large range of possible choices, the idiom principle restricts it over and above range of possible choices, the idiom principle restricts it over and above predictable semantic restraints that result from topic or situational context. A predictable semantic restraints that result from topic or situational context. A single choice in one slot may be made which dictates which elements will fill single choice in one slot may be made which dictates which elements will fill the next slot/s, and prevents the use of free choice.the next slot/s, and prevents the use of free choice.

Two principles underlying languageTwo principles underlying language

Example: Example: of course – of course – orthography and orthography and the open choice modelthe open choice model suggests that this suggests that this sequence comprises two different choices: sequence comprises two different choices: one at the one at the ofof slot, and one at the slot, and one at the coursecourse slot.slot.– the idiom principlethe idiom principle suggests that it is a suggests that it is a

single choice which coincidentally single choice which coincidentally occupies two word spaces.occupies two word spaces.

The idiom principleThe idiom principle

This principle is seen not only in fixed strings (e.g. This principle is seen not only in fixed strings (e.g. of of coursecourse) but also in other kinds of phraseological unit, e.g. ) but also in other kinds of phraseological unit, e.g. greetings and social routines demonstrate the idiom greetings and social routines demonstrate the idiom principle. Sociocultural rules of interaction restrict principle. Sociocultural rules of interaction restrict choices within an exchange which may be realized in choices within an exchange which may be realized in fairly fixed formulations.fairly fixed formulations.Sayings, similes, and proverbs also represent single Sayings, similes, and proverbs also represent single choices, even when they are truncated or manipulated, choices, even when they are truncated or manipulated, and they may be prompted discoursally as stereotyped and they may be prompted discoursally as stereotyped responses, e.g. responses, e.g. (every cloud has) a silver lining; no news (every cloud has) a silver lining; no news is good newsis good news – these are predictable comments on – these are predictable comments on common experiences.common experiences.

The idiom principleThe idiom principle

There are also recurrent clauses and other There are also recurrent clauses and other units that demonstrate the idiom principle, units that demonstrate the idiom principle, e.g. from purely compositional e.g. from purely compositional can I come can I come in?,in?, are you ready?are you ready? to you to you can lead a can lead a horse to water but you can't make it/him horse to water but you can't make it/him drinkdrink, or , or it’s as easy as falling off a logit’s as easy as falling off a log..

Memorized clauses and clause sequences Memorized clauses and clause sequences form a high proportion of the fluent form a high proportion of the fluent stretches of speech heard in everyday stretches of speech heard in everyday conversation.conversation.

Psycholinguistic aspects of Psycholinguistic aspects of chunkingchunking

Research into language acquisition – Research into language acquisition – suggests that language is learned, stored, suggests that language is learned, stored, retrieved, and produced in multi-word retrieved, and produced in multi-word items, not just as individual words or items, not just as individual words or terms.terms.

Processing of FEIsProcessing of FEIsResearch into the psycholinguistic processing of FEIs adresses questions Research into the psycholinguistic processing of FEIs adresses questions such as: how FEIs are recognized; how they are stored in the mental such as: how FEIs are recognized; how they are stored in the mental lexicon; whether idiomatic meanings are retrieved before, after, or lexicon; whether idiomatic meanings are retrieved before, after, or simultaneously with literal meanings; how variations and inflections are simultaneously with literal meanings; how variations and inflections are handled.handled.In attempting to find out how FEIs are processed, the notion of the ‘idiom In attempting to find out how FEIs are processed, the notion of the ‘idiom list’ has been incorporated into the hypothesis that idioms are stored list’ has been incorporated into the hypothesis that idioms are stored separately in the mental lexicon. The analysis of the literal meaning occurs separately in the mental lexicon. The analysis of the literal meaning occurs separately from the idiomatic meaning. The literal meaning is normally separately from the idiomatic meaning. The literal meaning is normally processed first, and when the processing fails to yield an interpretation for processed first, and when the processing fails to yield an interpretation for the context, the ‘idiom list’ is accessed.the context, the ‘idiom list’ is accessed.According to another hypothesis, idioms are stored and retrieved like single According to another hypothesis, idioms are stored and retrieved like single words and idiomatic and literal meanings are processed simultaneously. words and idiomatic and literal meanings are processed simultaneously. The experiments show that subjects decode idiomatic meanings faster than The experiments show that subjects decode idiomatic meanings faster than literal ones.literal ones.There is a third hypothesis, which introduces the notion of the ‘key’ word, There is a third hypothesis, which introduces the notion of the ‘key’ word, which is a component word in an FEI that triggers recognition of the whole.which is a component word in an FEI that triggers recognition of the whole.

LexicalizationLexicalization

LexicalizationLexicalization is the process by which a string of words is the process by which a string of words and morphemes becomes institutionalized as part of the and morphemes becomes institutionalized as part of the language and develops its own specialist meaning or language and develops its own specialist meaning or function.function.Lexicalization of FEIsLexicalization of FEIs results from a three-way tension results from a three-way tension between quantitative criterion of institutionalization, the between quantitative criterion of institutionalization, the lexicogrammatical criterion of fixedness, and the lexicogrammatical criterion of fixedness, and the qualitative criterion of non-compositionality, but there are qualitative criterion of non-compositionality, but there are problems with all these criteria: institutionalization and problems with all these criteria: institutionalization and frequency are not enough on their own, fixedness can be frequency are not enough on their own, fixedness can be misleading (there is instability of forms), non-misleading (there is instability of forms), non-compositionality is dependent on the ways in which the compositionality is dependent on the ways in which the meanings of individual words are analysed both in meanings of individual words are analysed both in dictionaries and notional lexicons.dictionaries and notional lexicons.

Diachronic considerationsDiachronic considerations

Institutionalization is a diachronic process – much of the lexical, Institutionalization is a diachronic process – much of the lexical, syntactic and semantic anomalousness of FEIs results from syntactic and semantic anomalousness of FEIs results from historical processes. Cranberry collocations such as historical processes. Cranberry collocations such as to and froto and fro and and kith and kinkith and kin contain lexical items that were formerly current. contain lexical items that were formerly current.The ill-formed collocation The ill-formed collocation through thick and thinthrough thick and thin is an ellipsis of is an ellipsis of through thicket and thin woodthrough thicket and thin wood, and , and of courseof course is an ellipsis of is an ellipsis of a a matter of coursematter of course, or , or of course and customof course and custom, or , or of common courseof common course..FEIs disappear, and others emerge.FEIs disappear, and others emerge.Metaphors, initially transparent, come in from sporting, technical, Metaphors, initially transparent, come in from sporting, technical, and other specialist domains, e.g. business metaphors such as and other specialist domains, e.g. business metaphors such as there’s no such thing as a free lunch. there’s no such thing as a free lunch. As neologisms become As neologisms become institutionalized and divorced from their original contexts of use, the institutionalized and divorced from their original contexts of use, the explanation or motivation for the metaphor may become lost or explanation or motivation for the metaphor may become lost or obscure.obscure.


Some metaphorical FEIs and proverbs may be Some metaphorical FEIs and proverbs may be traced back to classical or Biblical sayings or traced back to classical or Biblical sayings or historical events, historical events, e.g.better late than never, all e.g.better late than never, all roads lead to Rome, an eye for an eye, burn roads lead to Rome, an eye for an eye, burn one’s bridges/boatsone’s bridges/boats..

Catchphrases drawn from cinema, television, Catchphrases drawn from cinema, television, politics, journalism and so on become politics, journalism and so on become institutionalized as sayings and other kinds of institutionalized as sayings and other kinds of formula – this is an obvious way in which English formula – this is an obvious way in which English fixed expressions realize intertextuality:fixed expressions realize intertextuality:

Diachronic considerationsDiachronic considerationsAnd now for something completely differentAnd now for something completely differentDidn’t she do wellDidn’t she do wellGo ahead, make my dayGo ahead, make my dayI think we should be toldI think we should be toldI’ll be backI’ll be backI’ll have what she’s havingI’ll have what she’s havingPass the sick bag, AlicePass the sick bag, AliceThat will do nicelyThat will do nicelyThere is no alternative There is no alternative (abbreviated as TINA)(abbreviated as TINA)This could be the beginning of a beautiful friendshipThis could be the beginning of a beautiful friendshipThe white heat of this revolutionThe white heat of this revolutionWe wuz robbedWe wuz robbedIt takes two to tango It takes two to tango (song by Hoffman and Manning)(song by Hoffman and Manning)When the going gets tough, the tough get going When the going gets tough, the tough get going (popularized by Joseph (popularized by Joseph Kennedy)Kennedy)The opera isn’t over until the fat lady sings The opera isn’t over until the fat lady sings (Dan Cook)(Dan Cook)


The catchphrases above are associated with a memorable event or The catchphrases above are associated with a memorable event or film sequence, or consistent media use, they are repeated as film sequence, or consistent media use, they are repeated as commentary devices, greetings and so on, and become situationally commentary devices, greetings and so on, and become situationally or culturally bound.or culturally bound.In other cases, FEIs become established as pithy ways of In other cases, FEIs become established as pithy ways of expressing or referring to concepts; hyphenation is an indicator of expressing or referring to concepts; hyphenation is an indicator of the process of institutionalization and lexicalization. The catenation the process of institutionalization and lexicalization. The catenation of strings into quasi-single words signals the writer’s intention to of strings into quasi-single words signals the writer’s intention to consider a string as a unit, e.g.:consider a string as a unit, e.g.:on a on a first-come-first-servedfirst-come-first-served basis basishis his charity-begins-at-homecharity-begins-at-home appeal appeala a don’t-take-no-for-an-answer don’t-take-no-for-an-answer messagemessageSix months ago it (sc. a hotel) changed owners, but remained in the Six months ago it (sc. a hotel) changed owners, but remained in the hello-how-may-I-help-youhello-how-may-I-help-you-realm-realmThe chaos might amuse the man who belonged to the lThe chaos might amuse the man who belonged to the live-fast-die-ive-fast-die-young-have-a-good-looking-corpseyoung-have-a-good-looking-corpse school. school.

Documents

Idiomi, Lecture 02, 1011