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Research Papers N° 27
European Post Graduate School of International & Development Studies
Identity and Conflict: Cultural Heritage & the Re-construction
of Identities after Conflict
Anne-‐Françoise Morel
2012
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the CERIS team for the coordination of interesting and
thought-provoking lectures, seminars and visits.
I hereby express my gratitude to Dr. Willy Stevens, Former Belgian Ambassador, for
his advice and guidance in the choice and definition of this dissertation subject. His
reflections were essential to bring this work to a good end.
I am especially indebted to H.E. Pascal H. Grégoire, Head of Mission for the Belgian
Diplomatic Services to Pristina, Kosovo and a longtime friend. His availability to
answer questions and provide me with the latest (field) information were more than
substantial to this work.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
p.3
Résumé and definitions
p.3
Aims
p.4
Facts
p.5
Historical overview of the Kosovo-Serbia relations
p.6
2. Identity, Culture and Nationhood in the Balkans
p.9
Cultural Conflicts - Balkan Conflicts
p.9
Cultural Heritage and identity
p.11
3. The Role of Culture and Heritage in Post-conflict reconciliation
p.16
4. Assessment of international law and regulation on cultural artifacts during war-time
p.28
5. Conclusion
p.32
"This book is not an urging to live in the past surrounded entirely by the
architectural relics of earlier times, but with reminders that are freely chosen and
with a plurality of these reminders in order positively to reflect heterogeneity within
societies. Difference needs not to be otherness. Memories of past wrongs also need
to be kept alive without chauvinism poisoning the hope of a shared future.
1 R. Bevan, The Destruction of Memory:
1
This book is not an urging to live in the past surrounded entirely by the
architectural relics of earlier times, but with reminders that are freely chosen and
plurality of these reminders in order positively to reflect heterogeneity within
societies. Difference needs not to be otherness. Memories of past wrongs also need
to be kept alive without chauvinism poisoning the hope of a shared future.
The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War, Reaktion, 2006, p.211.
This book is not an urging to live in the past surrounded entirely by the
architectural relics of earlier times, but with reminders that are freely chosen and
plurality of these reminders in order positively to reflect heterogeneity within
societies. Difference needs not to be otherness. Memories of past wrongs also need
to be kept alive without chauvinism poisoning the hope of a shared future." 1
, Reaktion, 2006, p.211.
2
1. Introduction
Résumé and definitions
This paper aims to analyze the role and the importance of cultural heritage in
nation building, especially in periods of reconstruction after conflict. My research is
based on the underlying assumption that nations
ideology or form of politics but should be considered as cultural phenomena as
well.2 In consequence national identity must be regarded as a collective
multidimensional cultural phenomenon including language, sentiments and
symbolism. These phenomena are rooted in common familial, territorial, class,
religious, ethnic or gender backgrounds which may be modified or abolished.
Nations have thus to be understood as dynamic and complex processes. Anthony D.
Smith defines nation as "A named human population sharing an historic territory,
common myths, and historical memories, a mass public culture, a common
economy, and common legal rights and duties for all members".
Anthony D. Smith, the collective cultural identity
offers a sense of continuity to the past, unity of the population, and notions about
collective destiny. By providing repertories of shared values, symbols and tradition,
cultural identity helps to define, locate and orient
world. Hence Smith defines
on the part of successive generations of a given cultural unit of population to
shared memories of earlier events and periods in the histor
notions entertained by each generation about the collective destiny of that unit and
its culture. Changes in cultural identity therefore refer to the degree to which
traumatic developments disturb the basic patterning of cultural elem
up the sense of continuity".
Indeed, continuity and development are important to the creation and sustaining of
the national identity. Nations often refer to "golden ages", national symbols,
traditions (religious, popular, political) in ord
legitimacy. In consequence, at times of conflict, the national cultural identity suffers
a lot. Direct and co-lateral damage are caused to this cultural identity on symbolic,
material and psychological level.
imposed, ursurpated or destroyed and in both cases identity is disturbed. Cultural
heritage suffers from deliberate destruction and / or misuse in order to raise
hostilities and propagate different conflict
symbol of the identity of an ethnic group or nation, is endangered when one wants
to deny its existence or prove its weakness. In the words of Leturcq: "heritage is
affected in its essence as heritage
which one tries to damage or even deny".
Leturcq's definition poses two problems. A first complexity is hidden in the
definition of "the other". "The o
different factions with the popu
regime and its people. If heritage might be a powerful instrument in nation building,
2 A. D. Smith, National Identity, Penguin, 19913 A. D. Smith, p.14. 4 A. D. Smith, p.25. 5 Leturc quoted in: A. D. Smith,
3
This paper aims to analyze the role and the importance of cultural heritage in
nation building, especially in periods of reconstruction after conflict. My research is
based on the underlying assumption that nations cannot simply be understood as
ideology or form of politics but should be considered as cultural phenomena as
In consequence national identity must be regarded as a collective
multidimensional cultural phenomenon including language, sentiments and
ymbolism. These phenomena are rooted in common familial, territorial, class,
religious, ethnic or gender backgrounds which may be modified or abolished.
Nations have thus to be understood as dynamic and complex processes. Anthony D.
"A named human population sharing an historic territory,
common myths, and historical memories, a mass public culture, a common
economy, and common legal rights and duties for all members".
Anthony D. Smith, the collective cultural identity is fundamental to the nation. It
offers a sense of continuity to the past, unity of the population, and notions about
collective destiny. By providing repertories of shared values, symbols and tradition,
cultural identity helps to define, locate and orientate the individual (nation) in the
world. Hence Smith defines collective cultural identity as "a sense of continuity
on the part of successive generations of a given cultural unit of population to
shared memories of earlier events and periods in the history of that unit and to
notions entertained by each generation about the collective destiny of that unit and
its culture. Changes in cultural identity therefore refer to the degree to which
traumatic developments disturb the basic patterning of cultural elem
up the sense of continuity".4
Indeed, continuity and development are important to the creation and sustaining of
the national identity. Nations often refer to "golden ages", national symbols,
traditions (religious, popular, political) in order to emphasize their strength and
legitimacy. In consequence, at times of conflict, the national cultural identity suffers
lateral damage are caused to this cultural identity on symbolic,
erial and psychological level. Nations dominate or collapse, symbols are
imposed, ursurpated or destroyed and in both cases identity is disturbed. Cultural
heritage suffers from deliberate destruction and / or misuse in order to raise
hostilities and propagate different conflict ideologies. Cultural property, seen as a
symbol of the identity of an ethnic group or nation, is endangered when one wants
to deny its existence or prove its weakness. In the words of Leturcq: "heritage is
affected in its essence as heritage - as a legacy belonging to the pa
which one tries to damage or even deny". 5
Leturcq's definition poses two problems. A first complexity is hidden in the
"the other". "The other" can be defined as another nation, but also as
different factions with the population of a country or as the huge gap between the
regime and its people. If heritage might be a powerful instrument in nation building,
A. D. Smith, National Identity, Penguin, 1991.
A. D. Smith, p.30
This paper aims to analyze the role and the importance of cultural heritage in
nation building, especially in periods of reconstruction after conflict. My research is
cannot simply be understood as
ideology or form of politics but should be considered as cultural phenomena as
In consequence national identity must be regarded as a collective
multidimensional cultural phenomenon including language, sentiments and
ymbolism. These phenomena are rooted in common familial, territorial, class,
religious, ethnic or gender backgrounds which may be modified or abolished.
Nations have thus to be understood as dynamic and complex processes. Anthony D.
"A named human population sharing an historic territory,
common myths, and historical memories, a mass public culture, a common
economy, and common legal rights and duties for all members".3 According to
is fundamental to the nation. It
offers a sense of continuity to the past, unity of the population, and notions about
collective destiny. By providing repertories of shared values, symbols and tradition,
ate the individual (nation) in the
as "a sense of continuity
on the part of successive generations of a given cultural unit of population to
y of that unit and to
notions entertained by each generation about the collective destiny of that unit and
its culture. Changes in cultural identity therefore refer to the degree to which
traumatic developments disturb the basic patterning of cultural elements that make
Indeed, continuity and development are important to the creation and sustaining of
the national identity. Nations often refer to "golden ages", national symbols,
er to emphasize their strength and
legitimacy. In consequence, at times of conflict, the national cultural identity suffers
lateral damage are caused to this cultural identity on symbolic,
nate or collapse, symbols are
imposed, ursurpated or destroyed and in both cases identity is disturbed. Cultural
heritage suffers from deliberate destruction and / or misuse in order to raise
l property, seen as a
symbol of the identity of an ethnic group or nation, is endangered when one wants
to deny its existence or prove its weakness. In the words of Leturcq: "heritage is
as a legacy belonging to the past of "the other",
Leturcq's definition poses two problems. A first complexity is hidden in the
ther" can be defined as another nation, but also as
lation of a country or as the huge gap between the
regime and its people. If heritage might be a powerful instrument in nation building,
its "boundaries" not necessarily coincide with the nation's ones. Nations and
heritage can have divergent temporal, geo
boundaries (e.g. displacement, political symbolism).
Secondly, Leturcq's definition questions the notion of heritage. Leturqc defines
heritage as a legacy belonging to the past of the other. Hence he includes tangib
and intangible forms of heritage. And while he does explicitly refer to the past he
does not link the notion of heritage to inclusion on (world) heritage lists.
Consequently, when addressing the issue of cultural heritage and the re
construction of identities after conflict one should not only focus on monuments
listed by the international community. Attention should also be paid to local
customs and crafts.
Furthermore it is also important to re
its actual post-conflict area. Questions of environment and c
raised. Possibilities of sustainable protection (mobs and vandalism) after the conflict
are to be studied as well as the status of ruins kept
war. If cultural heritage is more and more seen as an instrument
reconciliation, its protection, conservation and
rebuilding societies and overcoming the sense of displacement caused by conflict.
However, this is to be done with care and sufficient preparation. Firstly, cultural
heritage has a heavy symbolical load. If it certainly
national identity after conflict, it can also keep the memory of the conflict alive and
even cause tensions about religious and economic (returning pieces or rebuilding)
issues. Secondly, the safety of the heritage (esp. museum collections) has to be
guaranteed when returned to its original context. Environmental criteria,
conservation, but also vandalism and robbery have to be taken care off. Thirdly, the
international conventions on heritage protection in conflict need to be evaluated
within the context of cultural heritage and the re
conflict. If it becomes an acceptation that cultural heritage can play a key role in
peace and reconciliation as well as in rebuilding societies; it is fundamental to start
with the preservation of this heritage. Regardless of international conventions and
protocols UNESCO 1954a.,
is still a target in armed conflict, subject to looting and vandalism or exploited for
economic survival. 7 Both the definitions of "heritage" and the means and conditions
to preserve it have to be heavily r
century conflict situations which are more focused on civil wars and terrorism than
ever before.
Aims
1. To evaluate the importance of cultural heritage in the building of national
identity in post-conflict areas
case: Kosovo
2. Evaluation of the role of the national versus international community in
preservation, conservation, restoration of cultural heritage
6S. Lambert, Rockwell C. (eds)2011, p. ix 7 S. Lambert, C. Rockwell (eds), pp. 12
4
its "boundaries" not necessarily coincide with the nation's ones. Nations and
heritage can have divergent temporal, geographical, physical and even symbolical
displacement, political symbolism).
Secondly, Leturcq's definition questions the notion of heritage. Leturqc defines
heritage as a legacy belonging to the past of the other. Hence he includes tangib
and intangible forms of heritage. And while he does explicitly refer to the past he
does not link the notion of heritage to inclusion on (world) heritage lists.
Consequently, when addressing the issue of cultural heritage and the re
tities after conflict one should not only focus on monuments
listed by the international community. Attention should also be paid to local
Furthermore it is also important to re-consider the value of the cultural heritage in
conflict area. Questions of environment and conservation have to be
Possibilities of sustainable protection (mobs and vandalism) after the conflict
are to be studied as well as the status of ruins kept in memory of the tragedy of
ural heritage is more and more seen as an instrument
ts protection, conservation and restoration can play a key
rebuilding societies and overcoming the sense of displacement caused by conflict.
However, this is to be done with care and sufficient preparation. Firstly, cultural
mbolical load. If it certainly can help to reconstruct a
national identity after conflict, it can also keep the memory of the conflict alive and
n cause tensions about religious and economic (returning pieces or rebuilding)
issues. Secondly, the safety of the heritage (esp. museum collections) has to be
guaranteed when returned to its original context. Environmental criteria,
vandalism and robbery have to be taken care off. Thirdly, the
international conventions on heritage protection in conflict need to be evaluated
within the context of cultural heritage and the re-construction of identities after
acceptation that cultural heritage can play a key role in
peace and reconciliation as well as in rebuilding societies; it is fundamental to start
with the preservation of this heritage. Regardless of international conventions and
, UNESCO 1954b. and UNESCO1999. , cultural heritage
is still a target in armed conflict, subject to looting and vandalism or exploited for
Both the definitions of "heritage" and the means and conditions
to preserve it have to be heavily reconsidered and adapted to the twenty
century conflict situations which are more focused on civil wars and terrorism than
1. To evaluate the importance of cultural heritage in the building of national
areas. Analysis of changes of attitude, symbolism etc.
2. Evaluation of the role of the national versus international community in
preservation, conservation, restoration of cultural heritage - case: Kosovo
Rockwell C. (eds), Protecting Cultural Heritge in Times of Conflict
(eds), pp. 12-13.
its "boundaries" not necessarily coincide with the nation's ones. Nations and
and even symbolical
Secondly, Leturcq's definition questions the notion of heritage. Leturqc defines
heritage as a legacy belonging to the past of the other. Hence he includes tangible
and intangible forms of heritage. And while he does explicitly refer to the past he
does not link the notion of heritage to inclusion on (world) heritage lists.
Consequently, when addressing the issue of cultural heritage and the re-
tities after conflict one should not only focus on monuments
listed by the international community. Attention should also be paid to local
consider the value of the cultural heritage in
onservation have to be
Possibilities of sustainable protection (mobs and vandalism) after the conflict
in memory of the tragedy of
ural heritage is more and more seen as an instrument for peace and
can play a key-role in
rebuilding societies and overcoming the sense of displacement caused by conflict. 6
However, this is to be done with care and sufficient preparation. Firstly, cultural
can help to reconstruct a
national identity after conflict, it can also keep the memory of the conflict alive and
n cause tensions about religious and economic (returning pieces or rebuilding)
issues. Secondly, the safety of the heritage (esp. museum collections) has to be
guaranteed when returned to its original context. Environmental criteria,
vandalism and robbery have to be taken care off. Thirdly, the
international conventions on heritage protection in conflict need to be evaluated
construction of identities after
acceptation that cultural heritage can play a key role in
peace and reconciliation as well as in rebuilding societies; it is fundamental to start
with the preservation of this heritage. Regardless of international conventions and
NESCO 1954b. and UNESCO1999. , cultural heritage
is still a target in armed conflict, subject to looting and vandalism or exploited for
Both the definitions of "heritage" and the means and conditions
econsidered and adapted to the twenty-first
century conflict situations which are more focused on civil wars and terrorism than
1. To evaluate the importance of cultural heritage in the building of national
. Analysis of changes of attitude, symbolism etc. -
2. Evaluation of the role of the national versus international community in
case: Kosovo
Protecting Cultural Heritge in Times of Conflict, ICCROM,
3. Evaluation of "sustainability" of t
regions with regular tensions and instability (politic
Kosovo
4. Evaluation of the International Conventions regarding Heritage and Cultural
preservations in times and areas of confl
and twenty-first century artillery.
Ex-cursus: "Prohibition of Funding for UNESCO passes U.S. Senate Committee with
unanimous vote" or the role of the international community in cultural heritage as
an instrument for peace and reconciliation.
Facts
“The rich plains of Kosovo, with their surrounding mountain ranges
which reach an altitude of 2.500m, belong to the most beautiful areas of Europe
and figure among the most fertile parts of the Balka
rivers that flow into the Black, Aegean and Adriatic Seas. Its central position in the
Balkan Peninsula has determined the importance of Kosovo, which covers an area
about 10 000 km² and is situated at the intersection of major
seaward.”8 This central position of Kosovo has lead both to its richness and poverty.
Over the centuries Kosovo has shared and contributed to variegated cultures at the
intersection of the Eastern
and Ottoman empires, of the NATO and the Eastern Bloc
diverse histories and backgrounds. This rich cultural diversity has however also
been at the origin of ethnic clashes which devastated the region. Ottomans an
Christians, Albanians and Serbians have laid claims on the territory for ages,
culminating in the 1999 war. If Kosovo already was the region most affected by
poverty in the Former Republic of Yugoslavia, the events of the 1990’s conflict with
Serbia worsened the situation. The growing power of Slobodan Milosevic in Serbia,
ultimately lead to Kosovo’s loss of political independence and several embargos. The
region became marginalized and isolated in less than a decennial. Today the
headcount ratio at national poverty line (% of population) is of 34.5%, while the
country’s economy is hardly viable. 45.3 % of the population is without work.
According to the World Bank database, the average GDP is $6.446 billion (USD) for
a population of 1.794 million. The GN
the IMF “A key medium-
develop a tradable sector, to reduce the economy’s dependence on transfers and
create the conditions for durable, robust growth. Cri
to strengthen the institutional framework and business climate, as well as
investments in infrastructure and education. More generally, Kosovo is a young
country whose capital and social spending needs are large. Policy
considerable and often understandable pressure to address these pressures rapidly.
To prevent putting macroeconomic stability at risk, it is indispensable to carefully
prioritize, cost, and sequence spending initiatives. Success requires b
8 Koïchiro Matsuura, Cultural Heritage in SouthConservation of a Multi-ethnic Heritage in Danger. Mission report9 World Bank: Kosovo [Online Resource: view dd. 17/09/2012].
5
3. Evaluation of "sustainability" of the heritage in post-conflict area
regions with regular tensions and instability (political, social, economic)
4. Evaluation of the International Conventions regarding Heritage and Cultural
in times and areas of conflict, esp. with regard to civil wars, terrorism,
first century artillery.
of Funding for UNESCO passes U.S. Senate Committee with
unanimous vote" or the role of the international community in cultural heritage as
rument for peace and reconciliation.
“The rich plains of Kosovo, with their surrounding mountain ranges
which reach an altitude of 2.500m, belong to the most beautiful areas of Europe
and figure among the most fertile parts of the Balkans. A watershed divides the
rivers that flow into the Black, Aegean and Adriatic Seas. Its central position in the
Balkan Peninsula has determined the importance of Kosovo, which covers an area
about 10 000 km² and is situated at the intersection of major
This central position of Kosovo has lead both to its richness and poverty.
Over the centuries Kosovo has shared and contributed to variegated cultures at the
ern and Western Roman Empire, of the Austro
empires, of the NATO and the Eastern Bloc and of various people with
diverse histories and backgrounds. This rich cultural diversity has however also
been at the origin of ethnic clashes which devastated the region. Ottomans an
Christians, Albanians and Serbians have laid claims on the territory for ages,
culminating in the 1999 war. If Kosovo already was the region most affected by
poverty in the Former Republic of Yugoslavia, the events of the 1990’s conflict with
ened the situation. The growing power of Slobodan Milosevic in Serbia,
ultimately lead to Kosovo’s loss of political independence and several embargos. The
region became marginalized and isolated in less than a decennial. Today the
onal poverty line (% of population) is of 34.5%, while the
country’s economy is hardly viable. 45.3 % of the population is without work.
According to the World Bank database, the average GDP is $6.446 billion (USD) for
a population of 1.794 million. The GNI per capita is of $3,520 (USD).
-term challenge is to build a competitive economy and
develop a tradable sector, to reduce the economy’s dependence on transfers and
create the conditions for durable, robust growth. Critical to this effort are initiatives
to strengthen the institutional framework and business climate, as well as
investments in infrastructure and education. More generally, Kosovo is a young
country whose capital and social spending needs are large. Policymakers are under
considerable and often understandable pressure to address these pressures rapidly.
To prevent putting macroeconomic stability at risk, it is indispensable to carefully
prioritize, cost, and sequence spending initiatives. Success requires b
Cultural Heritage in South-East Europe: Kosovo. Protection and ethnic Heritage in Danger. Mission report, Paris, 2004, p. 4.
World Bank: Kosovo [Online Resource: http://data.worldbank.org/country/kosovo
nflict areas - esp. in
al, social, economic) – case:
4. Evaluation of the International Conventions regarding Heritage and Cultural
, esp. with regard to civil wars, terrorism,
of Funding for UNESCO passes U.S. Senate Committee with
unanimous vote" or the role of the international community in cultural heritage as
“The rich plains of Kosovo, with their surrounding mountain ranges, the peaks of
which reach an altitude of 2.500m, belong to the most beautiful areas of Europe
ns. A watershed divides the
rivers that flow into the Black, Aegean and Adriatic Seas. Its central position in the
Balkan Peninsula has determined the importance of Kosovo, which covers an area
about 10 000 km² and is situated at the intersection of major roads heading
This central position of Kosovo has lead both to its richness and poverty.
Over the centuries Kosovo has shared and contributed to variegated cultures at the
Austro-Hungarian
and of various people with
diverse histories and backgrounds. This rich cultural diversity has however also
been at the origin of ethnic clashes which devastated the region. Ottomans and
Christians, Albanians and Serbians have laid claims on the territory for ages,
culminating in the 1999 war. If Kosovo already was the region most affected by
poverty in the Former Republic of Yugoslavia, the events of the 1990’s conflict with
ened the situation. The growing power of Slobodan Milosevic in Serbia,
ultimately lead to Kosovo’s loss of political independence and several embargos. The
region became marginalized and isolated in less than a decennial. Today the
onal poverty line (% of population) is of 34.5%, while the
country’s economy is hardly viable. 45.3 % of the population is without work.
According to the World Bank database, the average GDP is $6.446 billion (USD) for
I per capita is of $3,520 (USD). 9 According to
term challenge is to build a competitive economy and
develop a tradable sector, to reduce the economy’s dependence on transfers and
tical to this effort are initiatives
to strengthen the institutional framework and business climate, as well as
investments in infrastructure and education. More generally, Kosovo is a young
makers are under
considerable and often understandable pressure to address these pressures rapidly.
To prevent putting macroeconomic stability at risk, it is indispensable to carefully
prioritize, cost, and sequence spending initiatives. Success requires broad political
East Europe: Kosovo. Protection and , Paris, 2004, p. 4.
http://data.worldbank.org/country/kosovo, latest
support.”10 This broad political support heavily depends on dialogue and stability
between the different actors in Kosovo as well as on stable international relations
with Serbia and the EU. The country's stability and the establishment of du
international relations with its foreign partners heavily depend on the definitive
conception and recognition of the Republic of Kosovo as a lawful partner and on the
foundation of a sovereign democratic
national identity of Kosovo including its variegated cultural background has to be
accepted as a constituent element of the country's formation.
cultural Kosovo identity should first of all be accepted by the Kosov
themselves. Even if diversity and the protection of the rights of minorities are
fundamental principles of the Kosova
of the fact that these values, were at first imposed by the
The acceptance of multi-ethnici
forward as conditions for the achievement of sustainable peace and stability in the
region and advanced as a
Kosovo to the European Union. However, one s
national identity should primarily be based upon Kosovo's
tradition and mores while stimulating the European core values. Culture and
heritage can play an important role in retrieving an
Kosovan identity shared by all citizens. The rich diversity of
on a mix of Christian, Ottoman and Hellenistic cultures, could enable the
population of Kosovo to reconsider multi
approach would certainly
which were used as an incentive for the 1999 conflict and offer possibilities for
social and economic development. However, the reality is that 90% of
Kosovo populations consists out of Albanians. If it is a duty of Kosovo to protect the
rights of the minorities, the question is what actually remains of the historic multi
ethnicity and multi-culturalism of Kosovo. Are these notions still of pr
or rather European projections based on a nostalgic idea of the Balkans' "golden
age" on the one hand and on ideals of the European Union on the other hand?!
Historical overview of the Kosovo
Kosovo and Serbia live on long ter
in the "Myth of Kosovo". This myth, recalls the "defeat" of Lazard I, the Christian
prince of Serbia against the Ottoman empire in the "Va
1389.11 In the myth the defeat of Lazard h
martyr in eternal life and as the symbol of glorious Christianity. Lazard deliberately
chose for defeat in the battlefield in order to gain glory and perpetual life in heaven
10 International Monetary Fund, IMF Surveys: Kosovo, IMF, 2012 , [online resource: http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2012/car071712b.htm
17/09/2012].
11 Kosovo in Serbian means the Blackbird's nest: kos (blackbird) ovo (origin, nest).If the myth represents this battle as decisive, history is less radical. Neither Ottoman and Serbs could claim victory, as both parties knew many important losses during this confrontation. Serbia lost the majority of her cavalry and remained without arisOttoman lost their Sultan Murat I and his legal heir during the batlle. This bloody status quo was only to be decided in the favour of the Ottoman, during the next century.
6
This broad political support heavily depends on dialogue and stability
between the different actors in Kosovo as well as on stable international relations
with Serbia and the EU. The country's stability and the establishment of du
international relations with its foreign partners heavily depend on the definitive
conception and recognition of the Republic of Kosovo as a lawful partner and on the
tion of a sovereign democratic multi-ethnic country. Consequently the
l identity of Kosovo including its variegated cultural background has to be
accepted as a constituent element of the country's formation. This "new" multi
Kosovo identity should first of all be accepted by the Kosov
iversity and the protection of the rights of minorities are
fundamental principles of the Kosovan Constitution of 2008, one should be aware
of the fact that these values, were at first imposed by the international community.
ethnicity and multi-culturalism have
for the achievement of sustainable peace and stability in the
and advanced as a conditio sine qua non for a possible future accession
Kosovo to the European Union. However, one should be aware that a Kosova
national identity should primarily be based upon Kosovo's present values,
tradition and mores while stimulating the European core values. Culture and
heritage can play an important role in retrieving an original and h
identity shared by all citizens. The rich diversity of Kosovo's
on a mix of Christian, Ottoman and Hellenistic cultures, could enable the
population of Kosovo to reconsider multi-culturalism in a positive way. Such an
reduce the nationalistic claims made upon heritage,
incentive for the 1999 conflict and offer possibilities for
social and economic development. However, the reality is that 90% of
Kosovo populations consists out of Albanians. If it is a duty of Kosovo to protect the
rights of the minorities, the question is what actually remains of the historic multi
culturalism of Kosovo. Are these notions still of pr
or rather European projections based on a nostalgic idea of the Balkans' "golden
age" on the one hand and on ideals of the European Union on the other hand?!
of the Kosovo-Serbia relations
Kosovo and Serbia live on long term historical tensions which have been crystalized
in the "Myth of Kosovo". This myth, recalls the "defeat" of Lazard I, the Christian
prince of Serbia against the Ottoman empire in the "Valley of the blackbirds" in
In the myth the defeat of Lazard has been depicted as the victory of the
martyr in eternal life and as the symbol of glorious Christianity. Lazard deliberately
chose for defeat in the battlefield in order to gain glory and perpetual life in heaven
International Monetary Fund, IMF Surveys: Kosovo, IMF, 2012 , [online resource:
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2012/car071712b.htm
Kosovo in Serbian means the Blackbird's nest: kos (blackbird) ovo (origin, nest).If the myth represents this battle as decisive, history is less radical. Neither Ottoman and Serbs could claim victory, as both parties knew many important losses during this confrontation. Serbia lost the majority of her cavalry and remained without arisOttoman lost their Sultan Murat I and his legal heir during the batlle. This bloody status quo was only to be decided in the favour of the Ottoman, during the next century.
This broad political support heavily depends on dialogue and stability
between the different actors in Kosovo as well as on stable international relations
with Serbia and the EU. The country's stability and the establishment of durable
international relations with its foreign partners heavily depend on the definitive
conception and recognition of the Republic of Kosovo as a lawful partner and on the
ethnic country. Consequently the
l identity of Kosovo including its variegated cultural background has to be
This "new" multi-
Kosovo identity should first of all be accepted by the Kosovo citizens
iversity and the protection of the rights of minorities are
Constitution of 2008, one should be aware
national community.
indeed been put
for the achievement of sustainable peace and stability in the
future accession of
hould be aware that a Kosovan
present values, history,
tradition and mores while stimulating the European core values. Culture and
original and humanistic
Kosovo's heritage, built
on a mix of Christian, Ottoman and Hellenistic cultures, could enable the
in a positive way. Such an
reduce the nationalistic claims made upon heritage,
incentive for the 1999 conflict and offer possibilities for
social and economic development. However, the reality is that 90% of the actual
Kosovo populations consists out of Albanians. If it is a duty of Kosovo to protect the
rights of the minorities, the question is what actually remains of the historic multi-
culturalism of Kosovo. Are these notions still of present value,
or rather European projections based on a nostalgic idea of the Balkans' "golden
age" on the one hand and on ideals of the European Union on the other hand?!
m historical tensions which have been crystalized
in the "Myth of Kosovo". This myth, recalls the "defeat" of Lazard I, the Christian
lley of the blackbirds" in
as been depicted as the victory of the
martyr in eternal life and as the symbol of glorious Christianity. Lazard deliberately
chose for defeat in the battlefield in order to gain glory and perpetual life in heaven
International Monetary Fund, IMF Surveys: Kosovo, IMF, 2012 , [online resource:
latest view dd.
Kosovo in Serbian means the Blackbird's nest: kos (blackbird) ovo (origin, nest). If the myth represents this battle as decisive, history is less radical. Neither Ottoman and Serbs could claim victory, as both parties knew many important losses during this confrontation. Serbia lost the majority of her cavalry and remained without aristocracy; the Ottoman lost their Sultan Murat I and his legal heir during the batlle. This bloody status quo was only to be decided in the favour of the Ottoman, during the next century.
with God. In a single event the myth conce
gradually forced the Serbs under Ottoman dominance for several centuries. By the
myth the domination becomes a deliberate choice for the glory of God and at the
same time it elevates the Serbs to the status of "electe
sacrifice of the elected people in 1389 will be conjured by their resurrection.
should not surprise us than that this myth, which had lost its importance in the
19th century (liberation from the Ottomans, 1804), was highlighted ag
nationalistic discourses of Slobodan Milosevic in the 1980's.
Until the Yugoslavia Constitution (and in particular the 1966 and 1974
Constitutions) the Albanian majority in Kosovo had lived under the dominance of
the Serb minority. In 1966 Tito
privileges with republics at the federal level. This resulted in a greater participation
of Kosovar Albanians in provincial administration. The new
provincial representatives tended to
and started to claim the elevation of Kosovo to a republic's status. After Tito's death
in 1981 these nationalistic feelings led to Albanian demonstrations and riots which
were responded to by the Serbian mi
Milosevic's curtailing of Kosovo's autonomy in 1989.
Milosevic made the myth the symbol of Serb identity and emphasized the status of
Kosovo in the Serbian origin. Kosovo was not only a mythic part of the Serbian
principality under Lazar, historically it also housed the Patriarch of the Serbian
Orthodox Church in Pec. Both myth and history placed Kosovo at the centre of the
Serbian nation. By recalling this, Milosevic restored the collective memory of the
Serbs which had been severely damaged by the instauration of the provinces of
Kosovo and Vojvodina under
same gesture he also reassured the Serbian presence in Kosovo which had become
insecure since the 1960's. But Milosevic also stigmatized Kosovo as the cradle of all
Serbian economic, social and political
12 J.-F. Gossiaux, Les Deux Passés du Kosovo15/01/2003, http:// socio05/09/2012] p.3. 13 D. P. Hupchick, H. E Cox, 2001, p. 50. Prior to 1989, there was a legal Republics, deriving from the 1974 constitution. It was granted almost all the rights of a Republic. According to the constitution, 1) Kosovo was entitled to participate in the joint realization of the interests of the federation; 2) like the other republics, it was responsible for implementing, enforcing, and amending the Yugoslav Constitution, as well as the ratification of international agreements and the formulation of Yugoslav foreign policy. Kosovo, wdirectly represented in the federal bodies such as the federal Parliament, Presidency Cabinet, Federal Court and Federal Constitutional Court.federation, like the other republics, Kosovo was granted the right to havconstitution, parliament and judiciary and to establish its own banking policy, within the common currency issue policy. See: DD. Kumbaro, The Kosovo Crisis in an International Law Territorial Integrity and the NATO Intervention, Final Report
7
with God. In a single event the myth conceptualizes the historical sequence that
gradually forced the Serbs under Ottoman dominance for several centuries. By the
myth the domination becomes a deliberate choice for the glory of God and at the
same time it elevates the Serbs to the status of "elected nation" by God. The
sacrifice of the elected people in 1389 will be conjured by their resurrection.
should not surprise us than that this myth, which had lost its importance in the
19th century (liberation from the Ottomans, 1804), was highlighted ag
nationalistic discourses of Slobodan Milosevic in the 1980's.
Until the Yugoslavia Constitution (and in particular the 1966 and 1974
Constitutions) the Albanian majority in Kosovo had lived under the dominance of
the Serb minority. In 1966 Tito granted Serbia's autonomous provinces equal voting
privileges with republics at the federal level. This resulted in a greater participation
of Kosovar Albanians in provincial administration. The new communist Albanian
provincial representatives tended to act in retaliatory way towards the Serb minority
and started to claim the elevation of Kosovo to a republic's status. After Tito's death
in 1981 these nationalistic feelings led to Albanian demonstrations and riots which
were responded to by the Serbian minority and ultimately led to Slobodan
Milosevic's curtailing of Kosovo's autonomy in 1989. 13
Milosevic made the myth the symbol of Serb identity and emphasized the status of
Kosovo in the Serbian origin. Kosovo was not only a mythic part of the Serbian
principality under Lazar, historically it also housed the Patriarch of the Serbian
ch in Pec. Both myth and history placed Kosovo at the centre of the
Serbian nation. By recalling this, Milosevic restored the collective memory of the
Serbs which had been severely damaged by the instauration of the provinces of
Kosovo and Vojvodina under the Yugoslavia Constitutions of 1946
same gesture he also reassured the Serbian presence in Kosovo which had become
insecure since the 1960's. But Milosevic also stigmatized Kosovo as the cradle of all
Serbian economic, social and political problems, bearing the messianic promise of
Les Deux Passés du Kosovo, in: Socio-Antropologie, 1998, 4, [online edn. , http:// socio-antropologie.revues.org/index130.html, last view dd.
E Cox, The Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of The Balkans
Prior to 1989, there was a legal and factual similarity between Kosovo and the other Republics, deriving from the 1974 constitution. It was granted almost all the rights of a Republic. According to the constitution, 1) Kosovo was entitled to participate in the joint
erests of the federation; 2) like the other republics, it was responsible for implementing, enforcing, and amending the Yugoslav Constitution, as well as the ratification of international agreements and the formulation of Yugoslav foreign policy. Kosovo, wdirectly represented in the federal bodies such as the federal Parliament, Presidency Cabinet, Federal Court and Federal Constitutional Court. Being a constituent part of the federation, like the other republics, Kosovo was granted the right to havconstitution, parliament and judiciary – including a constitutional court and supreme court, and to establish its own banking policy, within the common currency issue policy. See: D
The Kosovo Crisis in an International Law Perspective: SelfTerritorial Integrity and the NATO Intervention, Final Report, Brussels, 2001.
ptualizes the historical sequence that
gradually forced the Serbs under Ottoman dominance for several centuries. By the
myth the domination becomes a deliberate choice for the glory of God and at the
d nation" by God. The
sacrifice of the elected people in 1389 will be conjured by their resurrection.12 It
should not surprise us than that this myth, which had lost its importance in the
19th century (liberation from the Ottomans, 1804), was highlighted again in the
Until the Yugoslavia Constitution (and in particular the 1966 and 1974
Constitutions) the Albanian majority in Kosovo had lived under the dominance of
granted Serbia's autonomous provinces equal voting
privileges with republics at the federal level. This resulted in a greater participation
ommunist Albanian
act in retaliatory way towards the Serb minority
and started to claim the elevation of Kosovo to a republic's status. After Tito's death
in 1981 these nationalistic feelings led to Albanian demonstrations and riots which
nority and ultimately led to Slobodan
Milosevic made the myth the symbol of Serb identity and emphasized the status of
Kosovo in the Serbian origin. Kosovo was not only a mythic part of the Serbian
principality under Lazar, historically it also housed the Patriarch of the Serbian
ch in Pec. Both myth and history placed Kosovo at the centre of the
Serbian nation. By recalling this, Milosevic restored the collective memory of the
Serbs which had been severely damaged by the instauration of the provinces of
the Yugoslavia Constitutions of 1946 - 1974. By the
same gesture he also reassured the Serbian presence in Kosovo which had become
insecure since the 1960's. But Milosevic also stigmatized Kosovo as the cradle of all
problems, bearing the messianic promise of
998, 4, [online edn. .html, last view dd.
The Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of The Balkans, Palgrave,
and factual similarity between Kosovo and the other Republics, deriving from the 1974 constitution. It was granted almost all the rights of a Republic. According to the constitution, 1) Kosovo was entitled to participate in the joint
erests of the federation; 2) like the other republics, it was responsible for implementing, enforcing, and amending the Yugoslav Constitution, as well as the ratification of international agreements and the formulation of Yugoslav foreign policy. Kosovo, was also directly represented in the federal bodies such as the federal Parliament, Presidency
Being a constituent part of the federation, like the other republics, Kosovo was granted the right to have its own
including a constitutional court and supreme court, and to establish its own banking policy, within the common currency issue policy. See: D.
Perspective: Self-Determination, , Brussels, 2001.p. 37.
resurrection against the
"resurrection" took off on the 28th of June 1989, the day of the 600’ anniversary of
the mythic battle. Thousands of Serbs gathered on the spot b
symbols. The Serbian Church started to claim authority over the territory by
making references to the Serb martyrs who were buried in Orthodox monasteries
and by consequence literally made Kosovo part of the foundation of the Serbian
nation. During the next decennium nationalistic and ethnic claims of both parties
would feed the growing tensions ultimately leading to a cruel war (1999) which
included severe crimes against humanity such as mass delocalization
destruction of cultural and historical artifacts
deterioration of the situation on the ground prompted the intervention of
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), culminating in the adoption of
(1999) on 10 June 1999.
Yugoslav governments signing the
governance of the province to the United Nations. A NATO
entered the province tasked with providing security
(UNMIK).
14 D. Dimitrijevic, Mémoire et Histoire dans la culture politique serbehttp://www.ifri.org/files/CFA/Dimitrijevic_Meerbe.pdf, last view dd. 05/09/2012
8
resurrection against the "Ottomans" embedded in the old myth.
"resurrection" took off on the 28th of June 1989, the day of the 600’ anniversary of
the mythic battle. Thousands of Serbs gathered on the spot bearing nationalistic
symbols. The Serbian Church started to claim authority over the territory by
making references to the Serb martyrs who were buried in Orthodox monasteries
and by consequence literally made Kosovo part of the foundation of the Serbian
ation. During the next decennium nationalistic and ethnic claims of both parties
would feed the growing tensions ultimately leading to a cruel war (1999) which
included severe crimes against humanity such as mass delocalization
ltural and historical artifacts and genocide.
deterioration of the situation on the ground prompted the intervention of
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), culminating in the adoption of
(1999) on 10 June 1999. The war ended on 10 June 1999 with the Serbian and
Yugoslav governments signing the Kumanovo agreement which agreed to transfer
governance of the province to the United Nations. A NATO-led Kosovo Force
entered the province tasked with providing security to the UN Mission in Kosovo
Mémoire et Histoire dans la culture politique serbe, IFRI,[onlineversion:http://www.ifri.org/files/CFA/Dimitrijevic_Memoire_et_histoire_dans_la_culture_politique_serbe.pdf, last view dd. 05/09/2012].
embedded in the old myth.14 This
"resurrection" took off on the 28th of June 1989, the day of the 600’ anniversary of
earing nationalistic
symbols. The Serbian Church started to claim authority over the territory by
making references to the Serb martyrs who were buried in Orthodox monasteries
and by consequence literally made Kosovo part of the foundation of the Serbian
ation. During the next decennium nationalistic and ethnic claims of both parties
would feed the growing tensions ultimately leading to a cruel war (1999) which
included severe crimes against humanity such as mass delocalization, voluntary
and genocide. The dramatic
deterioration of the situation on the ground prompted the intervention of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), culminating in the adoption of resolution 1244
war ended on 10 June 1999 with the Serbian and
which agreed to transfer
led Kosovo Force (KFOR)
to the UN Mission in Kosovo
IFRI,[onlineversion: moire_et_histoire_dans_la_culture_politique_s
2. Identity, Culture and Nationhood in the Balkans
Cultural Conflicts - Balkan Conflicts
The international effort to find a comprehensive solution to the question of Kosovo's
status was started in 2005 under the auspices
Special Envoy of the Secretary
ended with Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence in 2008.
taking into account both demands of Serbia and Kosovo within the actual historical
context, could not totally satisfy Kosovo
broke down, late 2007 with the two sides remaining far apart, with the minimum
demands of each side being more than the other was willing to accept.
Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement
not grant immediate full in
Kosovo, while the Serbians could accept nothing but Kosovo's autonomy within
Serbia. Under the plan, the Kosovo entity would gain self
supervision of the European Union
rights by means of a constitution a
be accorded its own national symbols and
demarcation on the disputed Kosovo
Albanian negotiators were willing to support the essence of
even if the plan gained the backing of the
Serbia and Russia rejected it outright,
Nations. Faced with stuck negotiations in sight, the Kosovars decided to unilaterally
proclaim the Republic of Kosovo, however
follow the Ahtisaari plan's provisions. The declaration of independence was made by
members of the Kosovo Assembly
Since Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence, Serbia continued resistance
to the integration of Kosovo in key regional and international institutions such as
The Council of Europe, The Euro
or the United Nations. The government in Belgrade also keeps supporting "parallel
structures" in Northern Kosovo in order to keep the Serbian majority there out of
control of the Kosovo authorities in
tensions in Northern Kosovo (threatening tensions especially arose in spring
summer 2011 and in spring 2012) but also undermines the creation of a Kosova
nation and state that becomes a
discussion. The institutionalizing
represented is also hindered by this process. Since its declaration of independence,
Kosovo has been recognized as a Democratic Republic by 87 other states
remains unlawful to world actors as China, Russia and India. This lack of
recognition can be interpreted as a questioning of Kosovo's identity by the
international community. This identity question is however
Kosovo - and by extension Balkan
9
2. Identity, Culture and Nationhood in the Balkans
Balkan Conflicts
The international effort to find a comprehensive solution to the question of Kosovo's
status was started in 2005 under the auspices of the Former Finnish President and
Special Envoy of the Secretary-General to Kosovo Martti Ahtisaari, but abruptly
th Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence in 2008.
taking into account both demands of Serbia and Kosovo within the actual historical
satisfy Kosovo and certainly not Serbia.
late 2007 with the two sides remaining far apart, with the minimum
demands of each side being more than the other was willing to accept.
Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement (S/2007/168/Add.1)
not grant immediate full independence, neither sovereignty nor territoriality to
Kosovo, while the Serbians could accept nothing but Kosovo's autonomy within
Under the plan, the Kosovo entity would gain self-governance under the
e European Union and become obligated to protect its minorities'
constitution and a representative government. Kosovo
be accorded its own national symbols and summoned to carry out border
demarcation on the disputed Kosovo-Republic of Macedonia border.
were willing to support the essence of the Ahtisaari plan and
the plan gained the backing of the European Union and of the United States,
rejected it outright, making no progress possible in the United
negotiations in sight, the Kosovars decided to unilaterally
Republic of Kosovo, however obligating themselves in the process to
follow the Ahtisaari plan's provisions. The declaration of independence was made by
Kosovo Assembly on the 17th of February 2008.
Since Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence, Serbia continued resistance
to the integration of Kosovo in key regional and international institutions such as
The Council of Europe, The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
or the United Nations. The government in Belgrade also keeps supporting "parallel
structures" in Northern Kosovo in order to keep the Serbian majority there out of
authorities in Pristina. This political impasse not only raises
tensions in Northern Kosovo (threatening tensions especially arose in spring
summer 2011 and in spring 2012) but also undermines the creation of a Kosova
nation and state that becomes a fully-fledged partner in bi-
ussion. The institutionalizing of a Kosovar state where minorities are equally
represented is also hindered by this process. Since its declaration of independence,
Kosovo has been recognized as a Democratic Republic by 87 other states
remains unlawful to world actors as China, Russia and India. This lack of
recognition can be interpreted as a questioning of Kosovo's identity by the
international community. This identity question is however precisely
extension Balkan- conflict.
The international effort to find a comprehensive solution to the question of Kosovo's
of the Former Finnish President and
Martti Ahtisaari, but abruptly
th Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence in 2008. Athaari's plan,
taking into account both demands of Serbia and Kosovo within the actual historical
Serbia. The talks finally
late 2007 with the two sides remaining far apart, with the minimum
demands of each side being more than the other was willing to accept. Ahtisaari's
(S/2007/168/Add.1) did
dependence, neither sovereignty nor territoriality to
Kosovo, while the Serbians could accept nothing but Kosovo's autonomy within
governance under the
bligated to protect its minorities'
nd a representative government. Kosovo would
to carry out border
border. Even if the
the Ahtisaari plan and
the United States,
making no progress possible in the United
negotiations in sight, the Kosovars decided to unilaterally
obligating themselves in the process to
follow the Ahtisaari plan's provisions. The declaration of independence was made by
Since Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence, Serbia continued resistance
to the integration of Kosovo in key regional and international institutions such as
pean Bank for Reconstruction and Development
or the United Nations. The government in Belgrade also keeps supporting "parallel
structures" in Northern Kosovo in order to keep the Serbian majority there out of
This political impasse not only raises
tensions in Northern Kosovo (threatening tensions especially arose in spring -
summer 2011 and in spring 2012) but also undermines the creation of a Kosovan
and multilateral
of a Kosovar state where minorities are equally
represented is also hindered by this process. Since its declaration of independence,
Kosovo has been recognized as a Democratic Republic by 87 other states but
remains unlawful to world actors as China, Russia and India. This lack of
recognition can be interpreted as a questioning of Kosovo's identity by the
precisely the core of the
Balkan conflicts are since long date most often triggered by questions of identity
and definitions of "the other".
perception of "otherness", while the homogeneity of one's own s
reinforced. This process of division or opposition often goes hand in hand with the
taxation of "the other" in more pejorative terms than "the self". These false
judgments lead to the non
conflict give rise to forced submission or even worse to extermination.
Serbs and Albanians unhappily
as the lawful inhabitants of the territory, consequently reducing "the other"
subjugated minority.
Division combined with the proximity of "the other" also promotes heightened
cultural self-definition.16 Hence
autochthony and religion
superiority.17 In 1990 the Serbian Constitution was amended to eradicate the
remaining vestiges of Kosovo's autonomy. New laws were passed
Kosovar Albanians' civil rights, language and cu
intervened in all important spheres of life, in an attempt to
to reverse the process of
Kosovo, became the paradigm of a segregated society, where
lived entirely separated in
Serbian regime systematically sharpened the division between Serbs and Albanians
in Kosovo. It is exactly the emphasis on the difference betw
those outside the group that leads to a devaluation
the outsiders - "the others
mass media were banned, Albanian language schools and universit
and more than 120 000 Albanians were dismissed from their jobs. Even the Kosovo
Academy of Arts was closed. In the public domain and in state institutions the use
of Albanian language was proscribed and civil and human rights were violated on
large scale and on a daily basis. The so
and Prosperity in Kosovo” laid down the creation of new municipalities for Serbs,
the contracting of new investment in Serb
houses for Serbs who returned to Kosovo, the introduction of family planning for
Albanians, and the annulment, retrospectively of sales of property to Albanians by
departing Serbs. The legal acts, mainly laws and “general decisions”(36 laws and
470 decisions) entered into force by the Serbian Parliament during the period 1990
1992 and were indicative of intense attempts undertaken by the Serbian authorities
to affect every aspect of the life of Kosovo Albanians with devastating consequences
for their integrity, dignity, prosperity and life. By the end of the war, Albanian
returned into force, accompanied by a feeling of international support. This
ultimately lead to the violation of civil and human rights of the Serbian minority in
Kosovo. Important aspects of th
15 J.-F. Gossiaux, [online edn. 15/01/2003, last view dd. 05/09/2012].D. P. Hupchick, H. E Cox.. 16
M. A. a Coppi Agostelli, Cultural Diplomacy and the Concept of the Other
International Conference on Cultural Diplomacy and the UN, New York and Washington, February 2117 J.-F. Gossiaux, p. 2. 18 R. Bevan, p. 13.
10
Balkan conflicts are since long date most often triggered by questions of identity
and definitions of "the other". Differences are emphasized in order to foster the
perception of "otherness", while the homogeneity of one's own side and identity is
reinforced. This process of division or opposition often goes hand in hand with the
taxation of "the other" in more pejorative terms than "the self". These false
the non -acceptance and denial of "the other" which
to forced submission or even worse to extermination.
unhappily defined "the other" by legitimizing only themselves
as the lawful inhabitants of the territory, consequently reducing "the other"
Division combined with the proximity of "the other" also promotes heightened
Hence, both Serbs and Albanian referred
to enforce their claim of territoriality and of racial
In 1990 the Serbian Constitution was amended to eradicate the
remaining vestiges of Kosovo's autonomy. New laws were passed
civil rights, language and culture. The Serbian authorities
important spheres of life, in an attempt to “Serbianize
to reverse the process of “Albanization” of Kosovo’s society after 1974. Hence,
Kosovo, became the paradigm of a segregated society, where different ethnic groups
lived entirely separated in “parallel” societies, with as little contact as possible. The
Serbian regime systematically sharpened the division between Serbs and Albanians
It is exactly the emphasis on the difference between those within and
those outside the group that leads to a devaluation - and even dehumanization
the others"- and their material patrimony and culture.
mass media were banned, Albanian language schools and universit
and more than 120 000 Albanians were dismissed from their jobs. Even the Kosovo
Academy of Arts was closed. In the public domain and in state institutions the use
of Albanian language was proscribed and civil and human rights were violated on
large scale and on a daily basis. The so-called “Program for the realization of Peace
and Prosperity in Kosovo” laid down the creation of new municipalities for Serbs,
the contracting of new investment in Serb-majority areas, the building of new
for Serbs who returned to Kosovo, the introduction of family planning for
Albanians, and the annulment, retrospectively of sales of property to Albanians by
departing Serbs. The legal acts, mainly laws and “general decisions”(36 laws and
tered into force by the Serbian Parliament during the period 1990
1992 and were indicative of intense attempts undertaken by the Serbian authorities
to affect every aspect of the life of Kosovo Albanians with devastating consequences
ignity, prosperity and life. By the end of the war, Albanian
returned into force, accompanied by a feeling of international support. This
ultimately lead to the violation of civil and human rights of the Serbian minority in
Kosovo. Important aspects of the UNMIK mission were the return of Albanian
F. Gossiaux, [online edn. 15/01/2003, last view dd. 05/09/2012].
Cultural Diplomacy and the Concept of the Other, paper delivered at The
International Conference on Cultural Diplomacy and the UN, New York and Washington, February 21
Balkan conflicts are since long date most often triggered by questions of identity
Differences are emphasized in order to foster the
ide and identity is
reinforced. This process of division or opposition often goes hand in hand with the
taxation of "the other" in more pejorative terms than "the self". These false
acceptance and denial of "the other" which in periods of
to forced submission or even worse to extermination. 15 In Kosovo,
"the other" by legitimizing only themselves
as the lawful inhabitants of the territory, consequently reducing "the other" to a
Division combined with the proximity of "the other" also promotes heightened
red to their history,
to enforce their claim of territoriality and of racial
In 1990 the Serbian Constitution was amended to eradicate the
remaining vestiges of Kosovo's autonomy. New laws were passed attacking the
lture. The Serbian authorities
Serbianize” Kosovo, and
of Kosovo’s society after 1974. Hence,
different ethnic groups
societies, with as little contact as possible. The
Serbian regime systematically sharpened the division between Serbs and Albanians
een those within and
dehumanization - of
and their material patrimony and culture.18 Albanian
mass media were banned, Albanian language schools and universities were closed,
and more than 120 000 Albanians were dismissed from their jobs. Even the Kosovo
Academy of Arts was closed. In the public domain and in state institutions the use
of Albanian language was proscribed and civil and human rights were violated on a
called “Program for the realization of Peace
and Prosperity in Kosovo” laid down the creation of new municipalities for Serbs,
majority areas, the building of new
for Serbs who returned to Kosovo, the introduction of family planning for
Albanians, and the annulment, retrospectively of sales of property to Albanians by
departing Serbs. The legal acts, mainly laws and “general decisions”(36 laws and
tered into force by the Serbian Parliament during the period 1990-
1992 and were indicative of intense attempts undertaken by the Serbian authorities
to affect every aspect of the life of Kosovo Albanians with devastating consequences
ignity, prosperity and life. By the end of the war, Albanian
returned into force, accompanied by a feeling of international support. This
ultimately lead to the violation of civil and human rights of the Serbian minority in
e UNMIK mission were the return of Albanian
paper delivered at The
International Conference on Cultural Diplomacy and the UN, New York and Washington, February 21-24 2012.
refugees to Kosovo and the implementation of rights for minorities (especially Serbs)
in Kosovo. If the return of refugees is by now mostly accomplished, the protection of
minorities is still followed
claims for special protection due to an on
Northern territories.
Through these territorial claims and the mutual threatening of integrity, origin and
religion both communities subscribe to Smith's definition of a nation based on
shared history, territory, and culture. According to this definition the collective
cultural identity creates a sense of continuity on the part of successive generations
of a given cultural unit of pop
at the service of this legitimization process and become a symbol of nationalistic
discourse. "History is the new material for nationalist, ethnic or fundamentalist
ideologies, as poppies are the raw mat
suitable past, it can always be invented. The past legitimizes. The past gives a more
glorious background to a present that does
The 1998-1999 conflict was sanctioned by little else than rec
heritage. Albanians and Serbs handled competing versions of Kosovo's cultural
identity in order to justify their claim on the territory. Culture and politics were
entangled in the nationalistic claims and became one the conflict's constituent
elements. After the war, culture remained an important argument for Kosovo’s
claims for independence.
Cultural Heritage and identity
Culture is one of the essential components of the Rig
People. The UN Covenant on de the Right of Self
Kosovo’s unilateral declaration of independence in 2008. In accordance with the
purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, artic
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognizes that all peoples have
the right of self-determination. “The right of self
importance because its realization is an essential condition for the effect
guarantee and observance of individual human rights and for the promotion and
strengthening of those rights.”
their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural
development".21 As such, the right to self
economic, social and cultural aspects, each of which are being closely and
indissolubly linked. The right to self
collectively determine its political, economic and social destiny and system through
democratic means. It involves the exercise of rights and duties without
discrimination. The cultural aspects relate to the establishment of a cultural regime
or system, which constitutes a very impor
determination of all peoples. “It implies recognition of its right to regain, enjoy and 19 R. Bevan, p. 12. 20 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Self Determination of People (Art.1) 13/04/1984, CCPR General Comment No12
1984. 21 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 13/04/1984, 1984.
11
refugees to Kosovo and the implementation of rights for minorities (especially Serbs)
. If the return of refugees is by now mostly accomplished, the protection of
till followed-up, while the Serbian Orthodox Church continually
claims for special protection due to an on-going feeling of threat especially in the
Through these territorial claims and the mutual threatening of integrity, origin and
s subscribe to Smith's definition of a nation based on
shared history, territory, and culture. According to this definition the collective
cultural identity creates a sense of continuity on the part of successive generations
of a given cultural unit of population. By consequence culture and heritage are put
at the service of this legitimization process and become a symbol of nationalistic
"History is the new material for nationalist, ethnic or fundamentalist
ideologies, as poppies are the raw material for heroin addiction. ... If there is no
suitable past, it can always be invented. The past legitimizes. The past gives a more
glorious background to a present that does not have much to show for itself."
1999 conflict was sanctioned by little else than recourse to culture and
Albanians and Serbs handled competing versions of Kosovo's cultural
identity in order to justify their claim on the territory. Culture and politics were
in the nationalistic claims and became one the conflict's constituent
elements. After the war, culture remained an important argument for Kosovo’s
Cultural Heritage and identity
Culture is one of the essential components of the Right of Self Determination of
People. The UN Covenant on de the Right of Self-Determination was fundamental to
Kosovo’s unilateral declaration of independence in 2008. In accordance with the
purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, artic
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognizes that all peoples have
determination. “The right of self-determination is of particular
importance because its realization is an essential condition for the effect
guarantee and observance of individual human rights and for the promotion and
strengthening of those rights.”20 By virtue of that right people freely "determine
their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural
As such, the right to self-determination encompasses political,
economic, social and cultural aspects, each of which are being closely and
indissolubly linked. The right to self-determination includes the ability of a group to
olitical, economic and social destiny and system through
democratic means. It involves the exercise of rights and duties without
discrimination. The cultural aspects relate to the establishment of a cultural regime
or system, which constitutes a very important element of the right to self
determination of all peoples. “It implies recognition of its right to regain, enjoy and
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, General Comment No12 : The right to Self Determination of People (Art.1) 13/04/1984, CCPR General Comment No12
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, General Comment No12
refugees to Kosovo and the implementation of rights for minorities (especially Serbs)
. If the return of refugees is by now mostly accomplished, the protection of
he Serbian Orthodox Church continually
going feeling of threat especially in the
Through these territorial claims and the mutual threatening of integrity, origin and
s subscribe to Smith's definition of a nation based on
shared history, territory, and culture. According to this definition the collective
cultural identity creates a sense of continuity on the part of successive generations
ulation. By consequence culture and heritage are put
at the service of this legitimization process and become a symbol of nationalistic
"History is the new material for nationalist, ethnic or fundamentalist
erial for heroin addiction. ... If there is no
suitable past, it can always be invented. The past legitimizes. The past gives a more
have much to show for itself." 19
ourse to culture and
Albanians and Serbs handled competing versions of Kosovo's cultural
identity in order to justify their claim on the territory. Culture and politics were
in the nationalistic claims and became one the conflict's constituent
elements. After the war, culture remained an important argument for Kosovo’s
f Determination of
was fundamental to
Kosovo’s unilateral declaration of independence in 2008. In accordance with the
purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, article 1 of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognizes that all peoples have
determination is of particular
importance because its realization is an essential condition for the effective
guarantee and observance of individual human rights and for the promotion and
By virtue of that right people freely "determine
their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural
determination encompasses political,
economic, social and cultural aspects, each of which are being closely and
determination includes the ability of a group to
olitical, economic and social destiny and system through
democratic means. It involves the exercise of rights and duties without
discrimination. The cultural aspects relate to the establishment of a cultural regime
tant element of the right to self-
determination of all peoples. “It implies recognition of its right to regain, enjoy and
Comment No12 : The right to Self Determination of People (Art.1) 13/04/1984, CCPR General Comment No12, Geneva,
General Comment No12 : (Art.1)
enrich the cultural heritage, as well as the affirmation of the right of all its members
to education and culture.”22
Hence the right of self-
development of a nation and state, even if it is a general acceptance that the right of
self-determination will be exercised within the framework of existing sovereign
states. This being said, though
right of secession may arise : “In addition to the traditionally accepted situations
where a right to secession has been recognized
domination or under racist regimes
advocating that a people finding itself completely blocked from the meaningful
internal exercise of its right to self
exercise the right via external self
third construction arguably rest in the formal and/or factual inability of a people to
determine its economic, political, social and cultural status within the framework of
an existing State. The recent requirement of the V
which governments represent “the whole people belonging to the territory without
distinction of any kind” lends credence to the assertion that such a complete
blockage of the exercise of the right to self
give rise to an external exercise of that right, i.e. secession.”
2010 to a Request for Advisory Opinion, the International Court of Justice
determined that “general international law contains no applicable pr
declarations of independence” and accordingly that
independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general international law.
Hence the role and importance
formation. Culture is a constituent element of the collective self and the collective
memory. Culture and heritage provide human beings with a sense of identity, a
cultural belonging and a bond between the individual self and
which it belongs. As Hannah Arendt has argued "
human world rests primarily on the fact that we are surrounded by things more
permanent than the activity by which they were produced"
heritage is created, transformed and shaped into collective views of the state, its
regions, constituents groups, values and ideas.
includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights
of human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs; that it is culture that gives
man the ability to reflect upon himself; ...It is through culture that man expresses
himself, becomes aware of himself, recognizes its incompleteness, questions his
own achievements, seeks untiringly for new meanings and creates works through
which he transcends his limitations"
22 D. Kumbaro, pp. 24,25. 23 D. Kumbaro, p. 28. 24 International Court of Justice, Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo, No 2010/25,
[online version: http://www.icj19/09/2012]. 25 Hanah Arendt, The Human Condition: A Study of the Central Dilemma Facing Modern ManChicago, 1958, pp. 198,199. 26
Definition of culture according to UNESCO, as quoted in:
12
enrich the cultural heritage, as well as the affirmation of the right of all its members 22
of self-determination is fundamental to the creation and
development of a nation and state, even if it is a general acceptance that the right of
determination will be exercised within the framework of existing sovereign
states. This being said, though, there are indeed certain circumstances in which a
right of secession may arise : “In addition to the traditionally accepted situations
where a right to secession has been recognized – for peoples under colonial or alien
domination or under racist regimes – many international lawyers are now
advocating that a people finding itself completely blocked from the meaningful
internal exercise of its right to self-determination are entitled, as a last resort, to
exercise the right via external self-determination, or secession. The roots for the
third construction arguably rest in the formal and/or factual inability of a people to
determine its economic, political, social and cultural status within the framework of
an existing State. The recent requirement of the Vienna Declaration according to
which governments represent “the whole people belonging to the territory without
distinction of any kind” lends credence to the assertion that such a complete
blockage of the exercise of the right to self-determination (internally) may potentially
give rise to an external exercise of that right, i.e. secession.”23 In response of 22 July
2010 to a Request for Advisory Opinion, the International Court of Justice
determined that “general international law contains no applicable pr
declarations of independence” and accordingly that Kosovo's
independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general international law.
and importance of culture and heritage at the basis for nation
Culture is a constituent element of the collective self and the collective
memory. Culture and heritage provide human beings with a sense of identity, a
cultural belonging and a bond between the individual self and the community to
As Hannah Arendt has argued "the reality and reliability of the
human world rests primarily on the fact that we are surrounded by things more
permanent than the activity by which they were produced"25 National cultural
ritage is created, transformed and shaped into collective views of the state, its
regions, constituents groups, values and ideas. According to UNESCO "culture
includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights
eing, value systems, traditions and beliefs; that it is culture that gives
man the ability to reflect upon himself; ...It is through culture that man expresses
himself, becomes aware of himself, recognizes its incompleteness, questions his
, seeks untiringly for new meanings and creates works through
which he transcends his limitations" 26 Hence the importance of cultural heritage.
International Court of Justice, Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo, No 2010/25, Den Haag, 22 July 2010 [online version: http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/141/16012.pdf, lates
The Human Condition: A Study of the Central Dilemma Facing Modern Man
Definition of culture according to UNESCO, as quoted in: M. A. a Coppi Agostelli.
enrich the cultural heritage, as well as the affirmation of the right of all its members
determination is fundamental to the creation and
development of a nation and state, even if it is a general acceptance that the right of
determination will be exercised within the framework of existing sovereign
, there are indeed certain circumstances in which a
right of secession may arise : “In addition to the traditionally accepted situations
for peoples under colonial or alien
many international lawyers are now
advocating that a people finding itself completely blocked from the meaningful
determination are entitled, as a last resort, to
or secession. The roots for the
third construction arguably rest in the formal and/or factual inability of a people to
determine its economic, political, social and cultural status within the framework of
ienna Declaration according to
which governments represent “the whole people belonging to the territory without
distinction of any kind” lends credence to the assertion that such a complete
nally) may potentially
In response of 22 July
2010 to a Request for Advisory Opinion, the International Court of Justice
determined that “general international law contains no applicable prohibition of
Kosovo's declaration of
independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general international law.24
at the basis for nation-state
Culture is a constituent element of the collective self and the collective
memory. Culture and heritage provide human beings with a sense of identity, a
the community to
the reality and reliability of the
human world rests primarily on the fact that we are surrounded by things more
National cultural
ritage is created, transformed and shaped into collective views of the state, its
According to UNESCO "culture
includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights
eing, value systems, traditions and beliefs; that it is culture that gives
man the ability to reflect upon himself; ...It is through culture that man expresses
himself, becomes aware of himself, recognizes its incompleteness, questions his
, seeks untiringly for new meanings and creates works through
Hence the importance of cultural heritage.
Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Den Haag, 22 July 2010
cij.org/docket/files/141/16012.pdf, latest view dd.
The Human Condition: A Study of the Central Dilemma Facing Modern Man,
According to the French social historian Pierre Nora, collective culture and heritage
have increasingly grown in
globalization. What needs to be remembered is beyond the scope of the individual.
Cultural heritage, be it places, rituals, texts etc. forms the resonance of the
collective memory. It encompasses witness
expansion and socio-cultural ambiti
mémoires", pointing at the collective memory of a society or nation. Hence culture
and heritage are tangible expressions of a society's a
help to disseminate and improve (national) identity.
interaction and identity. Consequently, culture is major determinant of how people
perceive each other and negotiate differences.
agents of conflict, based upon supposed national interests and historic claims.
From the start of the Serb dominance over Kosovo in 1912 cultural heritage was
used as an incentive to promote the Serbian claims over the territory. Thr
justifications were set out for the rule of Serbs over Kosovo and its people: 1. "the
moral right of a more civilized people" 2. " the ethnographic right of a people who
'originally' constituted Kosovo's majority population", 3. "the Serb's historic rig
the place which contained the Patriarchate buildings of the Serbian Orthodox
Church".
This heavy charge of meaning upon heritage, also made heritage extremely
vulnerable to deliberate destruction. Consequently, cultural heritage and especially
historic architecture was massively targeted and destroyed. Culture and more
specifically religious architecture was
Serb Orthodox presence in the region. Kosovar Albanian heritage had been widely
and purposely devastated during the 1998
"de-Albanize" Kosovo. In march 1998 Serb forces initiated a campaign against the
Albanian population in Kosovo. Large numbers of Albanians were forcibly deported
from their homes and the histori
systematically targeted for destruction. There were two reasons for this destruction.
Firstly, the massive destruction of the built environment would diminish the
Albanians’ incentive to return
visible evidence of Kosovo’s deported Albanian community. The primary targets of
the Serbian attacks on Albanian buildings were mosques. Approximately 207 out of
609 mosques in Kosovo sustained damaged or were enti
religious schools, libraries, historic bazaars and kulla
associated with prominent Albanian families) were also favored targets. Seventy
percent of the well pre-served Ottoman urban centers in Koso
severely damaged with a great loss of historic architecture. In most cases the
damage was not collateral but deliberate in order to erase Albanian presence and
identity in Kosovo.27 A representative case is t
of Jashar Pasha in Pec. This Kulla dated back to 1809 and was an important
Albanian landmark, as the Albanian League of Pec first met here in 1899. One
century later it was burned down by local Serbs led by civilians. The destruction 27 A. Herscher, A. Riedlmayer, Kosovo, in: Grey Room, 2000, 1, [online edition: http://jstor.org/stable/ 1262553, last view 07/08/2012] p. 112.
13
According to the French social historian Pierre Nora, collective culture and heritage
have increasingly grown in importance, since history has "accelerated" through
globalization. What needs to be remembered is beyond the scope of the individual.
Cultural heritage, be it places, rituals, texts etc. forms the resonance of the
collective memory. It encompasses witnesses of discussions and conflicts but also of
cultural ambition. Cultural heritage becomes
mémoires", pointing at the collective memory of a society or nation. Hence culture
and heritage are tangible expressions of a society's aims and achievements, and
help to disseminate and improve (national) identity. Culture is thus about personal
interaction and identity. Consequently, culture is major determinant of how people
perceive each other and negotiate differences. But culture and heritage can also be
agents of conflict, based upon supposed national interests and historic claims.
From the start of the Serb dominance over Kosovo in 1912 cultural heritage was
used as an incentive to promote the Serbian claims over the territory. Thr
justifications were set out for the rule of Serbs over Kosovo and its people: 1. "the
moral right of a more civilized people" 2. " the ethnographic right of a people who
'originally' constituted Kosovo's majority population", 3. "the Serb's historic rig
the place which contained the Patriarchate buildings of the Serbian Orthodox
This heavy charge of meaning upon heritage, also made heritage extremely
vulnerable to deliberate destruction. Consequently, cultural heritage and especially
oric architecture was massively targeted and destroyed. Culture and more
specifically religious architecture was - and remains - the symbolic centerpiece of
Serb Orthodox presence in the region. Kosovar Albanian heritage had been widely
tated during the 1998-1999 conflict in the Serbian attempt to
Albanize" Kosovo. In march 1998 Serb forces initiated a campaign against the
Albanian population in Kosovo. Large numbers of Albanians were forcibly deported
from their homes and the historic architecture associated with that population was
systematically targeted for destruction. There were two reasons for this destruction.
Firstly, the massive destruction of the built environment would diminish the
Albanians’ incentive to return “home” and secondly it was a means to remove all
visible evidence of Kosovo’s deported Albanian community. The primary targets of
the Serbian attacks on Albanian buildings were mosques. Approximately 207 out of
609 mosques in Kosovo sustained damaged or were entirely destroyed. Islamic
religious schools, libraries, historic bazaars and kulla’s (traditional stone mansions
associated with prominent Albanian families) were also favored targets. Seventy
served Ottoman urban centers in Kosovar cities
a great loss of historic architecture. In most cases the
damage was not collateral but deliberate in order to erase Albanian presence and
A representative case is the deliberate destruction o
of Jashar Pasha in Pec. This Kulla dated back to 1809 and was an important
Albanian landmark, as the Albanian League of Pec first met here in 1899. One
century later it was burned down by local Serbs led by civilians. The destruction
Riedlmayer, Monument and Crime: The Destruction of Architecture in , in: Grey Room, 2000, 1, [online edition: http://jstor.org/stable/ 1262553, last view
According to the French social historian Pierre Nora, collective culture and heritage
importance, since history has "accelerated" through
globalization. What needs to be remembered is beyond the scope of the individual.
Cultural heritage, be it places, rituals, texts etc. forms the resonance of the
es of discussions and conflicts but also of
on. Cultural heritage becomes "lieux de
mémoires", pointing at the collective memory of a society or nation. Hence culture
ims and achievements, and
Culture is thus about personal
interaction and identity. Consequently, culture is major determinant of how people
heritage can also be
agents of conflict, based upon supposed national interests and historic claims.
From the start of the Serb dominance over Kosovo in 1912 cultural heritage was
used as an incentive to promote the Serbian claims over the territory. Three
justifications were set out for the rule of Serbs over Kosovo and its people: 1. "the
moral right of a more civilized people" 2. " the ethnographic right of a people who
'originally' constituted Kosovo's majority population", 3. "the Serb's historic right to
the place which contained the Patriarchate buildings of the Serbian Orthodox
This heavy charge of meaning upon heritage, also made heritage extremely
vulnerable to deliberate destruction. Consequently, cultural heritage and especially
oric architecture was massively targeted and destroyed. Culture and more
the symbolic centerpiece of
Serb Orthodox presence in the region. Kosovar Albanian heritage had been widely
1999 conflict in the Serbian attempt to
Albanize" Kosovo. In march 1998 Serb forces initiated a campaign against the
Albanian population in Kosovo. Large numbers of Albanians were forcibly deported
c architecture associated with that population was
systematically targeted for destruction. There were two reasons for this destruction.
Firstly, the massive destruction of the built environment would diminish the
and secondly it was a means to remove all
visible evidence of Kosovo’s deported Albanian community. The primary targets of
the Serbian attacks on Albanian buildings were mosques. Approximately 207 out of
rely destroyed. Islamic
s (traditional stone mansions
associated with prominent Albanian families) were also favored targets. Seventy-five
var cities were also
a great loss of historic architecture. In most cases the
damage was not collateral but deliberate in order to erase Albanian presence and
he deliberate destruction of the Kulla
of Jashar Pasha in Pec. This Kulla dated back to 1809 and was an important
Albanian landmark, as the Albanian League of Pec first met here in 1899. One
century later it was burned down by local Serbs led by civilians. The destruction
Monument and Crime: The Destruction of Architecture in , in: Grey Room, 2000, 1, [online edition: http://jstor.org/stable/ 1262553, last view
took several days as the first attempts to set fire inside
succeed. Men had to climb upon a ladder to set fire unto the roof, in order to have
to building burned out.28
culturally defined entity was targeted. Reciprocally immediately after the war and
during the march 2004 upheavals
primary target of the Albanian mob.
buildings were vandalized or destroyed
2004, serious unrests led to 19 deaths, and the destruction of a 35 Serbian
Orthodox churches and monasteries, as Albanians started pogroms against the
Serbs. Several thousand more Kosovo Serbs have left their home
Serbia proper or in the Serb
on Serbian Orthodox heritage can be explained by two main factors. Firstly the
religious Orthodox sites were generally
restored under Milosevic as part of the pro
full control by Serbia over Kosovo. Sec
false assumptions that the Serb Orthodox monasteries were originally Albanian
Catholic before being colonized by force by the Serbians.
The Kosovo conflict - in parallel with the other Yugoslavian wars
the notion of collective memory and common history into a radical nationalistic
discourse. Art and architecture became a proxy by which other ideological, ethnic
and nationalist conflicts wer
totemic quality. A mosque or a church for instance no longer remain places of
worship, but become to the
marked for erasure. Libraries or art galleries become a container of historic
memory, evidence that a community's presence extends to the past and legitimize
its presence and future existence.
why and how they are built, regarded and destroyed".
diplomacy in the region's reconstruction: "the priority of international community's
cultural diplomacy in the Western Balkans became
collective memory of common cultural past. The cultural policy of numerous
international actors in the Balkans was marked by an
new interpretation of the common Yugoslavian (and Balkan) history through
concept of the region's multicultural past".
28 A. Herscher , A. Riedlmayer, p. 118.29 T. Kostadinova, Cultural Diplomacy in warpolicies in the post-conflict (re
Three Piece Puzzle: the Relationship between Culture, International Relations and Globalization, Berlin, 2011, p.12.30 R. Bevan, p. 12. 31 Quoted from: Tonka Kostadinova, p. 3.
14
ral days as the first attempts to set fire inside the building
succeed. Men had to climb upon a ladder to set fire unto the roof, in order to have 28 As this case exemplifies, the entire population as a
ty was targeted. Reciprocally immediately after the war and
the march 2004 upheavals, the Serb orthodox monasteries became the
primary target of the Albanian mob. In the events after the war, more than seventy
buildings were vandalized or destroyed in revenge-attacks. On the 17th of March
2004, serious unrests led to 19 deaths, and the destruction of a 35 Serbian
Orthodox churches and monasteries, as Albanians started pogroms against the
Serbs. Several thousand more Kosovo Serbs have left their homes to seek refuge in
Serbia proper or in the Serb-dominated north of Kosovo. These post
on Serbian Orthodox heritage can be explained by two main factors. Firstly the
religious Orthodox sites were generally perceived as "political statements" b
restored under Milosevic as part of the pro-Serbian propaganda seeking to secure
full control by Serbia over Kosovo. Secondly, historical misinterpretations led to the
that the Serb Orthodox monasteries were originally Albanian
tholic before being colonized by force by the Serbians.29
in parallel with the other Yugoslavian wars
the notion of collective memory and common history into a radical nationalistic
Art and architecture became a proxy by which other ideological, ethnic
were fight out. Hence art and architecture take on a
totemic quality. A mosque or a church for instance no longer remain places of
worship, but become to the enemies a the token of the presence of a community
marked for erasure. Libraries or art galleries become a container of historic
memory, evidence that a community's presence extends to the past and legitimize
its presence and future existence. "Buildings are not political but are politicized by
why and how they are built, regarded and destroyed".30 Hence the role of cultural
diplomacy in the region's reconstruction: "the priority of international community's
cultural diplomacy in the Western Balkans became the (re-) creation of the
collective memory of common cultural past. The cultural policy of numerous
international actors in the Balkans was marked by an increasing tendency towards,
new interpretation of the common Yugoslavian (and Balkan) history through
concept of the region's multicultural past". 31
Riedlmayer, p. 118. Cultural Diplomacy in war-affected societies: international and local conflict (re-) construction of religious heritage in former Yugoslavia,
Three Piece Puzzle: the Relationship between Culture, International Relations and , Berlin, 2011, p.12.
Quoted from: Tonka Kostadinova, p. 3.
the building did not
succeed. Men had to climb upon a ladder to set fire unto the roof, in order to have
As this case exemplifies, the entire population as a
ty was targeted. Reciprocally immediately after the war and
the Serb orthodox monasteries became the
after the war, more than seventy
On the 17th of March
2004, serious unrests led to 19 deaths, and the destruction of a 35 Serbian
Orthodox churches and monasteries, as Albanians started pogroms against the
s to seek refuge in
These post-1999 attacks
on Serbian Orthodox heritage can be explained by two main factors. Firstly the
as "political statements" built or
Serbian propaganda seeking to secure
interpretations led to the
that the Serb Orthodox monasteries were originally Albanian
in parallel with the other Yugoslavian wars - thus subverted
the notion of collective memory and common history into a radical nationalistic
Art and architecture became a proxy by which other ideological, ethnic
Hence art and architecture take on a
totemic quality. A mosque or a church for instance no longer remain places of
enemies a the token of the presence of a community
marked for erasure. Libraries or art galleries become a container of historic
memory, evidence that a community's presence extends to the past and legitimize
are not political but are politicized by
Hence the role of cultural
diplomacy in the region's reconstruction: "the priority of international community's
) creation of the
collective memory of common cultural past. The cultural policy of numerous
increasing tendency towards,
new interpretation of the common Yugoslavian (and Balkan) history through the
affected societies: international and local ) construction of religious heritage in former Yugoslavia, in: A
Three Piece Puzzle: the Relationship between Culture, International Relations and
3.The Role of Culture and Heritage in Post
Besides being a tool of propaganda, instrument of a governmental game, culture in
politics can also become the means of exchange and cooperation between cultures,
in order to achieve dialogue.
and diplomacy find each other in cultural diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy is about
human values, finding a common ground between and among cultures and about
cultivating a richer understanding of the human condition.
the ICD, "cultural diplomacy is the use of culture by diplomacy, as
understanding, conciliation and to obtain agreements with language teaching,
educational exchanges and other forms of cultural contact."
processes and attitudes of nations and pe
as a common ground or language that binds all of humanity,
dependent on the readiness to recognize shared values and on the will of cultural
assimilation between countries.
UNESCO, Council of Europe (CoE) and Cultural Heritage Without Borders (CHWB)
make cultural diplomacy their core business. Through cultural and heritage
management programs they try to engage societies in dialogue and reconciliation.
For these institutions, the protection and reconstruction of cultural heritage clearly
is not an aim in itself, but
maintenance of peaceful relations between different communities.
heritage can be the focus of extreme conflicts, it is also a domain where increased
trust, understanding and collaboration between communities can be established.
An emphasis on the common features of cultural heritage can help create a
platform that is based on mutual respect.
public participation in restoration projects
chances of reconciliation between and within communities through the
management of conflicting interpretation.
politics of remembering, forgetting and silences
heritage as embodied by the "New Museology Movement". The recent focus on
heritage and reconciliation is based upon the assumption t
important tool in forging and perceiving identity, including the identity of "the
other". In cases of conflict or misunderstanding, heritage can be used as an object
of reflection and dialogue which bridges the differences between cultu
takes part in human culture in general and in the collective memory of given
people. Hence, the importance of heritage crosses national or ethic boundaries and
heritage can act as a relatively neutral object of reflection between communities
importance for the collective memory of a people can at the same time trigger the
interest and dialogue between cultures.
without Borders, a Swedish NGO founded in 1995 to work in the spirit of the 1954
Hague Convention on the protection of cultural heritage in event of armed conflict,
32
ICD, Evolution of Cultural Diplomacy
http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/pdf/case
dd. 26/08/2012]
15
The Role of Culture and Heritage in Post-conflict reconciliation
Besides being a tool of propaganda, instrument of a governmental game, culture in
politics can also become the means of exchange and cooperation between cultures,
in order to achieve dialogue. This is the action field of cultural diplomacy. Culture
lomacy find each other in cultural diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy is about
human values, finding a common ground between and among cultures and about
cultivating a richer understanding of the human condition. As defined in a paper of
omacy is the use of culture by diplomacy, as
understanding, conciliation and to obtain agreements with language teaching,
educational exchanges and other forms of cultural contact."32 Changing thought
of nations and people is not an easy task. Culture can act
as a common ground or language that binds all of humanity,
dependent on the readiness to recognize shared values and on the will of cultural
assimilation between countries. International organizations and NGO's including
UNESCO, Council of Europe (CoE) and Cultural Heritage Without Borders (CHWB)
make cultural diplomacy their core business. Through cultural and heritage
management programs they try to engage societies in dialogue and reconciliation.
he protection and reconstruction of cultural heritage clearly
, but can also serve the purpose of the re-establishment and
maintenance of peaceful relations between different communities. Indeed, if cultural
eritage can be the focus of extreme conflicts, it is also a domain where increased
trust, understanding and collaboration between communities can be established.
An emphasis on the common features of cultural heritage can help create a
sed on mutual respect. This idea rests on the assumption that
public participation in restoration projects and cultural initiatives
chances of reconciliation between and within communities through the
management of conflicting interpretation. Social justice and memory studies
politics of remembering, forgetting and silences - represent the reflexive view on
heritage as embodied by the "New Museology Movement". The recent focus on
heritage and reconciliation is based upon the assumption that heritage is an
important tool in forging and perceiving identity, including the identity of "the
other". In cases of conflict or misunderstanding, heritage can be used as an object
of reflection and dialogue which bridges the differences between cultu
takes part in human culture in general and in the collective memory of given
people. Hence, the importance of heritage crosses national or ethic boundaries and
heritage can act as a relatively neutral object of reflection between communities
importance for the collective memory of a people can at the same time trigger the
interest and dialogue between cultures. Furthermore, research by Cultural Heritage
a Swedish NGO founded in 1995 to work in the spirit of the 1954
gue Convention on the protection of cultural heritage in event of armed conflict,
Evolution of Cultural Diplomacy, Berlin, s.d., [online version:
http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/pdf/case-studies/Gerome-Evolution-of-Cultural-Diplomacy.pdf
conflict reconciliation
Besides being a tool of propaganda, instrument of a governmental game, culture in
politics can also become the means of exchange and cooperation between cultures,
This is the action field of cultural diplomacy. Culture
lomacy find each other in cultural diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy is about
human values, finding a common ground between and among cultures and about
As defined in a paper of
omacy is the use of culture by diplomacy, as a way to reach
understanding, conciliation and to obtain agreements with language teaching,
Changing thought-
is not an easy task. Culture can act
as a common ground or language that binds all of humanity, but it remains
dependent on the readiness to recognize shared values and on the will of cultural
s and NGO's including
UNESCO, Council of Europe (CoE) and Cultural Heritage Without Borders (CHWB)
make cultural diplomacy their core business. Through cultural and heritage
management programs they try to engage societies in dialogue and reconciliation.
he protection and reconstruction of cultural heritage clearly
establishment and
Indeed, if cultural
eritage can be the focus of extreme conflicts, it is also a domain where increased
trust, understanding and collaboration between communities can be established.
An emphasis on the common features of cultural heritage can help create a
This idea rests on the assumption that
and cultural initiatives improves the
chances of reconciliation between and within communities through the
Social justice and memory studies - the
represent the reflexive view on
heritage as embodied by the "New Museology Movement". The recent focus on
hat heritage is an
important tool in forging and perceiving identity, including the identity of "the
other". In cases of conflict or misunderstanding, heritage can be used as an object
of reflection and dialogue which bridges the differences between cultures. Heritage
takes part in human culture in general and in the collective memory of given
people. Hence, the importance of heritage crosses national or ethic boundaries and
heritage can act as a relatively neutral object of reflection between communities. Its
importance for the collective memory of a people can at the same time trigger the
, research by Cultural Heritage
a Swedish NGO founded in 1995 to work in the spirit of the 1954
gue Convention on the protection of cultural heritage in event of armed conflict,
Diplomacy.pdf, latest view
has shown that people living in conditions where they feel home and secure are less
prone to aggressiveness and conflict, especially after a war or a conflict based on
ethnic wages. Working with cultural heritage helps victimized groups strengthen
and regain their sense of pride. Restoration of heritage and development of cultural
property can also help poverty reduction.
political crisis, culture is often of low priority. Government and citizens, in first case
try to find solutions to provide in basic human needs. Culture is probably the one of
the most distinguishing outputs human capacity. Since the industrial and
technological society, people
culture than about surviving in periods of extreme socio
question is thus raised if culture and heritage are really allowed, by the given social
and economical context, to play a role in post
strategies are fruitful.
After the cessation of the ethnic conflicts in Kosovo, it was obvious
international community that the issues concerning cultural heritage needed to be
given greater attention if a long
achieved. Not only did the reminders that war
of, but also the intertwined cultural past of the Balkans.
other” had played an important role in the
heritage. Now culture and heritage could start to play an equally important role in
the considering of "the other
variegated cultural heritage
reconciliation symbolize the reality of co
Outstanding architectural monuments going back to the Middle
Ottoman period attest to the historic continu
exceptional artistic crafts of its inhabitants. This heritage includes 14
churches and monasteries, mosques of a great stylistic perfection and many
exceptional non-religious buildings which all testify of the den
artistic activity of the region. Indeed, Kosovo can be considered as a reduced
model of the Balkans. This richness and diversity consequently raises a challenge to
the (international) community to help to bring about stability and co
region.
Each ethnic group involved in the 1990's Yugoslav
sought to justify its existence and territorial claim by suppressing or destructing the
identity of "the other". Culture as main bearer of "collectiv
became the primary target and was used as an operation ethnic cleansing tool. The
desecration of religious sites and buildings and the massive destruction of
architectural heritage clearly aimed
different communities in Kosovo and was clearly based on a “misunderstanding”
and "denial" of “the other”. Systematic abuse, violation, looting and vandalism of
cultural heritage was noted until 2004 and remains
region which used to be known for its richness and diversity now carries the stigma
of profanation and intentional destruction associated with violence and hatred. In
33 CHWB, Cultural Heritage, Reconciliation, Reconstruction, Hopes for the Future2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]
16
has shown that people living in conditions where they feel home and secure are less
and conflict, especially after a war or a conflict based on
wages. Working with cultural heritage helps victimized groups strengthen
and regain their sense of pride. Restoration of heritage and development of cultural
property can also help poverty reduction.33 However, in situations of economic and
s, culture is often of low priority. Government and citizens, in first case
try to find solutions to provide in basic human needs. Culture is probably the one of
the most distinguishing outputs human capacity. Since the industrial and
, people - and especially government- tend to care less about
culture than about surviving in periods of extreme socio-economic uncertainty. The
question is thus raised if culture and heritage are really allowed, by the given social
to play a role in post-conflict reconstruction and if so what
After the cessation of the ethnic conflicts in Kosovo, it was obvious
that the issues concerning cultural heritage needed to be
greater attention if a long-standing peace and reconciliation was to be
achieved. Not only did the reminders that war-damaged monuments had to be care
of, but also the intertwined cultural past of the Balkans. De-humanization of “the
important role in the killing of people and in the
heritage. Now culture and heritage could start to play an equally important role in
the other" as an equal human being. While in period of conflict,
eritage were used to emphasis differences; it could
reconciliation symbolize the reality of co-existence and common past.
Outstanding architectural monuments going back to the Middle
Ottoman period attest to the historic continuity of life in Kosovo and to the
exceptional artistic crafts of its inhabitants. This heritage includes 14
churches and monasteries, mosques of a great stylistic perfection and many
religious buildings which all testify of the den
artistic activity of the region. Indeed, Kosovo can be considered as a reduced
model of the Balkans. This richness and diversity consequently raises a challenge to
community to help to bring about stability and co
Each ethnic group involved in the 1990's Yugoslav -hence in the Kosovo
sought to justify its existence and territorial claim by suppressing or destructing the
identity of "the other". Culture as main bearer of "collective memory and identity"
became the primary target and was used as an operation ethnic cleansing tool. The
desecration of religious sites and buildings and the massive destruction of
architectural heritage clearly aimed at wiping out the traces of a past shared by
different communities in Kosovo and was clearly based on a “misunderstanding”
and "denial" of “the other”. Systematic abuse, violation, looting and vandalism of
cultural heritage was noted until 2004 and remains an existing threat. Hence, the
region which used to be known for its richness and diversity now carries the stigma
of profanation and intentional destruction associated with violence and hatred. In
Cultural Heritage, Reconciliation, Reconstruction, Hopes for the Future
2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]
has shown that people living in conditions where they feel home and secure are less
and conflict, especially after a war or a conflict based on
wages. Working with cultural heritage helps victimized groups strengthen
and regain their sense of pride. Restoration of heritage and development of cultural
However, in situations of economic and
s, culture is often of low priority. Government and citizens, in first case
try to find solutions to provide in basic human needs. Culture is probably the one of
the most distinguishing outputs human capacity. Since the industrial and
tend to care less about
economic uncertainty. The
question is thus raised if culture and heritage are really allowed, by the given social
conflict reconstruction and if so what
After the cessation of the ethnic conflicts in Kosovo, it was obvious for the
that the issues concerning cultural heritage needed to be
standing peace and reconciliation was to be
damaged monuments had to be care
humanization of “the
killing of people and in the destruction of
heritage. Now culture and heritage could start to play an equally important role in
While in period of conflict,
could in periods of
existence and common past.
Outstanding architectural monuments going back to the Middle-ages and the
ity of life in Kosovo and to the
exceptional artistic crafts of its inhabitants. This heritage includes 14th century
churches and monasteries, mosques of a great stylistic perfection and many
religious buildings which all testify of the dense multicultural
artistic activity of the region. Indeed, Kosovo can be considered as a reduced-scale
model of the Balkans. This richness and diversity consequently raises a challenge to
community to help to bring about stability and continuity in the
hence in the Kosovo - conflict
sought to justify its existence and territorial claim by suppressing or destructing the
e memory and identity"
became the primary target and was used as an operation ethnic cleansing tool. The
desecration of religious sites and buildings and the massive destruction of
wiping out the traces of a past shared by
different communities in Kosovo and was clearly based on a “misunderstanding”
and "denial" of “the other”. Systematic abuse, violation, looting and vandalism of
an existing threat. Hence, the
region which used to be known for its richness and diversity now carries the stigma
of profanation and intentional destruction associated with violence and hatred. In
Cultural Heritage, Reconciliation, Reconstruction, Hopes for the Future, Sweden,
order to re-establish dialogue and to create the possibili
between the different communities it is necessary to equilibrate commitments and
expectations. Heritage and culture could be an interesting point of departure.
However, when the 2001 UNESCO report was drafted
Serbians and Albanians concerning heritage management differed quite heavily.
While the Serbians feel personally concerned with the fate of the Orthodox
Monasteries, the Albanians identify themselves le
from the Ottoman period than the Serbians usually tend to do.
overriding significance of Serbian heritage as a unifying symbol for the Serbian
Orthodox Church. This asymmetry should gradually make place for the awareness
of the citizens of both communities th
from the past is a common responsibility and duty towards the future generations
and mankind in general.
that cultural heritage is not only one of the pre
democratic development in the region but also and important political and
economic asset: “Through the support given to cultural heritage, an increased
administrative capacity and harmonization of legislation with the rest of Eu
be achieved. In addition to the democratic and environmental gains, work
opportunities can be created for local artisans and small business.”
Consequently the emphasis on identity, culture, heritage and religion in
Comprehensive Proposal was not gratuitous.
Kosovo's status should be independence to be supervised for an initial period by the
international community. According to Ahtisaari "Uncertainty over its future status
has become a major obstacle
economic recovery and inter
war, Kosovo and Serbia had been governed in complete separation by the
establishment of UNMIK pursuant to resolution 1244
exercised any governing authority over Kosovo. Hence a return of Serbian rule over
Kosovo was not acceptable to the majority of the people of Kosovo while Belgrade
could not regain its authority without provoking violent opposi
Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement envisaged the provisions
necessary for a future Kosovo that was viable, sustainable and stable. It included
detailed measures to ensure the promotion and protection of the rights of
communities and their members including minorities and the preservation and
protection of cultural and religious heritage in Kosovo, contributing to the
development of a multi-ethnic, democratic Kosovo. The Settlement placed great
emphasis upon ensuring the
Church in Kosovo. Protective zones were to be created around more than 40 key
religious and cultural sites regardless of their ownership. Specific restrictions were
applied to activities within th
functioning of major religious and cultural sites. Athisaari recommended that
Kosovo should have its own, distinct, national symbols; including a flag, seal and
anthem, reflecting its multi
nondiscrimination and equa
34 K. Matsuura, p. 9. 35 CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest v
17
establish dialogue and to create the possibility of peaceful co
between the different communities it is necessary to equilibrate commitments and
expectations. Heritage and culture could be an interesting point of departure.
However, when the 2001 UNESCO report was drafted, the expectations
Serbians and Albanians concerning heritage management differed quite heavily.
While the Serbians feel personally concerned with the fate of the Orthodox
Monasteries, the Albanians identify themselves less with the monuments dating
an period than the Serbians usually tend to do.
overriding significance of Serbian heritage as a unifying symbol for the Serbian
Orthodox Church. This asymmetry should gradually make place for the awareness
of the citizens of both communities that preserving culture and heritage inherited
from the past is a common responsibility and duty towards the future generations
and mankind in general. The CHWB project for the Balkans, explicitly mentions
cultural heritage is not only one of the pre-requisites for a peaceful and
democratic development in the region but also and important political and
economic asset: “Through the support given to cultural heritage, an increased
administrative capacity and harmonization of legislation with the rest of Eu
be achieved. In addition to the democratic and environmental gains, work
opportunities can be created for local artisans and small business.”
Consequently the emphasis on identity, culture, heritage and religion in
was not gratuitous. Ahtisaari's plan recommended that
Kosovo's status should be independence to be supervised for an initial period by the
international community. According to Ahtisaari "Uncertainty over its future status
has become a major obstacle to Kosovo’s democratic development, accountability,
economic recovery and inter-ethnic reconciliation." As since the end of the 1999
war, Kosovo and Serbia had been governed in complete separation by the
establishment of UNMIK pursuant to resolution 1244 (1999), Serbia had no longer
exercised any governing authority over Kosovo. Hence a return of Serbian rule over
Kosovo was not acceptable to the majority of the people of Kosovo while Belgrade
could not regain its authority without provoking violent opposi
Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement envisaged the provisions
necessary for a future Kosovo that was viable, sustainable and stable. It included
detailed measures to ensure the promotion and protection of the rights of
ommunities and their members including minorities and the preservation and
protection of cultural and religious heritage in Kosovo, contributing to the
ethnic, democratic Kosovo. The Settlement placed great
emphasis upon ensuring the undisturbed existence of the Serbian Orthodox
Church in Kosovo. Protective zones were to be created around more than 40 key
religious and cultural sites regardless of their ownership. Specific restrictions were
applied to activities within these zones to guarantee the peaceful existence and
functioning of major religious and cultural sites. Athisaari recommended that
Kosovo should have its own, distinct, national symbols; including a flag, seal and
anthem, reflecting its multi-ethnic character and the pri
nondiscrimination and equal protection under the law. Athisaari's thus clearly
, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]
ty of peaceful co-habitation
between the different communities it is necessary to equilibrate commitments and
expectations. Heritage and culture could be an interesting point of departure.
the expectations of Kosovo
Serbians and Albanians concerning heritage management differed quite heavily.
While the Serbians feel personally concerned with the fate of the Orthodox
s with the monuments dating
an period than the Serbians usually tend to do.34 Hence the
overriding significance of Serbian heritage as a unifying symbol for the Serbian
Orthodox Church. This asymmetry should gradually make place for the awareness
at preserving culture and heritage inherited
from the past is a common responsibility and duty towards the future generations
explicitly mentions
quisites for a peaceful and
democratic development in the region but also and important political and
economic asset: “Through the support given to cultural heritage, an increased
administrative capacity and harmonization of legislation with the rest of Europe can
be achieved. In addition to the democratic and environmental gains, work
opportunities can be created for local artisans and small business.”35
Consequently the emphasis on identity, culture, heritage and religion in Ahtisaari 's
Ahtisaari's plan recommended that
Kosovo's status should be independence to be supervised for an initial period by the
international community. According to Ahtisaari "Uncertainty over its future status
to Kosovo’s democratic development, accountability,
ethnic reconciliation." As since the end of the 1999
war, Kosovo and Serbia had been governed in complete separation by the
(1999), Serbia had no longer
exercised any governing authority over Kosovo. Hence a return of Serbian rule over
Kosovo was not acceptable to the majority of the people of Kosovo while Belgrade
could not regain its authority without provoking violent opposition. Hence, the
Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement envisaged the provisions
necessary for a future Kosovo that was viable, sustainable and stable. It included
detailed measures to ensure the promotion and protection of the rights of
ommunities and their members including minorities and the preservation and
protection of cultural and religious heritage in Kosovo, contributing to the
ethnic, democratic Kosovo. The Settlement placed great
undisturbed existence of the Serbian Orthodox
Church in Kosovo. Protective zones were to be created around more than 40 key
religious and cultural sites regardless of their ownership. Specific restrictions were
guarantee the peaceful existence and
functioning of major religious and cultural sites. Athisaari recommended that
Kosovo should have its own, distinct, national symbols; including a flag, seal and
ethnic character and the principles of
protection under the law. Athisaari's thus clearly
iew dd. 22/08/2012]
commended the creation of a new Kosovar identity based on its diverse historical
past and culture. Athisaari's plan adopted by the
Obligations for Kosovo that "
enabling Communities, and their members
identities. The Government shall in particular support
Communities and their m
Kosovo shall promote a spirit of tolerance, dialogue and support reconciliation
between Communities and respect the standards set forth in the Council of Europe
Framework Convention for the Protection of
Charter for Regional or Minority Languages."
As we will see, social involvement and the superseding of
binary are prerequisites for the establishment of dialogue and collaboration between
communities by means of heritage
course be part of a process of
heritage should not be stigmatized with conflict discourse. They first of all need to
include a rhetoric of remembrance of human culture, ideals and values
reconstruction and harmony.
rescue mission for the saving of democracy, minority rights etc. Heritage is not
something that is lost can
users. Hence, it is necessary to trigger the dialogue which is activated in heritage.
Dialogue sessions can for instance use heritage as a starting point to discuss the
importance of identity, origin
remain inaccessible and silent to "the other" and even beco
of a mini-crusade based on misconceptions and non
culture and heritage as a unifying factor
to serve nationalistic claims shifting culture from a unifying factor to a dividing
force, especially in regions where different cultural groups are formed on religious
and ethnic basis. The meanings and memories
artifacts are created by human agency and remain there. Hence
at the coin of culture in
culture and heritage heavily depends on the will of the
reconciliation. This involves exchanging the nationalist and separatist discourse in
which culture and heritage are often broadcasted
unification based on multi
problems regarding the status of culture and heritage in post
leaving even behind hard
reconstruction.
36 United Nations Security Council, addressed to the President of the Security Council, Addendum Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement, Washington, 26 march 2007, 10/09/2012]. 37 Sarah Wolferstan, Community Participation in Heritage in PostDemocracy, Dialogue and Reconciliation through Cultural HeritageThe Future of Heritage. ChanSelected Papers from the Third Annual Ename International Colloquium
18
commended the creation of a new Kosovar identity based on its diverse historical
Athisaari's plan adopted by the UN explicitly mentioned in his
gations for Kosovo that " 2.1 Kosovo shall create appropriate conditions
enabling Communities, and their members to preserve, protect and develop their
ent shall in particular support cultural initiatives from
Communities and their members, including through financial assistance.
Kosovo shall promote a spirit of tolerance, dialogue and support reconciliation
Communities and respect the standards set forth in the Council of Europe
Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the European
Regional or Minority Languages."36
social involvement and the superseding of the victim / aggressor
rerequisites for the establishment of dialogue and collaboration between
unities by means of heritage. Restoration or reconstruction of heritage can of
a process of "mea culpa" and forgiveness. However, culture and
heritage should not be stigmatized with conflict discourse. They first of all need to
rhetoric of remembrance of human culture, ideals and values
reconstruction and harmony. Restoration work should however not be seen as a
rescue mission for the saving of democracy, minority rights etc. Heritage is not
something that is lost can be saved.37 Heritage is loaded with significance by its
users. Hence, it is necessary to trigger the dialogue which is activated in heritage.
Dialogue sessions can for instance use heritage as a starting point to discuss the
importance of identity, origin and tradition. Without such a dialogue, heritage will
remain inaccessible and silent to "the other" and even become ones more t
crusade based on misconceptions and non-understanding.
culture and heritage as a unifying factor appears fragile as it is easily manipulated
to serve nationalistic claims shifting culture from a unifying factor to a dividing
force, especially in regions where different cultural groups are formed on religious
The meanings and memories that are brought to (cultural)
artifacts are created by human agency and remain there. Hence there are two sides
post conflict reconstruction. The reconciliatory role of
culture and heritage heavily depends on the will of the people to succeed in
reconciliation. This involves exchanging the nationalist and separatist discourse in
which culture and heritage are often broadcasted - for a discourse of tolerance and
unification based on multi-culturalism. Saying this, I point out some of the major
problems regarding the status of culture and heritage in post
leaving even behind hard-core heritage discussions on the authenticity of
United Nations Security Council, Letter dated 26 March 2007 from the Secretary
addressed to the President of the Security Council, Addendum Comprehensive Proposal for the , Washington, 26 march 2007, [online edition latest view dd.
Community Participation in Heritage in Post-Conflict Kosovo. Promoting Democracy, Dialogue and Reconciliation through Cultural Heritage, in: Interpreting the Past. The Future of Heritage. Changing Visions, Attitudes and Contexts in the 21st Century. Selected Papers from the Third Annual Ename International Colloquium, Ghent, 2007, p. 285.
commended the creation of a new Kosovar identity based on its diverse historical
explicitly mentioned in his
appropriate conditions
to preserve, protect and develop their
cultural initiatives from
embers, including through financial assistance. 2.2
Kosovo shall promote a spirit of tolerance, dialogue and support reconciliation
Communities and respect the standards set forth in the Council of Europe
National Minorities and the European
the victim / aggressor
rerequisites for the establishment of dialogue and collaboration between
Restoration or reconstruction of heritage can of
"mea culpa" and forgiveness. However, culture and
heritage should not be stigmatized with conflict discourse. They first of all need to
rhetoric of remembrance of human culture, ideals and values nourishing
Restoration work should however not be seen as a
rescue mission for the saving of democracy, minority rights etc. Heritage is not
Heritage is loaded with significance by its
users. Hence, it is necessary to trigger the dialogue which is activated in heritage.
Dialogue sessions can for instance use heritage as a starting point to discuss the
and tradition. Without such a dialogue, heritage will
me ones more the object
understanding. The role of
appears fragile as it is easily manipulated
to serve nationalistic claims shifting culture from a unifying factor to a dividing
force, especially in regions where different cultural groups are formed on religious
that are brought to (cultural)
here are two sides
The reconciliatory role of
people to succeed in
reconciliation. This involves exchanging the nationalist and separatist discourse in -
for a discourse of tolerance and
some of the major
problems regarding the status of culture and heritage in post-conflict Kosovo,
core heritage discussions on the authenticity of
Letter dated 26 March 2007 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council, Addendum Comprehensive Proposal for the
online edition latest view dd.
Conflict Kosovo. Promoting Interpreting the Past.
ging Visions, Attitudes and Contexts in the 21st Century. , Ghent, 2007, p. 285.
Firstly, A majority of the cultural and historical sites and initia
politicized and subverted during the conflict in order to support nationalistic
claims. The will to undo this discourse has been driven by the international
community. Hence the danger exists for a repetition of the "failed" reconstruction
the Mostar-Bridge (Bosnia-
and decency is echoed in the fragility of its monuments."
reconstruction in circumstances where there has been an attempt to forced
forgetting by destruction are particularly treacherous.
The very name "Mostar" means "bridgekeeper". The bridge unified the old Ottoman
town centre at the East with the more heter
of what before the Bosnian
multi-national city of the region. Before the conflict the city had the highest rate of
mixed marriages between Serbs, Croats or Muslim. The destruction of the bridge
during the war, actually was an attack on the multi
essence of the city. The longstanding bridges between the several communities were
literally blown up. Mostar, as so many other Balkan cities was victim of "urbicide".
The reconstruction of the bridge was finalized in 2004. Nevertheless, Mosta
remains divided into a Catholic Croat West and a Muslim East. The bridge, however
faithful to his original design, is now rather a symbol of hope in a less divided
future than the symbol of present cosmopolitan unity as it used to be.
The same problem with the use of culture and heritage
Kosovo. It is raised by the fact that it is primarily the international community
which opened the debates on the creation of a common cultural past emphasizing
"traditional" multi-ethnicity and m
Many of the reconstructed Serb Orthodox churches and monasteries are
surrounded by military zones of protection out of fear for Albanian attacks as in
2004. These protection zones prohibit free access to the site
increasingly difficult for the surrounding community. The presence of police or
military forces underline “the otherness” of the sites and are all but in favor of
dialogue and contact between the communities.
government recently gave to
participate in the restoration of the Serb Orthodox Churches which were left
uncompleted by the Reconstruction Implementation Commission on Kosovo's
territory.40
In order to be successful heritage initiatives must be integrated in a regional
development plan involving local men and women. Hence it can support the
development of networks and co
be a generator for economic developme
tower inn Rahovec is a success based upon the involvement of local people,
development of networks and inter
backgrounds worked together on this restoration. This e
understanding and trust between them. The restoration of this historical
38 R. Bevan, p.9 39 R. Bevan, p. 177. 40
Information communicated by the Belgian Diplomatic Services in 41 CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]
19
majority of the cultural and historical sites and initia
subverted during the conflict in order to support nationalistic
claims. The will to undo this discourse has been driven by the international
community. Hence the danger exists for a repetition of the "failed" reconstruction
-Herzegovinia). "The continuing fragility of civil
and decency is echoed in the fragility of its monuments."38
reconstruction in circumstances where there has been an attempt to forced
struction are particularly treacherous.
The very name "Mostar" means "bridgekeeper". The bridge unified the old Ottoman
town centre at the East with the more heterodox West. The bridge was the symbol
Bosnian war had most probably been the most cosmopolitan and
national city of the region. Before the conflict the city had the highest rate of
mixed marriages between Serbs, Croats or Muslim. The destruction of the bridge
during the war, actually was an attack on the multi-ethnic and
essence of the city. The longstanding bridges between the several communities were
Mostar, as so many other Balkan cities was victim of "urbicide".
The reconstruction of the bridge was finalized in 2004. Nevertheless, Mosta
remains divided into a Catholic Croat West and a Muslim East. The bridge, however
faithful to his original design, is now rather a symbol of hope in a less divided
future than the symbol of present cosmopolitan unity as it used to be.
ith the use of culture and heritage occurs
is raised by the fact that it is primarily the international community
which opened the debates on the creation of a common cultural past emphasizing
ethnicity and multi-culturalism of the Balkans and Kos
Many of the reconstructed Serb Orthodox churches and monasteries are
surrounded by military zones of protection out of fear for Albanian attacks as in
These protection zones prohibit free access to the sites and make daily life
increasingly difficult for the surrounding community. The presence of police or
military forces underline “the otherness” of the sites and are all but in favor of
dialogue and contact between the communities. Furthermore, the Kosovo
gave to understand it was no longer willing to fund and
participate in the restoration of the Serb Orthodox Churches which were left
uncompleted by the Reconstruction Implementation Commission on Kosovo's
successful heritage initiatives must be integrated in a regional
development plan involving local men and women. Hence it can support the
development of networks and co-operation between ethnic and religious groups and
be a generator for economic development.41 The restoration project of the clock
tower inn Rahovec is a success based upon the involvement of local people,
development of networks and inter-ethnic cooperation. Several people from different
backgrounds worked together on this restoration. This encouraged mutual respect,
understanding and trust between them. The restoration of this historical
Information communicated by the Belgian Diplomatic Services in Pristina.
CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]
majority of the cultural and historical sites and initiatives have been
subverted during the conflict in order to support nationalistic
claims. The will to undo this discourse has been driven by the international
community. Hence the danger exists for a repetition of the "failed" reconstruction of
"The continuing fragility of civilized society 38 The pitfalls of
reconstruction in circumstances where there has been an attempt to forced
The very name "Mostar" means "bridgekeeper". The bridge unified the old Ottoman
he bridge was the symbol
the most cosmopolitan and
national city of the region. Before the conflict the city had the highest rate of
mixed marriages between Serbs, Croats or Muslim. The destruction of the bridge
ethnic and cosmopolitan
essence of the city. The longstanding bridges between the several communities were
Mostar, as so many other Balkan cities was victim of "urbicide".
The reconstruction of the bridge was finalized in 2004. Nevertheless, Mostar
remains divided into a Catholic Croat West and a Muslim East. The bridge, however
faithful to his original design, is now rather a symbol of hope in a less divided
future than the symbol of present cosmopolitan unity as it used to be.39
occurs in post-conflict
is raised by the fact that it is primarily the international community
which opened the debates on the creation of a common cultural past emphasizing
culturalism of the Balkans and Kosovo.
Many of the reconstructed Serb Orthodox churches and monasteries are
surrounded by military zones of protection out of fear for Albanian attacks as in
s and make daily life
increasingly difficult for the surrounding community. The presence of police or
military forces underline “the otherness” of the sites and are all but in favor of
Furthermore, the Kosovo
it was no longer willing to fund and
participate in the restoration of the Serb Orthodox Churches which were left
uncompleted by the Reconstruction Implementation Commission on Kosovo's
successful heritage initiatives must be integrated in a regional
development plan involving local men and women. Hence it can support the
operation between ethnic and religious groups and
The restoration project of the clock
tower inn Rahovec is a success based upon the involvement of local people,
ethnic cooperation. Several people from different
ncouraged mutual respect,
understanding and trust between them. The restoration of this historical
CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]
monument also empowered local entrepreneurs in traditional craft and material
techniques.42
A similar case of interest
Presentation of the Holy Virgin, Dolac.
century and heavily restored in the 16th
traditional technique that was used by Serbs and Albanians alike in
namely stone walls and roofs of thick slabs of slate.
in 2004. The reconstruction however, could mean an act of co
both Albanian and Serbs as the required traditional building techniques offer a
of Albanian and Serbian know
rebuilding of a church that once was a symbol of inter
Another example of the involvement of heritage in the reconciliation program
through development cooperation is given by Insertos.
with considerable humanitarian experience in Kosovo
society capacity building projects with its heritage restoration and
program. Insertos organized
stakeholders and common citizens of both Serbian and Albanian origin. These
heritage tours were followed by dialogue sessions that used cultural heritage as a
starting point of discussion between the commun
identity, integrity and community.
and heritage can serve as peaceful identity
means of intercultural dialogue Intersos tried
conditions, re-establish dialogue and strengthen peace, reconstruction and growth.
If the first heritage tours did not involve mixed groups of Albanians
other minorities nor the visit of "the others" heritage, the
spread as well as the request for mixed visits of all possible sites
Intersos' have reduced the emphasis on the political and religious "burden" of
heritage and encouraged a wider discussion on intangible aspects
its relationship to identity, past, present and future.
brought to the surface: tolerance, seekers of peace, heritage as a cure,
transformation. Tolerance requires mutual respect and the restoration of universal
values regardless of religious conviction. Heritage can help to recall pre
behavior and perception which w
other faiths instead of on extreme nationalism. The continuous re
the sites, monuments or other cultural
meanings of sites of war to sites of reconciliation and respect. Hence, heritage and
culture can help to remember how the different communities interacted in the past,
thus transforming their role from the aggressor / victim binary to seekers of peace
and mutual understanding.
If progress has been made there is still a long way to go. The Serbian Orthodox
Church and the Serbian Government still maintain some of their websites that
charge NATO and Albanians with (deliberate) destruction of churches and
monasteries during air raids.
damaged caused to Serbian heritage during the 1999 conflict and the 2004 raids. It 42 CHWB, 2010 Projects, Sweden, 2010 [online version: wwwdd. 20/09/2012] 43 For the evaluation of the project see: Sarah Wolferstan, p. 286
20
monument also empowered local entrepreneurs in traditional craft and material
of interest could be the Orthodox Monastery Church of the
Presentation of the Holy Virgin, Dolac. This church was founded in late 14th
century and heavily restored in the 16th-17th centuries. It was built with the
traditional technique that was used by Serbs and Albanians alike in
roofs of thick slabs of slate. Albanians destroyed the church
. The reconstruction however, could mean an act of co-operation between
ian and Serbs as the required traditional building techniques offer a
of Albanian and Serbian know-how. Both communities could contribute to the
rebuilding of a church that once was a symbol of inter-ethnic cultural exchange.
Another example of the involvement of heritage in the reconciliation program
t cooperation is given by Insertos. Insertos is
with considerable humanitarian experience in Kosovo. It decided to combine its civil
society capacity building projects with its heritage restoration and
organized heritage tours, bringing together practi
stakeholders and common citizens of both Serbian and Albanian origin. These
heritage tours were followed by dialogue sessions that used cultural heritage as a
starting point of discussion between the communities. Emphasis
and community. It is precisely in this "dialogue role" that culture
and heritage can serve as peaceful identity-builders in war-affected societies.
means of intercultural dialogue Intersos tried to promote a return to normal living
establish dialogue and strengthen peace, reconstruction and growth.
tours did not involve mixed groups of Albanians
the visit of "the others" heritage, the enthusiasm for the tours
spread as well as the request for mixed visits of all possible sites
have reduced the emphasis on the political and religious "burden" of
heritage and encouraged a wider discussion on intangible aspects
its relationship to identity, past, present and future. Four central themes were
brought to the surface: tolerance, seekers of peace, heritage as a cure,
transformation. Tolerance requires mutual respect and the restoration of universal
ues regardless of religious conviction. Heritage can help to recall pre
and perception which were often conciliatory and based on tolerance for
other faiths instead of on extreme nationalism. The continuous re
, monuments or other cultural artifacts include a chang
meanings of sites of war to sites of reconciliation and respect. Hence, heritage and
culture can help to remember how the different communities interacted in the past,
their role from the aggressor / victim binary to seekers of peace
and mutual understanding.43
If progress has been made there is still a long way to go. The Serbian Orthodox
Church and the Serbian Government still maintain some of their websites that
charge NATO and Albanians with (deliberate) destruction of churches and
monasteries during air raids. The website "www.kosovo.net" lists for instance all
damaged caused to Serbian heritage during the 1999 conflict and the 2004 raids. It
CHWB, 2010 Projects, Sweden, 2010 [online version: www.chwbkosovo.org, latest view
For the evaluation of the project see: Sarah Wolferstan, p. 286-288.
monument also empowered local entrepreneurs in traditional craft and material
Orthodox Monastery Church of the
This church was founded in late 14th
was built with the
traditional technique that was used by Serbs and Albanians alike in this area,
banians destroyed the church
operation between
ian and Serbs as the required traditional building techniques offer a mix
how. Both communities could contribute to the
ethnic cultural exchange.
Another example of the involvement of heritage in the reconciliation program
Insertos is an Italian NGO
decided to combine its civil
society capacity building projects with its heritage restoration and management
heritage tours, bringing together practitioners,
stakeholders and common citizens of both Serbian and Albanian origin. These
heritage tours were followed by dialogue sessions that used cultural heritage as a
ities. Emphasis was laid on
It is precisely in this "dialogue role" that culture
affected societies. By
te a return to normal living
establish dialogue and strengthen peace, reconstruction and growth.
tours did not involve mixed groups of Albanians, Serbians and
enthusiasm for the tours
spread as well as the request for mixed visits of all possible sites. Initiatives as
have reduced the emphasis on the political and religious "burden" of
heritage and encouraged a wider discussion on intangible aspects of heritage and
Four central themes were
brought to the surface: tolerance, seekers of peace, heritage as a cure,
transformation. Tolerance requires mutual respect and the restoration of universal
ues regardless of religious conviction. Heritage can help to recall pre-conflict
often conciliatory and based on tolerance for
other faiths instead of on extreme nationalism. The continuous re-interpretation of
include a change from negative
meanings of sites of war to sites of reconciliation and respect. Hence, heritage and
culture can help to remember how the different communities interacted in the past,
their role from the aggressor / victim binary to seekers of peace
If progress has been made there is still a long way to go. The Serbian Orthodox
Church and the Serbian Government still maintain some of their websites that
charge NATO and Albanians with (deliberate) destruction of churches and
The website "www.kosovo.net" lists for instance all
damaged caused to Serbian heritage during the 1999 conflict and the 2004 raids. It
.chwbkosovo.org, latest view
literally questions " Was the Goal of the NATO campaign in Kosovo to allow
replacement of one repression with another?"
Andrew Hersher and Andras Riedlmayer
with Harvard University's Fine Arts Library an
cultural heritage survey,
damage to the Roman Catholic Church of St. Anthony in Gjakova, proved actually
to have been committed by Serbian soldiers instead of NATO.
Secondly, rebuilding can be as symbolic as destruction. Construction can be used
to "cement" the injuries of a past conflict or on the contrary to mask the past and
erase all traces of violence. In both cases what is remembered, is partial and not
necessarily accurate in an attempt to create a
and identity. Hence it is important to strengthen the role of local institutions in
integrating cultural heritage in the spatial planning program of cities and regions
under reconstruction – see for instance the CHWB “Integrated Conservation
Assistance Support For Central and Local Institutions”
coherent plans and regulations
some mosques are rebuilt with funding from
interiors which were characteristic of Balkan Islamic architecture give way to the
austerity demanded by the Wah
new buildings thus offer a toehold for Islamic extremism
religious differences played an important role in war.
the center of Pristina, four centuries old,
disuse and disrepair. Rather than
the Saudi Joint Committee for the Relief
largest and most prominent
razed to the ground in 2000. In its place appeared a large, white mosque, wrappe
with reflective windows. In that same year, another centuries
town of Rahovec, also undamaged during the war, was
with a new one. In projects where the old structure was retained, reconstruction
made it sometimes almost unrecognizable as a historic object.
Hamam mosque in Peja was plastered over and the portico was enclosed in a glass
and metal frame to make it more austere
controversial projects, the impunity of the Saudi
challenged. The Hadum mosque in Gjakova, a handsome stone structure with a
large dome, was part of a historic complex in the center of the old town, which
Serbian militias had badly damaged. Althoug
the complex, the SJRC had
bulldozed to make room for a new Islamic center. After UNMIK’s Department of
Culture (DOC) was notified
undo the damage they had done, using historically appropriate materials and
techniques. The SJRC pulled its funding and
44 See for instance www.kosovo.net with special attention for "Crucified Kosovo". 45 R. Bevan, p. 85. 46 CHWB, 2010 Projects, Sweden, 2010 [online version: 20/09/2012] 47 R. Bevan, pp. 176, 190.
21
" Was the Goal of the NATO campaign in Kosovo to allow
replacement of one repression with another?" 44 Careful post-
Andrew Hersher and Andras Riedlmayer experts on Islamic art and architecture
with Harvard University's Fine Arts Library and authors of Kosovo’s postwar
proved many of these accusations were false. Major
damage to the Roman Catholic Church of St. Anthony in Gjakova, proved actually
to have been committed by Serbian soldiers instead of NATO. 45
ly, rebuilding can be as symbolic as destruction. Construction can be used
to "cement" the injuries of a past conflict or on the contrary to mask the past and
erase all traces of violence. In both cases what is remembered, is partial and not
curate in an attempt to create a meaningful and coherent narrative
it is important to strengthen the role of local institutions in
integrating cultural heritage in the spatial planning program of cities and regions
see for instance the CHWB “Integrated Conservation
Assistance Support For Central and Local Institutions”.46 In absence of such
and regulations, reconstruction may come at a price
some mosques are rebuilt with funding from Saudi sources. The richly decorated
interiors which were characteristic of Balkan Islamic architecture give way to the
austerity demanded by the Wahhabi Islam of the Saudi funders. Even worse, these
new buildings thus offer a toehold for Islamic extremism in a fragile society where
religious differences played an important role in war.47 The Qater Lula mosque in
the center of Pristina, four centuries old, was not damaged during the war
Rather than to attempt the complicated task
the Saudi Joint Committee for the Relief of Kosovo and Chechnya (SJRC)
largest and most prominent Arab aid organization in Kosovo - had the old structure
razed to the ground in 2000. In its place appeared a large, white mosque, wrappe
with reflective windows. In that same year, another centuries-old mosque in the
town of Rahovec, also undamaged during the war, was demolished and replaced
In projects where the old structure was retained, reconstruction
almost unrecognizable as a historic object. For instance, t
Hamam mosque in Peja was plastered over and the portico was enclosed in a glass
to make it more austere. In the case of at least one
, the impunity of the Saudi-backed construction crews was
challenged. The Hadum mosque in Gjakova, a handsome stone structure with a
large dome, was part of a historic complex in the center of the old town, which
Serbian militias had badly damaged. Although its stated intention was to restore
had the remains of the abutting 16th
to make room for a new Islamic center. After UNMIK’s Department of
Culture (DOC) was notified, the works were stopped and the Sau
undo the damage they had done, using historically appropriate materials and
techniques. The SJRC pulled its funding and left behind a demolished mosque and
See for instance www.kosovo.net with special attention for "Crucified Kosovo".
, Sweden, 2010 [online version: www.chwbkosovo.org
" Was the Goal of the NATO campaign in Kosovo to allow
-war research by
experts on Islamic art and architecture
d authors of Kosovo’s postwar
proved many of these accusations were false. Major
damage to the Roman Catholic Church of St. Anthony in Gjakova, proved actually
ly, rebuilding can be as symbolic as destruction. Construction can be used
to "cement" the injuries of a past conflict or on the contrary to mask the past and
erase all traces of violence. In both cases what is remembered, is partial and not
and coherent narrative
it is important to strengthen the role of local institutions in
integrating cultural heritage in the spatial planning program of cities and regions
see for instance the CHWB “Integrated Conservation
In absence of such
, reconstruction may come at a price. For instance
Saudi sources. The richly decorated
interiors which were characteristic of Balkan Islamic architecture give way to the
abi Islam of the Saudi funders. Even worse, these
in a fragile society where
The Qater Lula mosque in
damaged during the war but in
attempt the complicated task of restoration,
of Kosovo and Chechnya (SJRC) - the
had the old structure
razed to the ground in 2000. In its place appeared a large, white mosque, wrapped
old mosque in the
demolished and replaced
In projects where the old structure was retained, reconstruction
For instance, the
Hamam mosque in Peja was plastered over and the portico was enclosed in a glass
. In the case of at least one of these
backed construction crews was
challenged. The Hadum mosque in Gjakova, a handsome stone structure with a
large dome, was part of a historic complex in the center of the old town, which
h its stated intention was to restore
the remains of the abutting 16th-century library
to make room for a new Islamic center. After UNMIK’s Department of
the Saudis ordained to
undo the damage they had done, using historically appropriate materials and
left behind a demolished mosque and
See for instance www.kosovo.net with special attention for "Crucified Kosovo".
www.chwbkosovo.org, latest view dd.
an empty lot. Some experts on Balkan architectural heritage have charged that
alterations made to the Turkish
imposition of their own standar
sect of the Saudis, stresses
representational imagery.
mosques, where imagery and ornament,
are widely used. Besides heritage
Bajgora, also expresses dissatisfaction with
projects have been carried out:. "We are also concerned that these were done
improperly. They are our cultural heritage." However, the Saudi funders are not the
only to blame. Andras Riedlmayer, is one of the most outspok
sponsored reconstruction projects in the Balkans. But he
appreciation for or identification with Kosovo’s Ottoman mosques
local staff of the agencies charged with th
open hostility toward religion that was an absolute prerequisite for anyone who
wanted to be seen as educated and 'modern' in communist Yugoslavia.”
Nevertheless, there is evidence that working with the conservation and development
of cultural and historic environments can help to promote the process of
reconciliation ; strengthen self
poverty. The Council of Europe in co
Borders, for instance works on a successful project in Peja. Several important
kulla’s in the region are restored in co
and Sports, the municipality, local business an
Architecture from Pristina. The aim of the project is to highlight the region’s multi
cultural values and to contribute to reconciliation. The region’s rich and diverse
cultural, religious and natural sites are promoted as
out, it can rise hopes that different groups and forces can continue to unite in
working for this common cause.
appreciation shown by the people in the area giving way to dialog
cohesion.49
The event “Lessons from Kosovo
and cultural heritage”- is a joint event organized by Cul
Borders and UN Habitat Programs in Kosovo,
heritage in Kosovo’s municipalities
through the use of plans in guiding local development
creation of spatial order, the protection of the
reducing the risk of natural and manmade disasters and mitigating their
consequences. Both organizations
building municipal capacity for strategic planning, engaging civil society in the
participatory planning. This approach has resulted in greater ownership and
functionality, while lowering costs of the planning. In addition, the integration of
cultural heritage into spatial planning promotes diversity and upholds the right of
citizens to partake in culture. Wh
municipal plans, it creates conditions for development and economic growth.
48 http://www.tol.org/client/article/1017249 CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]
22
Some experts on Balkan architectural heritage have charged that
tions made to the Turkish-style mosques reflect the foreign financiers'
imposition of their own standards of Islamic architecture. Wahhabism, the Islamic
sect of the Saudis, stresses austerity and prohibits the use of
This is in sharp contrast with the "traditional"
where imagery and ornament, moldings and elaborate interior frescoes
widely used. Besides heritage organizations, Kosovo's head
Bajgora, also expresses dissatisfaction with the way some of the reconstruction
projects have been carried out:. "We are also concerned that these were done
improperly. They are our cultural heritage." However, the Saudi funders are not the
Andras Riedlmayer, is one of the most outspoken critics of foreign
sponsored reconstruction projects in the Balkans. But he points at
appreciation for or identification with Kosovo’s Ottoman mosques, even
the agencies charged with their protection. Their attitude
open hostility toward religion that was an absolute prerequisite for anyone who
wanted to be seen as educated and 'modern' in communist Yugoslavia.”
is evidence that working with the conservation and development
of cultural and historic environments can help to promote the process of
reconciliation ; strengthen self-belief and contribute towards growth and fight of
The Council of Europe in collaboration with Cultural Heritage Without
Borders, for instance works on a successful project in Peja. Several important
kulla’s in the region are restored in co-operation with the Ministry of Youth, Culture
and Sports, the municipality, local business and organizations and the School of
Architecture from Pristina. The aim of the project is to highlight the region’s multi
cultural values and to contribute to reconciliation. The region’s rich and diverse
cultural, religious and natural sites are promoted as touristic assets. If this works
out, it can rise hopes that different groups and forces can continue to unite in
working for this common cause. Until now, there is a massive involvement and
appreciation shown by the people in the area giving way to dialogue and even social
The event “Lessons from Kosovo – How post conflict society is dealing with
is a joint event organized by Cultural Heritage without
and UN Habitat Programs in Kosovo, which promotes the
municipalities through spatial and urban planning and
the use of plans in guiding local development. The program aims at the
the protection of the environment and of
reducing the risk of natural and manmade disasters and mitigating their
organizations, the CHWB and the UN Habitat,
building municipal capacity for strategic planning, engaging civil society in the
This approach has resulted in greater ownership and
functionality, while lowering costs of the planning. In addition, the integration of
cultural heritage into spatial planning promotes diversity and upholds the right of
citizens to partake in culture. When cultural heritage is successfully integrated into
municipal plans, it creates conditions for development and economic growth.
http://www.tol.org/client/article/10172-kosovo-heritage-or-sacrilege.htmlCHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]
Some experts on Balkan architectural heritage have charged that
style mosques reflect the foreign financiers'
abism, the Islamic
prohibits the use of ornament and
This is in sharp contrast with the "traditional" Balkan
moldings and elaborate interior frescoes
, Kosovo's head Imam, Sabri
the way some of the reconstruction
projects have been carried out:. "We are also concerned that these were done
improperly. They are our cultural heritage." However, the Saudi funders are not the
en critics of foreign-
points at a lack of
, even among the
eir protection. Their attitude reflects “the
open hostility toward religion that was an absolute prerequisite for anyone who
wanted to be seen as educated and 'modern' in communist Yugoslavia.”48
is evidence that working with the conservation and development
of cultural and historic environments can help to promote the process of
belief and contribute towards growth and fight of
llaboration with Cultural Heritage Without
Borders, for instance works on a successful project in Peja. Several important
operation with the Ministry of Youth, Culture
d organizations and the School of
Architecture from Pristina. The aim of the project is to highlight the region’s multi-
cultural values and to contribute to reconciliation. The region’s rich and diverse
touristic assets. If this works
out, it can rise hopes that different groups and forces can continue to unite in
Until now, there is a massive involvement and
ue and even social
How post conflict society is dealing with planning
tural Heritage without
which promotes the integration of
spatial and urban planning and
. The program aims at the
of cultural heritage,
reducing the risk of natural and manmade disasters and mitigating their
HWB and the UN Habitat, are engaged in
building municipal capacity for strategic planning, engaging civil society in the
This approach has resulted in greater ownership and
functionality, while lowering costs of the planning. In addition, the integration of
cultural heritage into spatial planning promotes diversity and upholds the right of
en cultural heritage is successfully integrated into
municipal plans, it creates conditions for development and economic growth. This is
sacrilege.html CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]
of particular importance in Kosovo that continues to face challenges of post
reconstruction.
Thirdly, when looking at museums
instruments in defining the self and the nation.
society as they collect, preserve, research and educate about past, present and
future. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, museums played an important
role in the creation of national identity and in the promotion of national agendas.
Museums can thus be places where people meet and heritage is shared, but they
can also be manipulated and used as political weapons, representing a biased view
on society. Hence they can be an inc
human rights and democracy acting as
deliberation. But museums can also be
narrow views. This latest scenario can be especially dangerous in regions which
suffered from ideological and ethnic conflicts. Any case of armed conflict renders
the functioning of museums particularly difficu
infrastructure, problems are often encountered with delocalization, destruction and
loss of collections. After conflict it is necessary to provide good infrastructure and to
set up programs which aim at restoring as muc
collections. Trained, scientific staff is another prerequisite as museums are not
"objective", but depend on the curator's choices in the selection of displays. If these
displays are well organized they can unite various grou
respect and a coherent view
As demonstrated by Flora Kaplan in her book "Museums and the making of
self", museums play a fundamental role as social institutions. Kaplan's book clearly
shows that museums can act as a potent force in forging self
specific historical contexts and as part of a political democratization process.
Museums, collections and exhibitions can thus be agents of social and political
change. This is in line with the objective of the
museology, "museology is concerned with the theoretical approach to any individual
or collective human activity related to the preservation, interpretation and
communication of our cultu
which a specific man/object relationship takes place.
museums in former colonial territory have demonstrated that collections and
displays can help in reducing conflic
richness and diversity of multi
where elites and competing social or ethnic groups can expre
worlds views in a non-competing environment. Contr
governmental buildings, noble residences etc
heriditarity, ordained monopoly of access or possession and display of instruments
of power. They are thus very suitable to the accommodation of diverse c
ideas and make possible cross
level.
50 Flora E Kaplan, Museums and the Making of Ourselves, The Role of Objects in National Identity, Leicester, 1996, p.1.
23
of particular importance in Kosovo that continues to face challenges of post
museums, one should be aware that they are treated as
instruments in defining the self and the nation. Museums represent and reflect
society as they collect, preserve, research and educate about past, present and
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, museums played an important
role in the creation of national identity and in the promotion of national agendas.
thus be places where people meet and heritage is shared, but they
ated and used as political weapons, representing a biased view
Hence they can be an inclusive vibrant force in society contributing to
human rights and democracy acting as a place for discussion, debate and
But museums can also be exclusive, elitist, biased and proponents of
narrow views. This latest scenario can be especially dangerous in regions which
suffered from ideological and ethnic conflicts. Any case of armed conflict renders
the functioning of museums particularly difficult. Besides the bad condition of the
infrastructure, problems are often encountered with delocalization, destruction and
loss of collections. After conflict it is necessary to provide good infrastructure and to
set up programs which aim at restoring as much as possible from the initial
collections. Trained, scientific staff is another prerequisite as museums are not
"objective", but depend on the curator's choices in the selection of displays. If these
displays are well organized they can unite various groups in a state, create mutual
view of heritage, society, values etc.
As demonstrated by Flora Kaplan in her book "Museums and the making of
", museums play a fundamental role as social institutions. Kaplan's book clearly
that museums can act as a potent force in forging self-consciousness within
specific historical contexts and as part of a political democratization process.
, collections and exhibitions can thus be agents of social and political
This is in line with the objective of the International committee for
museology is concerned with the theoretical approach to any individual
or collective human activity related to the preservation, interpretation and
communication of our cultural and natural heritage, and with the social context in
which a specific man/object relationship takes place." Studies on the social role of
museums in former colonial territory have demonstrated that collections and
displays can help in reducing conflict and unite culture based on the principle of
richness and diversity of multi-culturalism in one nation. Museums become spaces
where elites and competing social or ethnic groups can express their ideas and
competing environment. Contrary to churches, temples,
governmental buildings, noble residences etc. museums do not lay a claim on
ditarity, ordained monopoly of access or possession and display of instruments
of power. They are thus very suitable to the accommodation of diverse c
and make possible cross-cultural comparison on national and international
Museums and the Making of Ourselves, The Role of Objects in National
of particular importance in Kosovo that continues to face challenges of post-conflict
, one should be aware that they are treated as
represent and reflect
society as they collect, preserve, research and educate about past, present and
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, museums played an important
role in the creation of national identity and in the promotion of national agendas.
thus be places where people meet and heritage is shared, but they
ated and used as political weapons, representing a biased view
lusive vibrant force in society contributing to
a place for discussion, debate and
exclusive, elitist, biased and proponents of
narrow views. This latest scenario can be especially dangerous in regions which
suffered from ideological and ethnic conflicts. Any case of armed conflict renders
lt. Besides the bad condition of the
infrastructure, problems are often encountered with delocalization, destruction and
loss of collections. After conflict it is necessary to provide good infrastructure and to
h as possible from the initial
collections. Trained, scientific staff is another prerequisite as museums are not
"objective", but depend on the curator's choices in the selection of displays. If these
a state, create mutual
As demonstrated by Flora Kaplan in her book "Museums and the making of our
", museums play a fundamental role as social institutions. Kaplan's book clearly
consciousness within
specific historical contexts and as part of a political democratization process.50
, collections and exhibitions can thus be agents of social and political
International committee for
museology is concerned with the theoretical approach to any individual
or collective human activity related to the preservation, interpretation and
ral and natural heritage, and with the social context in
Studies on the social role of
museums in former colonial territory have demonstrated that collections and
t and unite culture based on the principle of
culturalism in one nation. Museums become spaces
s their ideas and
ary to churches, temples,
museums do not lay a claim on
ditarity, ordained monopoly of access or possession and display of instruments
of power. They are thus very suitable to the accommodation of diverse contents and
on national and international
Museums and the Making of Ourselves, The Role of Objects in National
Museums can also be a medium enabling the
left on society. Adopting this heritage in reconciliation programs however requires
once more commitment to change. But the benefits can be huge, especially when
reaching out to people excluded or experiencing discrimination.
Museum established in 1963 h
back to around 6,000 B.C.: from the Neolithic Period. Also housed here are exhibits
illustrating what daily life was like for the people of the region during various
periods: from Illyrian, to Dardanian,
show the richness of the common cultural past of the Balkan region. However, just
before the troubles in 1999 started, many important archeological artifacts have
been forcibly moved to Serbia. Hundreds of arch
items have yet to be returned. The return of art, artifacts and archives from Serbia
(Belgrade) to Kosovo could be a way to support dialogue and collaboration between
the countries. The president of Serbia, in his
Nations in 2012, made it however clear, that Serbia is not
return artifacts which according to him clearly belong to Serbia in the same way as
Kosovo remains Serbian territory.
and of a lack of funds, the Nati
public until this day. In order to develop
potential for reconciliation
Heritage Without Borders" has launched several programs in
achievement is the establishment of “The Western Balkan Regional Museum
Network”. The Network’s objectives are: “To contribute to the understanding of
cultural diversity and to reconciliation and EU integration of the countries in the
Western Balkans and to promote understanding that the right to own one’s cultural
heritage is an integral part of human rights.”
the different national communities and “to make them understand and not just
tolerate difference”. The network also establishes cross
between museum professionals. Many problems are shared through discussions
and common solutions found. T
part of a group of similar concerns even though the situation and location might be
different. Hence the museum directors are motivated to become creative leaders
supporting change so that the museums be
network’s initiatives was the exhibition “1+1 Life Love” running in parallel in
several museums of the Balkans.
creation of the travelling exhibition several museums in the
communicated across borders and were linked together in a cultural program in the
same way as the history of the region was linked together. The eleven exhibitions
which opened on the 11th of march 2011 represented elements of local life, co
history and relation to international life values. A bus
openings, bringing together the different partners to celebrate
collaboration. Each museum was also asked to select a part of their exhibition to
form part of a travelling exhibition for international touring.
in Belgrade for instance selected films, photographs and sculptures representing
51 CHWB, The Western Balkan Regional Museum Networklatest view dd. 23/09/2012.]
24
Museums can also be a medium enabling the discussion on the conflict and
Adopting this heritage in reconciliation programs however requires
once more commitment to change. But the benefits can be huge, especially when
reaching out to people excluded or experiencing discrimination. Kosovo's National
Museum established in 1963 houses an extensive archaeological collection dating
back to around 6,000 B.C.: from the Neolithic Period. Also housed here are exhibits
illustrating what daily life was like for the people of the region during various
periods: from Illyrian, to Dardanian, to Roman times. The museum collection clearly
show the richness of the common cultural past of the Balkan region. However, just
before the troubles in 1999 started, many important archeological artifacts have
been forcibly moved to Serbia. Hundreds of archeological finds and ethnographic
items have yet to be returned. The return of art, artifacts and archives from Serbia
(Belgrade) to Kosovo could be a way to support dialogue and collaboration between
The president of Serbia, in his inaugural speech for the United
Nations in 2012, made it however clear, that Serbia is not prepared to
return artifacts which according to him clearly belong to Serbia in the same way as
Kosovo remains Serbian territory. As a consequence of its "dilapidated" collections
and of a lack of funds, the National Museum of Kosovo remains closed for the
In order to develop the capacity of museums
reconciliation in the Western Balkans, the Swedish NGO "Cultural
Heritage Without Borders" has launched several programs in the region
achievement is the establishment of “The Western Balkan Regional Museum
The Network’s objectives are: “To contribute to the understanding of
cultural diversity and to reconciliation and EU integration of the countries in the
Western Balkans and to promote understanding that the right to own one’s cultural
heritage is an integral part of human rights.”51 A major objective is to reach out to
different national communities and “to make them understand and not just
tolerate difference”. The network also establishes cross-border collaborations
between museum professionals. Many problems are shared through discussions
and common solutions found. The key strength of the network is the sense of being
part of a group of similar concerns even though the situation and location might be
different. Hence the museum directors are motivated to become creative leaders
supporting change so that the museums becomes an actor in society.
initiatives was the exhibition “1+1 Life Love” running in parallel in
several museums of the Balkans. Through the simultaneous exhibition and the
creation of the travelling exhibition several museums in the
communicated across borders and were linked together in a cultural program in the
same way as the history of the region was linked together. The eleven exhibitions
of march 2011 represented elements of local life, co
history and relation to international life values. A bus tour accompanied the
openings, bringing together the different partners to celebrate the outcome of the
collaboration. Each museum was also asked to select a part of their exhibition to
t of a travelling exhibition for international touring. The national museum
in Belgrade for instance selected films, photographs and sculptures representing
The Western Balkan Regional Museum Network, Sweden, 2011 [online version,
discussion on the conflict and scars it
Adopting this heritage in reconciliation programs however requires
once more commitment to change. But the benefits can be huge, especially when
Kosovo's National
ouses an extensive archaeological collection dating
back to around 6,000 B.C.: from the Neolithic Period. Also housed here are exhibits
illustrating what daily life was like for the people of the region during various
to Roman times. The museum collection clearly
show the richness of the common cultural past of the Balkan region. However, just
before the troubles in 1999 started, many important archeological artifacts have
eological finds and ethnographic
items have yet to be returned. The return of art, artifacts and archives from Serbia
(Belgrade) to Kosovo could be a way to support dialogue and collaboration between
speech for the United
prepared to and will not
return artifacts which according to him clearly belong to Serbia in the same way as
dated" collections
nal Museum of Kosovo remains closed for the
of museums and their
the Swedish NGO "Cultural
the region. A major
achievement is the establishment of “The Western Balkan Regional Museum
The Network’s objectives are: “To contribute to the understanding of
cultural diversity and to reconciliation and EU integration of the countries in the
Western Balkans and to promote understanding that the right to own one’s cultural
A major objective is to reach out to
different national communities and “to make them understand and not just
border collaborations
between museum professionals. Many problems are shared through discussions
he key strength of the network is the sense of being
part of a group of similar concerns even though the situation and location might be
different. Hence the museum directors are motivated to become creative leaders
comes an actor in society. One of the
initiatives was the exhibition “1+1 Life Love” running in parallel in
Through the simultaneous exhibition and the
creation of the travelling exhibition several museums in the Western Balkan
communicated across borders and were linked together in a cultural program in the
same way as the history of the region was linked together. The eleven exhibitions
of march 2011 represented elements of local life, common
tour accompanied the
the outcome of the
collaboration. Each museum was also asked to select a part of their exhibition to
The national museum
in Belgrade for instance selected films, photographs and sculptures representing
, Sweden, 2011 [online version,
the city and its young inhabitants, the city and the status of the museum. In
Kosovo traditional costumes linked to the different geographic regions were selected
for display.
Another successful NHWB
European Mobility week and the European Heritage day, “Tour de Culture”
promoted common cultural heritage through a cycling tour in Hoça e Madhe. Of the
more than 400 participants 20% were Serbians.
If the museums and cultural institutions of both Serbia and Kosovo show
enthusiasm for collaboration and reconciliation through culture, both governments
clearly show disinterest and even unwillingness. I have already referred to Kosovo's
withdrawn from the reconstruction project of Serbian Orth
RIC. The Serbian government not only refuses to return artifacts to their original
collections in Kosovo but even condemns this Kosovar request as "an effort
flagrantly to falsify history, as
of existence of the Serbian people in Kosovo and Metohija".
to admit that culture and heritage can certainly play a role in post
reconciliation and in the creation of n
prerequisites and conditions to fulfill in order to be successful
widely spread.
First of all a readiness for change in attitude and dialogue is required
parties and on all levels. Not only specialists in culture and heritage have to feel
concerned, but also the government in order to provide the necessary structure and
funds and certainly the citizens who at the end have to be mobilized for
participation in cultural and heritage pr
culture and heritage will remain easy agents for the promoters of segregation,
nationalism and extremism. Hence it is necessary to include cultural and heritage
initiatives in social development
then culture and heritage can play a fundamental role in re
and reconciliation.
Secondly, the development of cultural and heritage programs are heavily dependent
on income from the state and from inter
huge financial deficit, bad infrastructure and a high rate of unemployment it is
difficult to generate funding for culture. It is a known
heritage cannot be a priority as long as basic n
living are not fulfilled.
Thirdly, the financial dependence on international funding has "recuperation" and
"propaganda" as implication. Even if most of the international partners are NGO's
or supra-national organizations,
their values can sometimes have perfidious and unwanted repercussions. Hence the
creation of a multi-ethnic national identity in Kosovo (where 90% pct of the
population is Albanian) and the cross
driven by the ambition to become part of the European Union. As Tomislav Nikolic
summarizes "We are more and more frequently forced by the powerful and mighty
52 CHWB, 2010 [online version: www.chwbkosovo.org, latest view dd . 20/09/2012]53
T. Nikolic, Statement for the General
25
the city and its young inhabitants, the city and the status of the museum. In
ostumes linked to the different geographic regions were selected
B project was “Tour de Culture 2010”. Being part of the
European Mobility week and the European Heritage day, “Tour de Culture”
promoted common cultural heritage through a cycling tour in Hoça e Madhe. Of the
more than 400 participants 20% were Serbians. 52
If the museums and cultural institutions of both Serbia and Kosovo show
for collaboration and reconciliation through culture, both governments
clearly show disinterest and even unwillingness. I have already referred to Kosovo's
he reconstruction project of Serbian Orthodox churches after the
The Serbian government not only refuses to return artifacts to their original
collections in Kosovo but even condemns this Kosovar request as "an effort
flagrantly to falsify history, as a historical revisionism and obliteration of any trace
of existence of the Serbian people in Kosovo and Metohija".53 Consequently, one has
to admit that culture and heritage can certainly play a role in post
reconciliation and in the creation of national identity. Nevertheless
prerequisites and conditions to fulfill in order to be successful and the
First of all a readiness for change in attitude and dialogue is required
Not only specialists in culture and heritage have to feel
concerned, but also the government in order to provide the necessary structure and
funds and certainly the citizens who at the end have to be mobilized for
participation in cultural and heritage programs. If there is not such a readiness,
culture and heritage will remain easy agents for the promoters of segregation,
nationalism and extremism. Hence it is necessary to include cultural and heritage
s in social development programs and not to be stuck within the past. Only
then culture and heritage can play a fundamental role in re-establishing dialogue
the development of cultural and heritage programs are heavily dependent
on income from the state and from international organizations. In a country with a
huge financial deficit, bad infrastructure and a high rate of unemployment it is
difficult to generate funding for culture. It is a known disorder
heritage cannot be a priority as long as basic needs and healthy conditions for
financial dependence on international funding has "recuperation" and
"propaganda" as implication. Even if most of the international partners are NGO's
national organizations, the will to please their agenda's and accommodate
their values can sometimes have perfidious and unwanted repercussions. Hence the
ethnic national identity in Kosovo (where 90% pct of the
population is Albanian) and the cross-border projects with Serbia are of course also
driven by the ambition to become part of the European Union. As Tomislav Nikolic
summarizes "We are more and more frequently forced by the powerful and mighty
CHWB, 2010 [online version: www.chwbkosovo.org, latest view dd . 20/09/2012]Statement for the General Assembly of the United Nations, 67th session, New
the city and its young inhabitants, the city and the status of the museum. In
ostumes linked to the different geographic regions were selected
project was “Tour de Culture 2010”. Being part of the
European Mobility week and the European Heritage day, “Tour de Culture”
promoted common cultural heritage through a cycling tour in Hoça e Madhe. Of the
If the museums and cultural institutions of both Serbia and Kosovo show
for collaboration and reconciliation through culture, both governments
clearly show disinterest and even unwillingness. I have already referred to Kosovo's
dox churches after the
The Serbian government not only refuses to return artifacts to their original
collections in Kosovo but even condemns this Kosovar request as "an effort
a historical revisionism and obliteration of any trace
Consequently, one has
to admit that culture and heritage can certainly play a role in post-conflict
Nevertheless there are many
and the traps are
First of all a readiness for change in attitude and dialogue is required from both
Not only specialists in culture and heritage have to feel
concerned, but also the government in order to provide the necessary structure and
funds and certainly the citizens who at the end have to be mobilized for
If there is not such a readiness,
culture and heritage will remain easy agents for the promoters of segregation,
nationalism and extremism. Hence it is necessary to include cultural and heritage
be stuck within the past. Only
establishing dialogue
the development of cultural and heritage programs are heavily dependent
national organizations. In a country with a
huge financial deficit, bad infrastructure and a high rate of unemployment it is
that culture and
eeds and healthy conditions for
financial dependence on international funding has "recuperation" and
"propaganda" as implication. Even if most of the international partners are NGO's
the will to please their agenda's and accommodate
their values can sometimes have perfidious and unwanted repercussions. Hence the
ethnic national identity in Kosovo (where 90% pct of the
jects with Serbia are of course also
driven by the ambition to become part of the European Union. As Tomislav Nikolic
summarizes "We are more and more frequently forced by the powerful and mighty
CHWB, 2010 [online version: www.chwbkosovo.org, latest view dd . 20/09/2012] , New-York, 2012, p.6.
to face a tough choice to give up Kosovo and Metohija or EU
kind of choice is that? Am I to tell our citizens that they are going to live better if
they abandon themselves?". I have also pointed to a even more precarious situation
in Kosovo where some mosques are rebuilt with
the strict Wahhabi Islam rules. Wahhabi
Kosovo, but its introduction in Kosovo could clear the way for the spread of
religious extremism.
However, these arguments should not advocate for the dismissal of cultural and
heritage programs in post
understanding is essential for peacekeeping and the establishment of bi
lateral relations and partnerships.
in re-establishing contacts, minimize the negative views on “the difference of the
other”. Hence the importance of cultural diplomacy as a soft power mechanism.
The development of cultural herita
activities such as tourism, construction, education etc. and facilitate integration of
a state on the international scene. Kosovo for instance developed heritage and
conservation laws together with the international
laws and programs are in coherence with International conventions and up
with international scientific programs.
Last but not least, I have pointed out that cultural heritage management is an
essential tool in the crea
heritage are the expressions of a people's thinking, values, memories, hopes and
achievements. They are the collective memory of the existence and development of
generations, people and nations. Hence,
alive for the present and future generations.
26
to face a tough choice to give up Kosovo and Metohija or EU membership. What
kind of choice is that? Am I to tell our citizens that they are going to live better if
they abandon themselves?". I have also pointed to a even more precarious situation
in Kosovo where some mosques are rebuilt with Wahhabi funding and a
the strict Wahhabi Islam rules. Wahhabi Islam is not part of the Islamic culture of
Kosovo, but its introduction in Kosovo could clear the way for the spread of
However, these arguments should not advocate for the dismissal of cultural and
heritage programs in post-conflict situations. Respect based on mutual
understanding is essential for peacekeeping and the establishment of bi
tnerships. Culture and heritage can than play an active role
contacts, minimize the negative views on “the difference of the
Hence the importance of cultural diplomacy as a soft power mechanism.
The development of cultural heritage programs can generate socio
activities such as tourism, construction, education etc. and facilitate integration of
a state on the international scene. Kosovo for instance developed heritage and
conservation laws together with the international community. Consequently these
laws and programs are in coherence with International conventions and up
with international scientific programs.
Last but not least, I have pointed out that cultural heritage management is an
essential tool in the creation of a collective memory and identity. Culture and
heritage are the expressions of a people's thinking, values, memories, hopes and
achievements. They are the collective memory of the existence and development of
generations, people and nations. Hence, it is a collective duty to keep this memory
alive for the present and future generations.
membership. What
kind of choice is that? Am I to tell our citizens that they are going to live better if
they abandon themselves?". I have also pointed to a even more precarious situation
Wahhabi funding and according to
Islam is not part of the Islamic culture of
Kosovo, but its introduction in Kosovo could clear the way for the spread of
However, these arguments should not advocate for the dismissal of cultural and
conflict situations. Respect based on mutual
understanding is essential for peacekeeping and the establishment of bi- (multi)
Culture and heritage can than play an active role
contacts, minimize the negative views on “the difference of the
Hence the importance of cultural diplomacy as a soft power mechanism.
ge programs can generate socio-economic
activities such as tourism, construction, education etc. and facilitate integration of
a state on the international scene. Kosovo for instance developed heritage and
community. Consequently these
laws and programs are in coherence with International conventions and up-t-date
Last but not least, I have pointed out that cultural heritage management is an
tion of a collective memory and identity. Culture and
heritage are the expressions of a people's thinking, values, memories, hopes and
achievements. They are the collective memory of the existence and development of
it is a collective duty to keep this memory
4. Assessment of international law and regulation on cultural artifacts
during war-time
The notion of respect and safeguarding of monuments is an Enlightenment idea.
However, the period of the enlightenment itself also witnessed massive destruction
of monuments, eg. during the French Revolution with as major event the storming
and demolition of the Bastille. The idea of 'respect' towards monuments evolved
simultaneously with the their deliberate erasure for ideological reasons.
pleas for the protection of monuments in war or conflict date from the 18th century.
In 1758 Emmerich de Vattel wrote
"for whatever cause a country be devastated, these buildings should be spared
which are an honor to the human race and which do not add to the strength of the
enemy, such as temples, tombs, public b
beauty."54 The "Brussels Declaration of 1874 Regarding the Law and the Customs of
War", was the first international attempt to protect historic monuments from 'willful
damage'. Since the end of the 19th
war-time is prohibited by international law and conventions
mandate UNESCO is bound to promote the protection and preservation of cultural
heritage. Hereto a series of standard setting instruments such as the
Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage
1899 and 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the
Event of Armed Conflict with its tw
Additional Protocol I to the four 1949 Geneva Conventions for the protection of war
victims" have been developed
culturally important locations except where "military nec
such a waiver".55 The 1977 additional proto
1999 additional protocol
"military necessity waiver"
works of art or places of worship which constitute the cultural or spiritual heritage
of people.56 In pursuance of 31 C/Resolution 26 (
the common heritage of human
54 E. de Vattel, Le droit des gens ou Principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite et aux affaires des nations et des souverainsPour quelque sujet que l’on ravage un pays, on doit épargner les Edifices qui font honneur à l’humanité, & qui ne contribuent point à rendre l’Ennemi plus puissant ; les Temples, les Tombeaux, les Bâtimens publics, tous les Ouvrages respectable55 UNESCO, UNESCO Constitution:Event of Armed Conflict with Regulations for the Execution of the Convention 1954
Hague, 1954 [online edition:URL_ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html20/08/2012] 56 UNESCO, UNESCO Constitution:Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1999
http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php01.html, last view dd. 20/08/2012]The 1977 Protocol to the Geneva Convention ev
27
4. Assessment of international law and regulation on cultural artifacts
The notion of respect and safeguarding of monuments is an Enlightenment idea.
However, the period of the enlightenment itself also witnessed massive destruction
of monuments, eg. during the French Revolution with as major event the storming
of the Bastille. The idea of 'respect' towards monuments evolved
simultaneously with the their deliberate erasure for ideological reasons.
pleas for the protection of monuments in war or conflict date from the 18th century.
ttel wrote "Le droit des gens" including a paragraph
"for whatever cause a country be devastated, these buildings should be spared
to the human race and which do not add to the strength of the
enemy, such as temples, tombs, public buildings and all edifices of remarkable
Brussels Declaration of 1874 Regarding the Law and the Customs of
, was the first international attempt to protect historic monuments from 'willful
end of the 19th century the targeting of cultural artifacts during
time is prohibited by international law and conventions. By its constitutional
mandate UNESCO is bound to promote the protection and preservation of cultural
a series of standard setting instruments such as the
Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage
1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the
Event of Armed Conflict with its two Protocols of 1954 and 1999
Additional Protocol I to the four 1949 Geneva Conventions for the protection of war
have been developed. The 1954 convention prohibits on attacking
culturally important locations except where "military necessity imperatively requires
1977 additional protocol to the "Geneva Conventions
additional protocol to the "The Hague Conventions" fairly restraint
and prohibits all hostilities against historic monuments,
works of art or places of worship which constitute the cultural or spiritual heritage
In pursuance of 31 C/Resolution 26 (Acts Constituting a “crime against
the common heritage of humanity”) adopted by the General Conference, UNESCO
Le droit des gens ou Principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite et aux affaires des nations et des souverains, Neuchâtel, 1758, Part II, Book III, ChapterPour quelque sujet que l’on ravage un pays, on doit épargner les Edifices qui font honneur à l’humanité, & qui ne contribuent point à rendre l’Ennemi plus puissant ; les Temples, les Tombeaux, les Bâtimens publics, tous les Ouvrages respectables par leur beauté."
UNESCO Constitution: Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict with Regulations for the Execution of the Convention 1954
Hague, 1954 [online edition: http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, latest view dd.
UNESCO Constitution: Second Protocol to the Hague Convention ofProtection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1999
p://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=15207&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, last view dd. 20/08/2012] The 1977 Protocol to the Geneva Convention even annuls the military waiver.
4. Assessment of international law and regulation on cultural artifacts
The notion of respect and safeguarding of monuments is an Enlightenment idea.
However, the period of the enlightenment itself also witnessed massive destruction
of monuments, eg. during the French Revolution with as major event the storming
of the Bastille. The idea of 'respect' towards monuments evolved
simultaneously with the their deliberate erasure for ideological reasons. The first
pleas for the protection of monuments in war or conflict date from the 18th century.
including a paragraph that
"for whatever cause a country be devastated, these buildings should be spared
to the human race and which do not add to the strength of the
uildings and all edifices of remarkable
Brussels Declaration of 1874 Regarding the Law and the Customs of
, was the first international attempt to protect historic monuments from 'willful
rgeting of cultural artifacts during
By its constitutional
mandate UNESCO is bound to promote the protection and preservation of cultural
a series of standard setting instruments such as the "1972
Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage", "the
1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the
o Protocols of 1954 and 1999", "the 1977
Additional Protocol I to the four 1949 Geneva Conventions for the protection of war
The 1954 convention prohibits on attacking
essity imperatively requires
Geneva Conventions" and the
fairly restraint the
and prohibits all hostilities against historic monuments,
works of art or places of worship which constitute the cultural or spiritual heritage
Acts Constituting a “crime against
adopted by the General Conference, UNESCO
Le droit des gens ou Principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite et aux , Neuchâtel, 1758, Part II, Book III, Chapter 9, §168: "
Pour quelque sujet que l’on ravage un pays, on doit épargner les Edifices qui font honneur à l’humanité, & qui ne contribuent point à rendre l’Ennemi plus puissant ; les Temples, les
s par leur beauté." Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the
Event of Armed Conflict with Regulations for the Execution of the Convention 1954, The http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-
, latest view dd.
Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1999 [online version:
URL_ID=15207&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=2
en annuls the military waiver.
adopted the "Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural
Heritage" in 2003. Recalling
measures to combat the intentional destruction of cultural heritage were reinforced
The Declaration states that:"
prevent, avoid, stop and suppress acts of intentional destruction of cultural
heritage, wherever such heritage is located.
legislative, administrative, educational and technical measures, within the
framework of their economic resources, to protect cultural heritage and should
revise them periodically with
and international cultural heritage protection standards.
endeavor, by all appropriate means, to ensure respect for cultural heritage in
society, particularly through educational, awar
programs. 4. States should: (a) become parties to the 1954 Hague Convention for
the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its two 1954
and 1999 Protocols and the Additional Protocols I and II to th
Conventions, if they have not yet done so; (b) promote the elaboration and the
adoption of legal instruments providing a higher standard of protection of cultural
heritage, and (c) promote a coordinated application of existing and future
instruments relevant to the p
In reality however, the deliberate destruction of heritage in conflict has certainly not
come to an end. According to Bevan, it even increased since in the 20th and 21st
centuries the ideology of destruction goes hand by hand with the notion of heritage
as a proxy by which ideological, ethnic and nationalistic conflicts are fought.
UNESCO 2003 Declaration expressed
acts of intentional destruction
heritage during war, is confronted with similar problems as post
management.
Firstly, legal protection of cultural heritage as set forth in for instance the UNESCO
2003 Declaration, implies that
political claims cultural heritage so that
issues of culture. Events around the world, including the Balkans, but more
recently the destruction of mosq
the nationalistic upheavals in Hungary show that t
heritage in support of political claims and projects is
discourse.58 The ineffectiveness of internatio
heritage care, is the result of the growing number of non
more and more states adhere to these laws and commitments, these engagements
are without effect as long as the proliferation of outlaw an
continues. These groups fight in a "machiavellistic way" for the safeguarding or
forced implementation of their ideologies, without respect for international laws on
the protection of human rights and heritage. Cultural Heritage becomes 57 UNESCO, UNESCO Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage17 October 2003, [Online Resource: URL_ID=17718&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html30/08/2012] 58 A. Herscher, A. Riedlmayer, p. 109.
28
Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural
Recalling the tragic destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan
measures to combat the intentional destruction of cultural heritage were reinforced
The Declaration states that:"1. States should take all appropriate measures to
prevent, avoid, stop and suppress acts of intentional destruction of cultural
rever such heritage is located. 2. States should adopt the appropriate
legislative, administrative, educational and technical measures, within the
framework of their economic resources, to protect cultural heritage and should
revise them periodically with a view to adapting them to the evolution of national
and international cultural heritage protection standards. 3. States should
, by all appropriate means, to ensure respect for cultural heritage in
society, particularly through educational, awareness-raising and information
4. States should: (a) become parties to the 1954 Hague Convention for
the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its two 1954
and 1999 Protocols and the Additional Protocols I and II to the four 1949 Geneva
Conventions, if they have not yet done so; (b) promote the elaboration and the
adoption of legal instruments providing a higher standard of protection of cultural
heritage, and (c) promote a coordinated application of existing and future
instruments relevant to the protection of cultural heritage."57
deliberate destruction of heritage in conflict has certainly not
come to an end. According to Bevan, it even increased since in the 20th and 21st
y of destruction goes hand by hand with the notion of heritage
as a proxy by which ideological, ethnic and nationalistic conflicts are fought.
UNESCO 2003 Declaration expressed serious concern about the growing number of
estruction of cultural heritage. As I will show, the protection of
heritage during war, is confronted with similar problems as post
of cultural heritage as set forth in for instance the UNESCO
implies that states commit themselves to it and stop laying
political claims cultural heritage so that war is no longer waged over questions and
Events around the world, including the Balkans, but more
recently the destruction of mosques and shrines in Timbuktu by Mali militants, or
the nationalistic upheavals in Hungary show that the recruitment of cultural
heritage in support of political claims and projects is still prevalent in heritage
The ineffectiveness of international declarations and laws regarding
heritage care, is the result of the growing number of non-state militants. Even if
more and more states adhere to these laws and commitments, these engagements
are without effect as long as the proliferation of outlaw and non
continues. These groups fight in a "machiavellistic way" for the safeguarding or
forced implementation of their ideologies, without respect for international laws on
the protection of human rights and heritage. Cultural Heritage becomes
UNESCO Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage
, [Online Resource: http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=17718&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, Latest view dd.
Riedlmayer, p. 109.
Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural
the tragic destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan
measures to combat the intentional destruction of cultural heritage were reinforced.
1. States should take all appropriate measures to
prevent, avoid, stop and suppress acts of intentional destruction of cultural
2. States should adopt the appropriate
legislative, administrative, educational and technical measures, within the
framework of their economic resources, to protect cultural heritage and should
a view to adapting them to the evolution of national
3. States should
, by all appropriate means, to ensure respect for cultural heritage in
raising and information
4. States should: (a) become parties to the 1954 Hague Convention for
the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its two 1954
e four 1949 Geneva
Conventions, if they have not yet done so; (b) promote the elaboration and the
adoption of legal instruments providing a higher standard of protection of cultural
heritage, and (c) promote a coordinated application of existing and future
deliberate destruction of heritage in conflict has certainly not
come to an end. According to Bevan, it even increased since in the 20th and 21st
y of destruction goes hand by hand with the notion of heritage
as a proxy by which ideological, ethnic and nationalistic conflicts are fought. The
serious concern about the growing number of
As I will show, the protection of
heritage during war, is confronted with similar problems as post-conflict heritage
of cultural heritage as set forth in for instance the UNESCO
states commit themselves to it and stop laying
waged over questions and
Events around the world, including the Balkans, but more
ues and shrines in Timbuktu by Mali militants, or
he recruitment of cultural
prevalent in heritage
nal declarations and laws regarding
state militants. Even if
more and more states adhere to these laws and commitments, these engagements
d non-state militia
continues. These groups fight in a "machiavellistic way" for the safeguarding or
forced implementation of their ideologies, without respect for international laws on
the protection of human rights and heritage. Cultural Heritage becomes more and
UNESCO Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage,
, Latest view dd.
more a favored target of terrorists. The destruction of national or international
symbols - for instance the mosques in Timbuktu or the WTC towers in Manhattan
goes hand in hand with the destruction of shared memory and values. Hence, how
cruel it might be, the destruction of national or international symbols is often much
stronger in the collective memory than the killing of human lives. Consequently,
regardless the amount of laws and declaration, the protection and safeguarding of
cultural heritage is totally dependent on goodwill.
This does however not mean that laws and declarations are unnecessary and
without impact. They remain important legal instruments that can be used in
conflict prevention and in the prosecution of war criminals.
Criminal Tribunal for the
Milosevic and four of his colleagues for actions in the province of Kosovo
January and June 1999: Crimes against humanity and
customs of war. This latest included “
property owned by Kosovo Albanian civilians accomplished by
shelling of towns and villages; the burning and destruction of property, including
homes, farms, businesses, cu
these orchestrated actions,
uninhabitable for Kosovo Albanians.
cultural heritage as a war crime is also im
help them to overreach the trauma of the war, but also is a support for the
international community who is helping with reconstruction. One must not forget
that - contrary to the statements made in the
Nara, 1994) which call on respect for cultural diversity through the
acknowledgment of the legitimacy of the cultural values of all parties
heritage associated with Kosovo’s Albanians has been subjected to institu
disregard in the public management of Kosovo’s cultural heritage and during the
1998-1999 massive destructions.
the majority of the Albanians had been dismissed from their government jobs,
including heritage management and protection. This was part of the Serbian policy
to “de-albanize” Kosovo in favor of the Serbian community. Consequent
time of the conflict, some 210 Serbian Orthodox Churches, monasteries and
gravesites – including forty built between 1930
monuments in Kosovo whereas only fifteen out of more than 600 mosques
dating from the Ottoman era
for the Protection of Cultural Monuments of Kosovo, founded in 1952, had
established far more restrictive criteria for considering Albanian architecture as
monuments than for Serbian archi
revenge-attacks on Serbian cultural heritage
Serbian cultural institutions to deflect the attention and minimize the destruction
of Albanian sites and buildings by Serbs.
of destruction of Albanian cultural heritage was made in the context of an
assessment of NATO war crimes, which had ostensibly included the aerial
59 The Nara document was established by a meeting of experts in the midst of the Bosnian war. It recalled the fundamental principles of the Charter of Venice of 1964.60 A. Herscher, A. Riedlmayer, pp. 110, 111.
29
more a favored target of terrorists. The destruction of national or international
for instance the mosques in Timbuktu or the WTC towers in Manhattan
goes hand in hand with the destruction of shared memory and values. Hence, how
it might be, the destruction of national or international symbols is often much
stronger in the collective memory than the killing of human lives. Consequently,
laws and declaration, the protection and safeguarding of
tage is totally dependent on goodwill.
This does however not mean that laws and declarations are unnecessary and
without impact. They remain important legal instruments that can be used in
conflict prevention and in the prosecution of war criminals. T
Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia for instance, charged Slobodan
four of his colleagues for actions in the province of Kosovo
January and June 1999: Crimes against humanity and Violations of the laws or
. This latest included “a systematic campaign of destruction of
property owned by Kosovo Albanian civilians accomplished by
shelling of towns and villages; the burning and destruction of property, including
farms, businesses, cultural monuments and religious sites; as a result of
these orchestrated actions, villages, towns, and entire regions were rendered
uninhabitable for Kosovo Albanians.” This legal recognition of the destruction of
cultural heritage as a war crime is also important for the victims. It will not only
help them to overreach the trauma of the war, but also is a support for the
international community who is helping with reconstruction. One must not forget
ontrary to the statements made in the Document on Authenticity
which call on respect for cultural diversity through the
acknowledgment of the legitimacy of the cultural values of all parties
heritage associated with Kosovo’s Albanians has been subjected to institu
management of Kosovo’s cultural heritage and during the
1999 massive destructions.59 As I have pointed out by the start of the conflict,
the majority of the Albanians had been dismissed from their government jobs,
including heritage management and protection. This was part of the Serbian policy
albanize” Kosovo in favor of the Serbian community. Consequent
time of the conflict, some 210 Serbian Orthodox Churches, monasteries and
including forty built between 1930-1990 - were listed as protected
monuments in Kosovo whereas only fifteen out of more than 600 mosques
e Ottoman era – were considered as historic monument. The Institute
for the Protection of Cultural Monuments of Kosovo, founded in 1952, had
established far more restrictive criteria for considering Albanian architecture as
monuments than for Serbian architecture since the 1990’s.60 Even the Albanian
attacks on Serbian cultural heritage in 2004 have been appropriated by
Serbian cultural institutions to deflect the attention and minimize the destruction
of Albanian sites and buildings by Serbs. The only official Serbian acknowledgment
of destruction of Albanian cultural heritage was made in the context of an
assessment of NATO war crimes, which had ostensibly included the aerial
The Nara document was established by a meeting of experts in the midst of the Bosnian war. It recalled the fundamental principles of the Charter of Venice of 1964.
Riedlmayer, pp. 110, 111.
more a favored target of terrorists. The destruction of national or international
for instance the mosques in Timbuktu or the WTC towers in Manhattan-
goes hand in hand with the destruction of shared memory and values. Hence, how
it might be, the destruction of national or international symbols is often much
stronger in the collective memory than the killing of human lives. Consequently,
laws and declaration, the protection and safeguarding of
This does however not mean that laws and declarations are unnecessary and
without impact. They remain important legal instruments that can be used in
The International
or instance, charged Slobodan
four of his colleagues for actions in the province of Kosovo between
Violations of the laws or
systematic campaign of destruction of
property owned by Kosovo Albanian civilians accomplished by the widespread
shelling of towns and villages; the burning and destruction of property, including
ltural monuments and religious sites; as a result of
villages, towns, and entire regions were rendered
This legal recognition of the destruction of
portant for the victims. It will not only
help them to overreach the trauma of the war, but also is a support for the
international community who is helping with reconstruction. One must not forget
Authenticity (adopted in
which call on respect for cultural diversity through the
acknowledgment of the legitimacy of the cultural values of all parties - architectural
heritage associated with Kosovo’s Albanians has been subjected to institutionalized
management of Kosovo’s cultural heritage and during the
the start of the conflict,
the majority of the Albanians had been dismissed from their government jobs,
including heritage management and protection. This was part of the Serbian policy
albanize” Kosovo in favor of the Serbian community. Consequently, by the
time of the conflict, some 210 Serbian Orthodox Churches, monasteries and
were listed as protected
monuments in Kosovo whereas only fifteen out of more than 600 mosques – some
were considered as historic monument. The Institute
for the Protection of Cultural Monuments of Kosovo, founded in 1952, had
established far more restrictive criteria for considering Albanian architecture as
Even the Albanian
been appropriated by
Serbian cultural institutions to deflect the attention and minimize the destruction
ly official Serbian acknowledgment
of destruction of Albanian cultural heritage was made in the context of an
assessment of NATO war crimes, which had ostensibly included the aerial
The Nara document was established by a meeting of experts in the midst of the Bosnian war. It recalled the fundamental principles of the Charter of Venice of 1964.
bombardment of several Albanian historic sites and buildings. Furthermore,
initial UNESCO report on the state of cultural heritage in Kosovo after war, was
primarily based on defective information supplied by the Serbian authorities.
must not forget that the destiny of buildings and art in war is often the evidence of
crime against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing.
important to have clear and strict heritage laws in order to re
make sustainable peace possible.
A second problem, which is actually accounted for in the 2003 UN
is the financial problem. According to the declaration, states are bound to provide
preventive initiatives such as heritage awareness and education as well as heritage
protect, BUT in accordance to their available economic resources. As I
in the chapter on "the role of heritage in post
are liable for conflict or who are in conflict, often have no sufficient amount to
provide in basic human needs
the international community ha
humanitarian help for general refugees less than help for people with distinct and
valuable cultural heritage. “The same ideology also underlays the bracketing
cultural heritage from what is called the ‘reconstruction of Kosovo’”.
international organizations which were established in order to implement the
provisions of UNSC Resolution 1244
first instance not addressed the issue of cultural heritage. They first concentrated
on vital priorities such as security, economy and civil administration leaving the
heritage care to respectively the PISG Ministry of Culture in Pristina and the
Coordination Centre of Serbia and
Kosovo, as well as to several NGO's
increasing knowledge on heritage protection not only to experts, but also to states
representatives and representatives
protection and reconstruction should become an integral part of
programs and social development
61 A.Herscher, A. Riedlmayer, p. 113.62 Quoted from: A. Herscher, A63 K. Matsuura, p. 6.
30
bombardment of several Albanian historic sites and buildings. Furthermore,
initial UNESCO report on the state of cultural heritage in Kosovo after war, was
primarily based on defective information supplied by the Serbian authorities.
he destiny of buildings and art in war is often the evidence of
rime against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing.
important to have clear and strict heritage laws in order to re-establish order and
make sustainable peace possible.
A second problem, which is actually accounted for in the 2003 UNESCO declaration
is the financial problem. According to the declaration, states are bound to provide
preventive initiatives such as heritage awareness and education as well as heritage
protect, BUT in accordance to their available economic resources. As I
in the chapter on "the role of heritage in post-conflict reconstruction", states who
are liable for conflict or who are in conflict, often have no sufficient amount to
provide in basic human needs, let alone heritage management or protection. E
international community had conceived of its primary mission in Kosovo in
humanitarian help for general refugees less than help for people with distinct and
valuable cultural heritage. “The same ideology also underlays the bracketing
l heritage from what is called the ‘reconstruction of Kosovo’”.
international organizations which were established in order to implement the
provisions of UNSC Resolution 1244 – UNMIK, KFOR, OSCE and others
sed the issue of cultural heritage. They first concentrated
on vital priorities such as security, economy and civil administration leaving the
heritage care to respectively the PISG Ministry of Culture in Pristina and the
Coordination Centre of Serbia and Montenegro and of the Republic of Serbia for
, as well as to several NGO's.63 It is thus important to keep on diffusing and
on heritage protection not only to experts, but also to states
presentatives of NATO, UN and national armies. Heritage
protection and reconstruction should become an integral part of
social development programs in conflict regions.
Riedlmayer, p. 113. , A.Riedlmayer, p. 113.
bombardment of several Albanian historic sites and buildings. Furthermore, the
initial UNESCO report on the state of cultural heritage in Kosovo after war, was
primarily based on defective information supplied by the Serbian authorities.61 One
he destiny of buildings and art in war is often the evidence of
rime against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing. It is thus
establish order and
ESCO declaration
is the financial problem. According to the declaration, states are bound to provide
preventive initiatives such as heritage awareness and education as well as heritage
protect, BUT in accordance to their available economic resources. As I have argued
conflict reconstruction", states who
are liable for conflict or who are in conflict, often have no sufficient amount to
heritage management or protection. Even
mission in Kosovo in
humanitarian help for general refugees less than help for people with distinct and
valuable cultural heritage. “The same ideology also underlays the bracketing-off of
l heritage from what is called the ‘reconstruction of Kosovo’”.62 Equally, the
international organizations which were established in order to implement the
UNMIK, KFOR, OSCE and others – have in
sed the issue of cultural heritage. They first concentrated
on vital priorities such as security, economy and civil administration leaving the
heritage care to respectively the PISG Ministry of Culture in Pristina and the
Montenegro and of the Republic of Serbia for
It is thus important to keep on diffusing and
on heritage protection not only to experts, but also to states
, UN and national armies. Heritage
protection and reconstruction should become an integral part of emergency relief
5. Conclusion
According to the research compiled in the Cultural Diplomacy
role of culture and heritage is gaining much importance in modern, globalised
society.64 Culture and heritage are important agencies in the field of cultural
diplomacy. Culture and heritage act through different sectors in society, suc
public, private and civil society; different geographical regions and within various
field such as nation building and inter
fundamental to the fostering of international relationships that are based on
mutual understanding and cultural exchange rather than on military action formal
political agreements. There is
heritage can help to promote the process of reconciliation, strengthen self
contribute towards growth and fight poverty. Even if dialogue and social cohesion
sometimes remain long-term achievements, the cultural heritage is certainly a
development factor for society.
fluid and dynamic process. This
understand that the world equally is in a ever changing flow, thus creating the
ability for progress. Furthermore, culture and heritage are not bound to a single
place, but draw on local, regional and i
culture and heritage make them appropriate agents when addressing world
problems. Cultural heritage issues
and nation branding based on peace and human rights. Mutual
heritage is a condition for a society's peaceful development. Hence the importance
to integrate cultural heritage
emergency relief work and development co
However, there are several constraints. Firstly,
and know-how of the Hague Convention on both a national level, the (UN) peace
keeping forces and humanitarian relief agencies.
popular culture is equally nec
instruments for mutual respect and empathy. Secondly,
diplomacy highly depends upon the willingness to create dialogue and change.
Thirdly, the implementation of culture and herit
social development requires a huge financial investment. Such investment is not
always feasible for economically disadvantaged countries or countries recently
affected by conflict. However, economically disadvantaged coun
liable for inter-ethnic or inter
religious extremism and dictatorship. Consequently, inter
unmistakably important role to play in such regions, but is often not
economic priority. Furthermore disadvantaged or post
depend on the international community to establish cultural and heritage programs
within social development programs. Care is to be taken that all levels of society ar
concerned and that the cultural and heritage programs not only suit a "European"
64
ICD, Executive Summary of the ICD Cultural Diplomacy Outlook 2011
31
According to the research compiled in the Cultural Diplomacy Outlook of 2011, the
role of culture and heritage is gaining much importance in modern, globalised
Culture and heritage are important agencies in the field of cultural
diplomacy. Culture and heritage act through different sectors in society, suc
public, private and civil society; different geographical regions and within various
field such as nation building and inter-religious dialogue. Hence they are
fundamental to the fostering of international relationships that are based on
tanding and cultural exchange rather than on military action formal
There is also evidence to say that working with culture and
heritage can help to promote the process of reconciliation, strengthen self
wth and fight poverty. Even if dialogue and social cohesion
term achievements, the cultural heritage is certainly a
development factor for society. This a consequence of culture's characterization as a
fluid and dynamic process. This "fluidity" of culture and heritage should help us to
understand that the world equally is in a ever changing flow, thus creating the
ability for progress. Furthermore, culture and heritage are not bound to a single
place, but draw on local, regional and international links. This universality of
culture and heritage make them appropriate agents when addressing world
Cultural heritage issues thus have their rightful place in
based on peace and human rights. Mutual respect for cultural
heritage is a condition for a society's peaceful development. Hence the importance
to integrate cultural heritage management and culture programs
emergency relief work and development co-operation.
several constraints. Firstly, this requires sufficient information
how of the Hague Convention on both a national level, the (UN) peace
keeping forces and humanitarian relief agencies. Affinity with local customs and
popular culture is equally necessary in order to use culture and heritage as
instruments for mutual respect and empathy. Secondly, the effectiveness of cultural
diplomacy highly depends upon the willingness to create dialogue and change.
implementation of culture and heritage in international relations and
social development requires a huge financial investment. Such investment is not
always feasible for economically disadvantaged countries or countries recently
affected by conflict. However, economically disadvantaged countries are often more
ethnic or inter-regional conflicts and for the grip nationalism,
religious extremism and dictatorship. Consequently, inter-cultural dialogue has an
unmistakably important role to play in such regions, but is often not
economic priority. Furthermore disadvantaged or post-conflict regions heavily
depend on the international community to establish cultural and heritage programs
within social development programs. Care is to be taken that all levels of society ar
concerned and that the cultural and heritage programs not only suit a "European"
Executive Summary of the ICD Cultural Diplomacy Outlook 2011, Berlin, 2011, p. 3.
Outlook of 2011, the
role of culture and heritage is gaining much importance in modern, globalised
Culture and heritage are important agencies in the field of cultural
diplomacy. Culture and heritage act through different sectors in society, such as
public, private and civil society; different geographical regions and within various
religious dialogue. Hence they are
fundamental to the fostering of international relationships that are based on
tanding and cultural exchange rather than on military action formal
evidence to say that working with culture and
heritage can help to promote the process of reconciliation, strengthen self-belief,
wth and fight poverty. Even if dialogue and social cohesion
term achievements, the cultural heritage is certainly a
This a consequence of culture's characterization as a
"fluidity" of culture and heritage should help us to
understand that the world equally is in a ever changing flow, thus creating the
ability for progress. Furthermore, culture and heritage are not bound to a single
nternational links. This universality of
culture and heritage make them appropriate agents when addressing world
have their rightful place in state building
respect for cultural
heritage is a condition for a society's peaceful development. Hence the importance
management and culture programs into the normal
his requires sufficient information
how of the Hague Convention on both a national level, the (UN) peace-
Affinity with local customs and
essary in order to use culture and heritage as
the effectiveness of cultural
diplomacy highly depends upon the willingness to create dialogue and change.
age in international relations and
social development requires a huge financial investment. Such investment is not
always feasible for economically disadvantaged countries or countries recently
tries are often more
regional conflicts and for the grip nationalism,
cultural dialogue has an
unmistakably important role to play in such regions, but is often not seen as an
conflict regions heavily
depend on the international community to establish cultural and heritage programs
within social development programs. Care is to be taken that all levels of society are
concerned and that the cultural and heritage programs not only suit a "European" ,
, Berlin, 2011, p. 3.
"American" or "Islam" dominated view but also and firstly include local and regional
aspirations. Dependence on international organizations
dependent on funding countries
occur with regard to the planning and execution of the "fieldwork", but also
regarding the funding itself. UNESCO for instance, had to minimize its projects and
cut down staff due to a withdrawal of U.S. funding because of U.S. animosities with
Palestine. Such a situation does not only make the daily functioning of UNESCO
extremely difficult; it also raises questions about the aims and credibility of
international partners wishing to prom
border collaboration etc. through institutions as UNESCO.
In Kosovo culture and heritage
process and in the forging of an inclusive national identity. Culture
precisely tackle these objects of misunderstanding which have lead to the
conflict: multi-cultural society, religious backgrounds and mutual mistrust
some initiatives show; the incorporation of cultural and social development
programs can re-establish trust between the several ethnic groups through
dialogue. Such programs demystify
lots of work remains to be done. Mistrust and minority
within Kosovo, while Serbia does not recognize Kosovo as an autonomous Republic.
Hence, Orthodox religious sites remain under strong protection, secluding them
from society, while extreme Islam tries to gain power in a region which is still
searching for its identity. Not all wa
owns many archeological artifacts from Kosovo's National History Museum
Kosovo has not the financial ability to provide necessary infrastructure
in the Northern (Serbian population) province
Kosovo try to adopt an identity and attitude forged on European values of multi
cultural acceptance. If this attitude solely remains a "fast
integration, it is not certain to last nor to provide susta
collaborations. Multi-culturalism is indeed a fundamental element of the Western
Balkans' history, however it cannot be imposed
has to be accepted and integrated through both countries
thus important to continue to integrate cultural projects in broader social and
economic development programs.
A variegated approach which includes culture with politics, economics and social
affairs, should actually have to be applied in
difficult political, social or economic circumstance are very liable to seek a
"scapegoat" to project their problems on. Once the "scape
violence are not far away. Cultural dialogue and i
in conflict-prevention or preventive diplomacy
reconstruction.
32
dominated view but also and firstly include local and regional
Dependence on international organizations - which are again
funding countries - is also extremely fragile. Problems can not only
occur with regard to the planning and execution of the "fieldwork", but also
regarding the funding itself. UNESCO for instance, had to minimize its projects and
ithdrawal of U.S. funding because of U.S. animosities with
Such a situation does not only make the daily functioning of UNESCO
extremely difficult; it also raises questions about the aims and credibility of
international partners wishing to promote messages of tolerance, acceptance, cross
border collaboration etc. through institutions as UNESCO.
In Kosovo culture and heritage can play a fundamental role in the reconciliation
process and in the forging of an inclusive national identity. Culture
precisely tackle these objects of misunderstanding which have lead to the
cultural society, religious backgrounds and mutual mistrust
some initiatives show; the incorporation of cultural and social development
establish trust between the several ethnic groups through
demystify or rather re-humanize "the other"
lots of work remains to be done. Mistrust and minority-problems are still existing
rbia does not recognize Kosovo as an autonomous Republic.
Hence, Orthodox religious sites remain under strong protection, secluding them
from society, while extreme Islam tries to gain power in a region which is still
searching for its identity. Not all war lootings have been restored. Belgrade still
owns many archeological artifacts from Kosovo's National History Museum
Kosovo has not the financial ability to provide necessary infrastructure
in the Northern (Serbian population) provinces remains high, while both Serbia and
Kosovo try to adopt an identity and attitude forged on European values of multi
cultural acceptance. If this attitude solely remains a "fast-lane" to European
integration, it is not certain to last nor to provide sustainable peace and
culturalism is indeed a fundamental element of the Western
, however it cannot be imposed on modern society
has to be accepted and integrated through both countries' future generation
thus important to continue to integrate cultural projects in broader social and
economic development programs.
variegated approach which includes culture with politics, economics and social
affairs, should actually have to be applied in non-conflict situations. People living in
difficult political, social or economic circumstance are very liable to seek a
ir problems on. Once the "scapegoat" is identified, ethnic
violence are not far away. Cultural dialogue and initiatives should be more adopted
or preventive diplomacy and not reduced to post
dominated view but also and firstly include local and regional
which are again
fragile. Problems can not only
occur with regard to the planning and execution of the "fieldwork", but also
regarding the funding itself. UNESCO for instance, had to minimize its projects and
ithdrawal of U.S. funding because of U.S. animosities with
Such a situation does not only make the daily functioning of UNESCO
extremely difficult; it also raises questions about the aims and credibility of
ote messages of tolerance, acceptance, cross-
play a fundamental role in the reconciliation
process and in the forging of an inclusive national identity. Culture and heritage
precisely tackle these objects of misunderstanding which have lead to the horrible
cultural society, religious backgrounds and mutual mistrust. As
some initiatives show; the incorporation of cultural and social development
establish trust between the several ethnic groups through
humanize "the other" . However,
problems are still existing
rbia does not recognize Kosovo as an autonomous Republic.
Hence, Orthodox religious sites remain under strong protection, secluding them
from society, while extreme Islam tries to gain power in a region which is still
r lootings have been restored. Belgrade still
owns many archeological artifacts from Kosovo's National History Museum, while
Kosovo has not the financial ability to provide necessary infrastructure. The tension
s remains high, while both Serbia and
Kosovo try to adopt an identity and attitude forged on European values of multi-
lane" to European
inable peace and
culturalism is indeed a fundamental element of the Western
on modern society by "Brussels"; it
future generations. It is
thus important to continue to integrate cultural projects in broader social and
variegated approach which includes culture with politics, economics and social
conflict situations. People living in
difficult political, social or economic circumstance are very liable to seek a
goat" is identified, ethnic
nitiatives should be more adopted
and not reduced to post-conflict
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