i STRENGTH, DURABILITY AND MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS … · 2019. 5. 14. · Konkrit bertetulang gentian (FRC) merupakan bancuhan konkrit konvensional yang mengandungi simen, batu

i

STRENGTH, DURABILITY AND MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF

CONCRETE INCORPORATING WASTE CARPET FIBRE AND

PALM OIL FUEL ASH

HOSSEIN MOHAMMADHOSSEINI

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering)

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAY 2017

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iii

To my lovely parents

Late Haj Mohammadmorad and Hajiyah Nabat

And

My beloved family

Specially my brother Reza, without him none of my successes would be possible

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I wish to glorify almighty Allah the most gracious the most

merciful for his sustenance, and I wish to express my sincere and profound gratitude

to my main thesis supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Jamaludin Mohamad Yatim for

his continuing assistance, the encouragement, guidance, critics and understanding

throughout my studies. I do not have enough words to express my thanks to my

supervisor but I pray Allah will continue to give him the strength, wisdom, guidance

and reward him the best of both worlds. Ameen.

I am also very grateful to Associate Professor Dr. A.S.M. Abdul Awal as my

previous supervisor for his support and guidance at the beginning of my study.

The author is greatly indebted to Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for giving me

the opportunity to pursue Ph.D., most especially; School of Graduate Studies (SPS),

Faculty of Civil Engineering (FKA), Department of Structure and Materials for the

support and facilities provided to carry out the experimental work. Deep thanks are

also due to all technical staff in the laboratory of Structure and Materials for their

valuable input and assistance during the research program. Special thanks also go to

the managing director of ENTEX CARPET INDUSTRIES SDN. BHD., Mr. Henry

Yee for providing the waste carpet fibbers to make this research possible.

v

ABSTRACT

Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) is a conventional concrete mix that contains

cement, coarse and fine aggregates and a dispersion of discontinuous short fibres that

are randomly distributed in the fresh concrete mix. The fibres improve the ductility,

energy absorption and tensile and flexural strengths of concrete mixture. With the

increasing amount of waste generation from various processes, there has been a

growing interest in the utilization of waste in producing building materials to achieve

potential benefits. In the construction industry, the idea of sustainability encourages

the use of waste products to replace raw materials, such as fine and coarse aggregates,

cement and fibrous materials. This leads to sustainable, green and environmentally

friendly construction by reducing the price of the components compared to disposing

of the materials. This research, therefore, focuses on the effects of waste carpet fibre

(WCF) and palm oil fuel ash (POFA) as partial replacements of ordinary Portland

cement (OPC) on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete. Six volume varying

from 0-1.25% of 20-mm-long carpet fibre were used with OPC concrete mixes.

Another six mixes were made that replaced OPC with 20% POFA. The water/binder

(w/b) ratio of 0.47 was kept constant in all mixes. Fresh properties of concrete were

studied with respect to its workability in terms of slump values and Vebe time, unit

weight, air content and heat of hydration. The hardened properties examined are;

mechanical strengths, deformation characteristics and durability properties. Various

techniques, including the use of scanning electronic microscope (SEM), X-ray

diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential thermal

analysis (DTA) were used to study the microstructure of the concrete. A 3-phased

investigation revealed that both carpet fibres and POFA have a potential to be used in

the development of concrete properties. The combination of WCF and POFA

decreased the slump values and increased the Vebe time of fresh concrete. The unit

weight and air content significantly decreased, while the heat of hydration was also

reduced. The inclusion of carpet fibre to either OPC or POFA concrete mixes did not

improve the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity at early ages. At later ages,

however, the compressive strength of the mixtures containing POFA significantly

increased and the obtained values were higher than that mixes with OPC alone. The

positive interaction between carpet fibres and POFA leads to high tensile strength,

flexural strengths and impact resistance, thereby increasing the concrete ductility and

toughness with higher energy absorption and improved crack distribution. The creep

and drying shrinkage were also considerably reduced. The durability and

microstructural characteristics of the respective FRC were significantly improved. The

study showed that the use of waste carpet fibre and palm oil fuel ash in the production

of sustainable green concrete is feasible both technically and environmentally.

vi

ABSTRAK

Konkrit bertetulang gentian (FRC) merupakan bancuhan konkrit konvensional yang mengandungi simen, batu baur kasar, batu baur halus, dan gentian pendek yang terserak secara rawak di dalam bancuhan konkrit basah. Kehadiran gentian meningkatkan kemuluran, tenaga serapan, kekuatan tegangan dan lenturan bancuhan konkrit. Peningkatan jumlah bahan buangan yang berpunca daripada pelbagai proses menjadikannya semakin mendapat perhatian untuk menghasilkan bahan-bahan binaan bagi mencapai potensi kebaikan penggunaan sisa buangan tersebut. Dalam industri pembinaan, idea kelestarian menjadi pemangkin kepada penggunaan sisa bahan buangan sebagai pengganti bahan mentah seperti batu baur halus dan kasar, simen, serta gentian. Hal ini membantu ke arah pembinaan yang lestari, hijau dan mesra alam sekitar dengan pengurangan kos komponen bahan berbanding pelupusan bahan tersebut. Oleh itu, kajian ini tertumpu kepada kesan sisa gentian hamparan (WCF) dan abu terbang kelapa sawit (POFA) sebagai penggantian sebahagian simen Portland biasa (OPC) terhadap konkrit basah dan keras. Enam pecahan isi padu bermula dengan 0-1,25% daripada 20 mm panjang gentian hamparan digunakan dengan bancuhan konkrit OPC. Enam campuran lain pula dibuat menggantikan OPC dengan 20% kandungan POFA. Nisbah air kepada bahan pengikat (w/b) yang dikekalkan secara malar dalam semua bancuhan ialah 0.47. Sifat konkrit basah yang dikaji berkaitan dengan kebolehkerjaan konkrit tersebut ialah melalui nilai ujian runtuhan, ujian masa Vebe, berat unit, kandungan udara dan haba penghidratan. Sifat konkrit keras yang dikaji termasuk kekuatan mekanikal, ciri-ciri ubah bentuk dan sifat ketahanan konkrit keras tersebut. Pelbagai teknik digunakan untuk mengkaji mikrostruktur konkrit termasuk imbasan mikroskop elektronik (SEM), belauan sinar-X (XRD), analisa termogravimetri (TGA) dan analisa terma bezaan (DTA). Kaji selidik 3-fasa menunjukkan bahawa kedua-dua WCF dan POFA berpotensi digunakan dalam penghasilan sifat-sifat konkrit. Campuran WCF dan POFA mengurangkan nilai runtuhan dan meningkatkan masa Vebe konkrit basah. Berat unit dan kandungan udara berkurang dengan ketara manakala haba penghidratan juga dikurangkan. Rangkuman gentian hamparan sama ada terhadap bancuhan konkrit OPC ataupun POFA tidak meningkatkan kekuatan mampatan dan modulus keanjalan pada usia awal.Walau bagaimanapun, ketika konkrit mencapai umur selanjutnya, kekuatan mampatan bancuhan konkrit yang mengandungi POFA meningkat dan nilai yang diperoleh adalah lebih tinggi daripada nilai bancuhan simen OPC semata-mata. Interaksi positif antara gentian hamparan dengan POFA menghasilkan peningkatan kepada kekuatan tegangan yang tinggi, kekuatan lenturan dan rintangan hentaman, sekaligus meningkatkan kemuluran dan ketahanan konkrit serta meningkatkan tenaga serapan dan memperbaiki serakan retak.Nilai rayapan dan pengecutan konkrit yang dikaji turut menurun. Ketahanan dan ciri-ciri mikrostruktur FRC turut mengalami penambahbaikan yang ketara.Kajian ini membuktikan penggunaan sisa gentian hamparan dan abu terbang kelapa sawit dalam pengeluaran konkrit lestari dan hijau boleh dilaksanakan dari segi teknikal dan alam sekitar.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xvi

LIST OF FIGURES xviii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION xxvii

LIST OF SYMBOLS xxix

LIST OF APPENDICES xxxii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General 1

1.2 Background of the Problem 3

1.3 Statement of the Problem 5

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study 6

1.5 Scope of the Study 7

1.6 Significance of Study 8

1.7 Research Approach 9

1.8 Thesis Organization 10

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1 Introduction 12

2.2 Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) 13

viii

2.2.1 Concept and Historical Development 13

2.2.2 Characteristics of FRC 15

2.2.3 Advantages and Limitations of FRC 18

2.2.4 Application of FRC in Modern Industries 20

2.3 Performance Criteria of Fibre Reinforced Concrete 22

2.4 Constituent Materials for Fibre Reinforced Concrete 23

2.4.1 Portland Cement 24

2.4.1.1 Physical Properties of Cement 24

2.4.1.2 Chemical Properties of Cement 25

2.4.2 Supplementary Cementing Materials 25

2.4.2.1 Physical Requirements of SCMs 27

2.4.2.2 Chemical Requirements of SCMs 27

2.4.3 Palm Oil Fuel Ash 27

2.4.3.1 Physical Properties of POFA 28

2.4.3.2 Chemical Composition of POFA 29

2.4.3.3 Role of Palm Oil Fuel Ash in FRC 30

2.4.4 Coarse Aggregate 32

2.4.4.1 Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregate 33

2.4.4.2 Grading of Coarse Aggregates 34

2.4.5 Fine Aggregate 35

2.4.5.1 Physical Properties of Fine Aggregates 35

2.4.5.2 Grading of Fine Aggregates 36

2.4.6 Water in FRC 37

2.4.6.1 Physical Quality of Water 37

2.4.6.2 Chemical Quality of Water 37

2.4.7 Superplasticizer 38

2.4.7.1 Physical Properties of SP 38

2.4.7.2 Chemical Structure of SP 39

2.4.7.3 Mechanism of Action of SP 39

2.4.8 Fibres 42

2.4.8.1 Steel Fibres 42

2.4.8.2 Glass Fibres 44

2.4.8.3 Synthetic Fibres 46

ix

2.4.8.4 Natural Fibres 49

2.4.8.5 Waste Fibres 52

2.4.8.6 Fibre Geometry 52

2.4.8.7 Critical Fibre Volume 53

2.4.8.8 Fibre Distribution and Orientation 54

2.4.8.9 Fibre Performance and Efficiency 56

2.4.9 Waste Carpet Fibre 58

2.4.9.1 Types and Sources of Waste Carpet 59

2.4.9.2 Carpet Fibre Recycling Technology 60

2.5 Mixing Procedure of FRC 63

2.6 Mix Design of FRC 64

2.7 Fresh State Properties of Polypropylene FRC 65

2.7.1 Workability 66

2.7.1.1 Slump 66

2.7.1.2 Vebe Time 67

2.7.2 Unit Weight of FRC 68

2.7.3 Air Content of FRC 68

2.7.4 Influence of Pozzolanic Materials and POFA in

FRC

69

2.7.5 Heat of Hydration 70

2.8 Methods of Curing of FRC 71

2.9 Hardened State Properties of Polypropylene FRC 72

2.9.1 Mechanical Properties of FRC 73

2.9.1.1 Compressive Strength 73

2.9.1.2 Splitting Tensile Strength 74

2.9.1.3 Flexural Strength 76

2.9.1.4 Impact Resistance 76

2.9.1.5 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 77

2.9.1.6 Modulus of Elasticity 79

2.9.1.7 Drying Shrinkage and Creep 79

2.9.2 Durability Properties of FRC 81

2.9.2.1 Water Absorption and Sorptivity 81

2.9.2.2 Chloride Penetration 82

x

2.9.2.3 Sulphate Attack 84

2.9.2.4 Acid Attack 85

2.9.2.5 Concrete Carbonation 87

2.9.2.6 Performance of FRC at Elevated

Temperatures

88

2.9.3 Microstructural Analysis of FRC 90

2.10 Summary of Research Gap 91

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 93

3.1 Introduction 93

3.2 Characterization of Constituent Materials- Phase I 97

3.2.1 Ordinary Portland Cement 97

3.2.2 Palm oil Fuel Ash 97

3.2.3 Coarse Aggregate 99

3.2.4 Fine Aggregate 99

3.2.5 Carpet Fibres 100

3.2.6 Normal Tap Water 101

3.2.7 Superplasticizer 101

3.3 Proposed Mix Design and Optimization- Phase II 102

3.4 Fresh and Hardened States Properties of FRC- Phase III 104

3.4.1 Specimen Preparation 104

3.4.2 Testing of Fresh State Properties 105

3.4.2.1 Slump 105

3.4.2.2 Vebe Time 106

3.4.2.3 Determination of Unit Weight and Air

Content of Fresh FRC

107

3.4.2.4 Evaluation of Heat of Hydration 108

3.4.3 Testing of Hardened State Properties of FRC 109

3.4.3.1 Preparation of Test Specimens 109

3.4.3.2 Compressive Strength Test 110

3.4.3.3 Splitting Tensile Strength Test 111

3.4.3.4 Flexural Strength Test 112

3.4.3.5 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test 113

xi

3.4.3.6 Modulus of Elasticity Test 114

3.4.3.7 Impact Resistance Test 115

3.4.3.8 Creep and Drying Shrinkage Tests 117

3.4.3.9 Water Absorption Test 119

3.4.3.10 Sorptivity Test 120

3.4.3.11 Chloride Resistance Test 122

3.4.3.12 Sulphate Resistance Test 123

3.4.3.13 Acid Resistance Test 124

3.4.3.14 Carbonation Depth Test 126

3.4.3.15 Fire Resistance Test 127

3.5 Morphologies and Thermal Analysis of FRC 128

3.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 130

3.5.2 X-ray Diffraction 130

3.5.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis 131

3.6 Instrumentation and Calibration 132

3.6.1 Load Cell and the Calibration 132

3.6.2 Linear Voltage Displacement Transducer (LVDT)

and the Calibration

132

3.6.3 Strain Gauges 134

3.7 Summary 134

4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON

THE CHARACTERISATION OF MATERIALS AND

TRIAL MIX

135

4.1 General 135

4.2 Characteristics of Ordinary Portland Cement 135

4.2.1 Physical Characteristics of OPC 136

4.2.2 Chemical Composition of OPC 137

4.2.3 Particle size Distribution of OPC 137

4.3 Characteristics of Palm Oil Fuel Ash 138

4.3.1 Physical Characteristics of POFA 138

4.3.2 Chemical Composition of POFA 139

4.3.3 Particle size Distribution of POFA 141

xii

4.3.4 Morphology and Microstructure of POFA 141

4.4 Characteristics of Waste Carpet Fibre 143

4.4.1 Engineering Properties of Carpet Fibre 143

4.5 Characteristics of Coarse Aggregate 145

4.5.1 Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregate 146

4.5.2 Grading of Coarse Aggregate 147

4.6 Characteristics of Fine Aggregate 148

4.6.1 Physical Properties of Fine Aggregate 148

4.6.2 Grading of Fine Aggregate 149

4.7 Characteristics of Mixing and Curing Water 150

4.8 Trial Mix Results 151

4.8.1 Optimization of Fibre’s Length and POFA Content 152

4.8.1.1 Workability 152

4.8.1.2 Strength Properties 152

4.9 Summary 154

5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON

THE PHYSICAL, MECHANICAL AND

MICROSTRUCTURE PROPERTIES OF CARPET

FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

155

5.1 Introduction 155

5.2 Fresh Properties of Concrete 156

5.2.1 Slump 156

5.2.2 Vebe Time 157

5.2.3 Correlations between Slump Value and Vebe

Time

158

5.2.4 Unit Weight 159

5.2.5 Air Content 160

5.2.6 Heat of Hydration 161

5.3 Mechanical Properties of Concrete 163

5.3.1 Compressive Strength 163

5.3.2 Post Failure Compressive Strength 166

5.3.3 Splitting Tensile Strength 168

xiii

5.3.4 Flexural Strength 170

5.3.5 Impact Resistance 172

5.3.6 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 177

5.3.7 Modulus of Elasticity 178

5.4 Correlation between Mechanical Properties of Concrete 180

5.4.1 Relationship among Compressive, Tensile and

Flexural Strengths

181

5.4.2 Correlation between Compressive Strength and

Modulus of Elasticity

183

5.4.3 Correlation between Compressive Strength and

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

184

5.4.4 Importance of the Correlations between the

Mechanical Properties

185

5.5 Drying Shrinkage and Creep 185

5.5.1 Effect of Temperature and Humidity on

Shrinkage and Creep

186

5.5.2 Influence of Carpet Fibre and POFA on

Drying Shrinkage of FRC

187

5.5.3 Influence of Carpet Fibre and POFA on Creep of

Concrete

188

5.5.4 Creep Recovery 190

5.6 Microstructural Analysis of Water Cured Concrete 190

5.6.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 191

5.6.2 X-ray Diffraction 194

5.6 Summary 196

6 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ON

THE DURABILITY PERFORMANCE AND

MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF CARPET

FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

198

6.1 Introduction 198

6.2 Influence of Carpet Fibre and POFA on Permeability 198

6.2.1 Water Absorption 199

xiv

6.2.2 Sorptivity 200

6.3 Effect of Carpet Fibre and POFA on Chloride Penetration 201

6.3.1 Microstructural Analysis 205

6.3.1.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 205

6.3.1.2 X-ray Diffraction 206

6.4 Resistance to Sulphate Attack 208

6.4.1 Visual Assessment 208

6.4.2 Mass Change 210

6.4.3 Strength Loss 211

6.4.4 Strength Loss Factor 213




6.5 Resistance to Acid Attack 216

6.5.1 Visual Assessment 217

6.5.2 Mass Loss 218

6.5.3 Strength Loss 220

6.5.4 Strength Loss Factor 222




6.6 Carbonation of Concrete 226

6.7 Performance Under Elevated Temperature 228

6.7.1 Furnace Temperature Gradient 229

6.7.2 Effect of Temperature and Cooling Regime on the

Mass Loss of Concrete

229

6.7.3 Influence of Temperature and Cooling Regime on

the Spalling and Surface colour of Concrete

232

6.7.4 Influence of Temperature and Cooling Regime on

the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity of Concrete

234

6.7.5 Residual Compressive Strength of Concrete 236

6.7.6 Relationship between the Residual Compressive

Strength and Residual UPV Values of Air- and

xv

REFERENCES 263

Appendices A-B 295-297

Water-Cooling Regime 239



6.7.7.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis and

Differential Thermal Analysis

245


6.8 Summary 250

7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 252

7.1 General 252

7.2 Conclusions 252

7.2.1 Characterization of Constituent Materials 251

7.2.2 Trial Mix and Optimization 253

7.2.3 Concrete Mix Design 253

7.2.4 Fresh State Properties 254

7.2.5 Mechanical and Deformation Properties 255

7.2.6 Durability Performance 256

7.2.7 Microstructure 258

7.3 Research Contribution 260

7.4 Recommendations 261

xvi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE

PAGE

2.1 Performance criteria for polypropylene fibre reinforced

concrete (Beaudoin 1990; Bentur & Mindess 2007)

23

2.2 Approximate chemical composition limits of OPC (Neville

& Brooks 2010)

25

2.3 Typical chemical composition of POFA 30

2.4 Physical properties of selected fibres (Bentur & Mindess

2007)

51

3.1 Mix proportions of trial mixes 103

3.2 Mix proportions of concrete mixtures 103

3.3 Classification of the quality of concrete on the basis of

UPV (Shetty 2005)

113

4.1 Physical properties of OPC 136

4.2 Chemical compositions of OPC 137

4.3 Physical properties of POFA 139

4.4 Chemical compositions of POFA 140

4.5 Properties of waste carpet and typical virgin PP fibres 143

4.6 Physical properties of coarse aggregates 146

4.7 Physical properties of coarse aggregates 149

4.8 Quality of tap water used for mixing and curing of concrete 150

4.9 Trial mix and optimization test results 151

5.1 Characteristics of heat of hydration of OPC and POFA

concrete mixes

162

5.2 Post-failure compressive strength of concrete mixtures 166

5.3 Impact resistance of concrete mixtures at first crack and at

failure

173

xvii

6.1 Rate of chloride penetration into different concrete

mixtures (mm/day)

204

6.2 Physical characteristics of typical concrete specimens

exposed to sulphate solution

209

xviii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE

PAGE

1.1 The waste hierarchy 8

2.1 Crack pattern in reinforced concrete (RC) and fibre

reinforced concrete (FRC) members subjected to tension

(Mehta & Monteiro 2006)

16

2.2 Structures of short and long fibres controlling the crack

propagation (Brandt 2008)

16

2.3 Distribution of long and short fibres in controlling micro-

cracks and its influence on the stress-crack opening curve

(Mehta & Monteiro 2006)

17

2.4 Characterization of the tensile and flexural behaviour of

fibres reinforced concrete (FRC) and high performance

fibres reinforced concrete (HPFRC) in the (a) hardening

and (b) softening portions (Brandt 2008)

17

2.5 Comparison of cracks (a) without and (b) with fibre

reinforced (Mehta & Monteiro 2006)

19

2.6 Typical applications of FRC (a) Industrial flooring, (b)

Sewer tunnels, (c) Precast concrete units and (d) Concrete

pavements

22

2.7 SEM image of (a) raw POFA before grinding and (b)

after grinding (Amer et al. 2014)

29

2.8 (a) Dispersed OPC and (b) micro-filing behaviour of

POFA particles

31

2.9 SEM images of a) concrete without POFA content, b)

with 20% POFA content (Ranjbar et al. 2016)

32

xix

2.10 (a) Chemical structure of typical SP and (b) physical

structure of SP and cement-SP interface (Mehta &

Monteiro 2006)

39

2.11 Effect of superplasticizer in breaking up the cement flocs

(Newman & Choo 2003)

40

2.12 Electrostatic dispersion of cement grains by a

superplasticizing admixture (Newman & Choo 2003)

41

2.13 Steric stabilization dispersion of cement grains by a

superplasticizing admixture (Newman & Choo 2003)

41

2.14 Examples of deformed steel fibres (Brandt 2008) 44

2.15 Typical AR-glass fibres used in concrete 45

2.16 Typical forms of synthetic fibres used in concrete 46

2.17 Typical natural fibres used in concrete composites 50

2.18 Orientation disturbed by the wall effect (Boulekbache et

al. 2010)

55

2.19 Fibre distribution through a section (a) well-orientated

and (b) badly-orientated fibres (Banyhussan et al. 2016)

56

2.20 Stress–position profiles when fibre length (l) (a) is equal

to the critical length (lc) (b) is greater than the critical

length, and (c) is less than the critical length for a fibre

reinforced composite that is subjected to a tensile stress

equal to the fibre tensile strength (σf*) (Callister &

Rethwisch 2007)

57

2.21 Carpet waste management hierarchy (Sotayo et al. 2015) 58

2.22 Typical structure of carpet: (a) cut-pile (b) level-loop

(Sotayo et al. 2015)

59

2.23 Typical pre-and post-consumer waste carpet fibres

(Sotayo et al. 2015)

60

2.24 Typical post-consumers carpet recycling loop (Bird

2013)

62

2.25 Typical mixing procedure for FRC mixtures (Qian &

Stroeven 2000)

63

xx

3.1 Diagrammatic representation of the experimental

program

94

3.2 Palm oil solid wastes 98

3.3 Flow chart of the production process of POFA 99

3.4 (a) Generation of carpet waste (b) Back yarn and (c) Face

yarn waste fibres

100

3.5 Flowchart for processing of carpet fibres 101

3.6 Drum mixer for FRC 104

3.7 Workability measurement (a) slum test and (b) Vebe time

test

106

3.8 (a) Air content testing instrument and (b) measuring the

unit weight

108

3.9 Test setup for the measurement of heat of hydration: (a)

insulated pack, (b) concrete cylinder, (c) type K

thermocouple and (d) data logger

109

3.10 (a) Weighting of specimen before testing and (b)

compressive strength test set up

110

3.11 (a) Weighting of specimen before testing and (b) splitting

tensile strength test set up

111

3.12 Arrangement of loading of test specimen for flexural

strength test

112

3.13 Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing machine 113

3.14 Operational procedure for modulus of elasticity test (a)

capping and fixing strain gauges (b) monitoring the

deformation of specimens (c) loaded specimen before

failure and (d) loaded specimen after failure

114

3.15 Operational procedure for impact resistance test (a)

cutting the cylinder (b) concrete disks to be tested (c)

impact resistance test apparatus (d) steel ball and concrete

disk specimen

116

3.16 Creep and drying shrinkage tests set up 118

3.17 Demec meter used for creep and shrinkage measurement 119

xxi

3.18 Test set-up for the measurement of sorptivity: (a)

humidity control, (b) sealable container, (c) specimen

stand on supports and (d) mass measurement

121

3.19 Schematic of the soptivity test procedure (ASTM C1585-

13)

121

3.20 Operational procedure for chloride penetration test: (a)

sodium chloride, (b) silver nitrate solution, (c) specimens

immersed and (d) penetration depth

123

3.21 Operational procedure for sulphate and acid resistance

tests: (a) specimens immersed in sulphate and acid

solutions, (b) magnesium sulphate and (c) sulphuric acid

126

3.22 Operational procedure for carbonation tests 127

3.23 Concrete specimens in an electrically controlled furnace 128

3.24 SEM instrument and typical samples used 130

3.25 (a) Siemens Diffractometer instrument and (b) typical

sample used

131

3.26 TGA and TDA Thermogravimetry analyzer 132

4.1 Particle size distribution of OPC and POFA 141

4.2 SEM image of POFA 142

4.3 X-ray diffraction pattern of POFA 142

4.4 (a) Fabricated carpet fibres and (b) typical virgin PP

fibres (Yap et al. 2013)

143

4.5 Tensile strength test of typical waste carpet fibres 144

4.6 Typical Load-Extension curve of waste carpet fibres 144

4.7 SEM image of polypropylene waste carpet fibre 145

4.8 Particle size distributions of the fine and coarse

aggregates

148

5.1 Effects of carpet fibres on the slump of OPC and POFA

concretes

157

5.2 Balling effect of fibres on fresh concrete with a) 0.25%,

b) 0.5% and c) 1.0% carpet fibres

157

5.3 Effects of carpet fibres on the Vebe time of OPC and

POFA concrete

158

xxii

5.4 Relationship between slump value and Vebe time of OPC

and POFA concrete

159

5.5 Effects of carpet fibres on fresh density of OPC and

POFA concrete

160

5.6 Effects of carpet fibres on air content of fresh OPC and

POFA concrete

161

5.7 Development of temperature in OPC and POFA concrete

mixes

162

5.8 Compressive strength of carpet fibre reinforced (a) OPC

and (b) POFA concrete mixtures

164

5.9 Failure mode of concrete specimens with and without

carpet fibres under compression load

165

5.10 Variation of PFCS in OPC and POFA concrete

containing carpet fibres

167

5.11 Tensile strength of carpet fibre reinforced (a) OPC and

(b) POFA concrete mixtures

169

5.12 Failure mode of concrete specimens without and with

carpet fibres under tensile load

169

5.13 Flexural strength of carpet fibre reinforced (a) OPC and

(b) POFA concrete mixtures

171

5.14 Failure mode of concrete specimens without and with

carpet fibres under flexure load

172

5.15 Impact resistance of carpet fibre reinforced concrete

mixtures at first crack and at failure

174

5.16 Impact energy of carpet fibre reinforced concrete

mixtures at first crack and at failure

175

5.17 Variation of (N2 - N1) with fibre content 176

5.18 (a) Specimens before impact test, (b) Fracture pattern

after drop weight test, (c) 0.25% fibre, (d) 1.25% fibre

and (e) Distributed carpet fibres

177

5.19 Effects of carpet fibres on UPV values of (a) OPC and (b)

POFA concrete mixtures

178

xxiii

5.20 Effects of carpet fibres on MOE values of OPC and

POFA concrete mixtures at ages of (a) 28-day and (b) 91-

day

179

5.21 Pattern of failure in concrete with and without fibres for

MOE testing

180

5.22 Relationships among (a) compressive-tensile and (b)

compressive-flexural strengths

182

5.23 Relationships between tensile-flexural strengths of

concrete mixtures

183

5.24 Relationships between compressive strength and

modulus of elasticity of concrete mixtures

184

5.25 Relationships between compressive strength and

ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete mixtures

185

5.26 Temperature and relative humidity of testing

environment

186

5.27 Effects of carpet fibre content on drying shrinkage of (a)

OPC and (b) POFA concrete mixtures

188

5.28 Effects of carpet fibres on creep strain of OPC and POFA

concrete mixtures

189

5.29 Creep recovery of OPC and POFA concrete containing

carpet fibres

190

5.30 SEM of water cured OPC (B1) and POFA (B7) concrete

mixtures at (a) 91and (b) 365 days

192

5.31 SEM of (a) the fracture surface, (b) bridging action and

(c) fibre-matrix interface of concrete containing 0.5%

carpet fibres at 91 days of curing period

193

5.32 SEM of the fibre-cement interfacial transition zone at the

age of 365 days

194

5.33 XRD of (a) OPC and (b) 20% POFA paste at 91 days

water curing

195

5.34 XRD of (a) OPC and (b) 20% POFA paste at 365 days

water curing

196

xxiv

6.1 Water absorption versus fibre volume fraction of OPC

and POFA concrete

199

6.2 Water absorption versus square root of time for (a) OPC

and (b) POFA content mixtures at different fibre volume

fractions

201

6.3 Chloride penetration depth versus time for (a) OPC and

(b) POFA concrete containing carpet fibres at different

volume fractions

202

6.4 Split faces of the concrete specimen for B1, B3, B7 and

B9, which were treated with AgNO3 upon 90 days of

exposure to sodium chloride solution

203

6.5 SEM of (a) OPC (B1) and (b) POFA (B7) concrete

mixtures after 90 days exposure to chloride

206

6.6 SEM of concrete containing carpet fibres after 90 days

exposure to chloride

206

6.7 XRD patterns of (a) OPC and (b) POFA specimens after

90 days exposed to chloride solution

207

6.8 Cube specimens after 365 days of immersion in sulphate

solution

209

6.9 Effects of carpet fibre on the mass change of OPC and

POFA concrete specimens exposed to sulphate solution

210

6.10 Strength losses between companion and test specimen in

sulphate solution of (a) OPC and (b) POFA concrete

mixtures

212

6.11 Failure mode of cube specimens immersed in sulphate

solution

212

6.12 Strength loss of OPC and POFA concrete mixtures

containing carpet fibres exposed to sulphate

213

6.13 SEM Images of OPC and POFA mixtures showing the

formation of crystalline products after exposure to

sulphate

214

6.14 SEM images showing the crack patterns around the fibres

after exposure to sulphate

215

xxv

6.15 XRD plots displaying various crystalline products in (a)

OPC and (b) POFA concrete specimens exposed to

sulphate

216

6.16 Concrete cube specimen after 365 days exposure in 5%

H2SO4 solution

218

6.17 Effects of carpet fibre on the mass change of OPC and

POFA concrete cube specimens exposed to acid

219

6.18 Strength losses between companion and test specimen in

acid solution of (a) OPC and (b) POFA concrete mixtures

221

6.19 Failure mode of cube specimens immersed in acid

solution

222

6.20 Strength loss of OPC and POFA concrete mixtures

containing carpet fibres exposed to acid

222

6.21 SEM Images of OPC and POFA mixtures showing the

formation of crystalline products after exposure to acid

224

6.22 SEM images of the crack patterns around the fibres after

exposure to acid

224

6.23 Weak fibre-cement interfacial transition zone after

exposure to acid

224

6.24 XRD for (a) OPC and (b) POFA specimens after 365 days

of exposure to sulphuric acid

225

6.25 Effects of carpet fibre content on the carbonation depth

of (a) OPC and (b) POFA concrete

227

6.26 Split faces of carbonated concrete specimen for B1, B3,

B7 and B9, which were treated with phenolphthalein

228

6.27 Time-temperature curve of the electrically controlled

furnace and compared with standard curves

229

6.28 Mass loss of different concrete mixtures 231

6.29 Regression for the mass loss of the (a) OPC and (b) POFA

concrete mixtures

232

6.30 Surface texture of the concrete specimens exposed to

high temperatures

233

xxvi

6.31 Variation in UPV values of the concrete mixtures

exposed to high temperatures (a) air-cooled and (b)

water-cooled regimes

235

6.32 Residual compressive strength of the concrete mixtures 237

6.33 Failure modes of the concrete specimens at different

temperatures

238

6.34 Correlation amongst the residual UPV and compressive

strength of the air-cooled regime

240

6.35 Correlation amongst the residual UPV and compressive

strength of the water-cooled regime

241

6.36 SEM micrographs for plain OPC (B1) and POFA (B7)

concrete specimens at (a) 27 oC; (b) 200 oC; and (c) 800

oC temperatures

243

6.37 SEM micrographs of the bonding interface between

carpet fibres and matrix as well as melted fibres at (a) 27

oC; (b) 200 oC; and (c) 800 oC temperatures

244

6.38 (a) DTA and (b) TGA results for unheated concrete

mixtures

245

6.39 (a) DTA and (b) TGA results for the concrete mixtures

after 200 oC thermal treatment

246

6.40 (a) DTA and (b) TGA results for the concrete mixtures

after 800 oC thermal treatment

248


being exposed to temperature of 200 oC

249


being exposed to temperature of 800 oC

250

xxvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACI - American Concrete Institute

ASTM - American Standards for Testing of Materials

BS EN - British Standard

CRT - Constant-Rate of Traverse

CS - Compressive Strength

DTA - Differential Thermal Analysis

FA - Fly Ash

FRC - Fibre Reinforced Concrete

GGBS - Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

GFRC - Glass Fibre Reinforced Concrete

IS - Indian Standard

LOI - Loss on Ignition

LVDT - Linear Voltage Displacement Transducer

MOE - Modulus of Elasticity

OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement

PAN - Polyacrylonitrile

PC - Plain Concrete

PFCS - Post Failure Compressive Strength

POFA - Palm Oil Fuel Ash

PP - Polypropylene

PPM - Parts Per Million

RC - Reinforced Concrete

RHA - Rice Husk Ash

RILEM - International Union of Laboratories and Experts in

Construction Materials, Systems, and Structures

SCM - Supplementary Cementing Materials

SEM - Scanning Electron Microscopy

xxviii

SF - Silica Fume

SP - Superplasticiser

SSD - Saturated Surface Dry

TGA - Thermogravimetry Analysis

UPV - Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

w/b - Water/Binder

w/c - Water/Cement

WCF - Waste Carpet Fibre

XRD - X-ray Diffraction

xxix

LIST OF SYMBOLS

3CaO.Al2O3.

3CaSO4.32H2O

- Ettringite

a - The exposed area of the specimen, in mm2

A1 - Apparent air content of the sample (%)

Ac - The cross sectional area of the specimen (mm2)

AgNO3 - Silver nitrate

Al - Alumina

Al2O3 - Aluminium oxide

B - Binder

C - Carbon

C2S - Dicalcium silicate

C3Al - Tricalcium aluminate

C3S - Tricalcium silicate

Ca - Calcium

Ca(OH)2 - Calcium hydroxide

CaO - Calcium oxide

C-A-S-H - Calcium alumina silicate hydrate

CaSO4.2HO2 - Gypsum

Cl - Chloride

CO2 - Carbon dioxide

C-S-H - Calcium silicate hydrate

ρ - Measured density (kg/m3)

d1 , d2 - Lateral dimension of the specimen (mm)

df - Diameter of fibre

Ɛ(to) - Average total measured strain at any time to

Ɛc(t) - Creep strain at any time to

xxx

Ɛe - Average instantaneous elastic strain recorded after

loading

Ɛsh(to) - Average strain at any time to (determined on unloaded

specimen)

F - The maximum load at failure (N)

fc - Compressive Strength (MPa)

Fca - The average compressive strength of the specimen

after immersion in sulphate or acid solutions (MPa)

fcf - Flexural strength (MPa)

fct - Splitting tensile strength (MPa)

Fcw - The average compressive strength of companion

specimen cured in water (MPa)

Fe - Iron

Fe2O3 - Iron oxide

𝑔 - Acceleration due to gravity

H1 - Water level reading at the required pressure (1.4 kPa)

H2 - Water level reading at zero pressure after release of

pressure

H2O - Water

H2SO4 - Sulphuric acid

l - Distance between the lower roller (mm)

I - The absorption

K - Potassium

K2O - Alkalis

L - Length of the specimen (mm)

lc - Critical length of fibre (mm)

lf - Length of fibre (mm)

m - The mass of the hammer (kg)

M - Coefficient of comparator meter

Mc - Mass of the measure filled with concrete (kg)

Md - Oven-dry mass of the specimen in air (kg)

Mg - Magnesium

MgO - Magnesium oxide

xxxi

MgSO4 - Magnesium sulphate

Mm - Mass of the measure (kg)

Ms - Saturated surface dry mass of the specimen in air (kg)

mt - The change in specimen mass in grams, at the time t

NaCl - Sodium chloride

SiO2 - Silicon dioxide

SLF - Strength loss factor (%)

SO3 - Sulphur trioxide

t - The time that hammer need drop (0.3053 Sec)

U - The impact energy of the hammer for each blow in kN

mm

V - The velocity of the hammer

Vcr - Critical fibre volume fraction

Vm - Volume of the measure (m3)

W - The weight of the hammer

Wa - Water absorption (mass %)

τ - Shear strength of matrix

𝞼 * f - Ultimate tensile strength of fibre

𝞼 mu - Ultimate strength of concrete matrix

𝞼’fu - Stress on the fibre at first crack

𝞼fu - Ultimate strength of fibre

xxxii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE

PAGE

A Concrete Mix Design 295

B Carpet Fibres Content Calculations 297

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Through industrialization and technological developments in various fields,

huge amount and different sorts of solid waste materials have been generated by the

industrial, mining, agricultural and domestic actions. Therefore, solid waste

management has become one of the main ecological concerns in all around the world.

With the increasing attentiveness about the environment, lack of landfill area and

because of its high cost, utilization of by-products and waste materials has become an

attractive alternative to disposal. Recycling of the non-biodegradable wastes is very

difficult. Utilization of natural sources, large quantity production of industrial waste

and environmental contamination need gaining new and applicable solutions for a

sustainable development. Over the decades there has been a rising affirmation on the

use of by-products and waste materials in construction industry. In the construction,

the idea of sustainability allowed the use of waste products to replace raw materials,

such as fine and coarse aggregates, cement and fibrous materials. Use of these waste

materials not only aids in getting them applied in concrete, and other construction

materials, it helps in decreasing the cost of the concrete producing, but also has many

indirect advantages such as decrease in landfill area, saving in energy, and defending

the environment from possible pollution effects. Further, utilization of these waste

materials may develop the physical and mechanical, durability and microstructural

properties of concrete, which are challenging to achieve by the use of only raw

materials (Putman & Amirkhanian 2004; Batayneh et al. 2007; Meddah & Bencheikh

2009; Kanadasan & Abdul Razak 2015; Gu & Ozbakkaloglu 2016).

2

A main challenge facing the construction industries is to execute projects in

compatibility with the environment by adopting the concept of sustainable

development. This involves the use of high performance and eco-friendly materials

produced at a reasonable quality and cost. Current researches on many waste materials

such as supplementary cementing materials (SCMs), plastics and textiles, aggregates

and a host of others have shown that the addition of such waste materials in concrete

has the potential to enhance the physical, mechanical and durability of concrete as well

as a reduction in the cost of construction (Chandra 1997; Siddique et al. 2008; Thomas

& Gupta 2013). The challenges are more a consequence of the facts that Portland

cement is not particularly eco-friendly and lack of landfill space for waste materials.

One could then decrease these challenges to the succeeding simple formula: use as

much concrete, but with as low Portland cement as possible, and waste materials as

much as possible, this means to substitute as much raw material as possible by waste

and SCMs, particularly those that are by-products of industrial processes, and to use

waste materials instead of natural resources.

Synthetic fibres are industrialized mainly to supply the high demand for textile

and carpet products. Polypropylene and nylon are the most synthetic fibres used in

these industries. In waste streams, carpets are classified as textiles, and generated

either from post-consumer or pre-consumer (industries). The approximate amount of

the industrial waste carpet fibres generated in Malaysia is estimated as 30 to 50 tons

annually, reported by Malaysian carpet industries. The benefits of using such recycled

fibres include generally lower cost to process than virgin fibres, light in weight, good

acid and alkali resistance and non-absorbent of water (Wang et al. 1994; Wang et al.

2000; Schmidt & Cies 2008; Ghosni et al. 2013). The pozzolanic materials are used

all over the world for their technical, economic and ecological benefits. One of the

latest inclusion in the ash family is palm oil fuel ash (POFA), obtained on burning

palm oil husk and palm kernel shell as fuel in palm oil mills (Tay 1990; Awal & Hussin

1997; Tangchirapat et al. 2007). Malaysia is the second largest producer of oil palm

and palm oil products in the world. In 2007, about 3 million tons of POFA have been

produced in Malaysia, and this production rate is likely to rise due to increase the

plantation of palm oil trees (Ismail et al. 2011; Al-Mulali et al. 2015; Ranjbar et al.

2016).

3

Weighing up the cleaner production, waste materials from various sources need

to be propounded as potentially valuable materials. Among them are the industrial

waste carpet fibre and POFA, the disposal and landfilling of which have detrimental

effects on the environment due to their long disintegration period. One of the

reasonable approaches to minimize the adverse effects is the utilization of waste

materials as useful resources in other industries, like green building construction. To

date, only a few studies have been carried out on the development of concrete

composites from carpet waste (Vilkner et al. 2004; Zhou & Xiang 2011). Such

developments would create a stable pathway for carpet waste and provide new

materials for structural applications. However, research work on the utilization of

carpet waste and POFA, as partial replacement of cement in concrete, has not been

investigated earlier.

1.2 Background of the Problem

Concrete is the most important construction material and its consumption is

increasing all around the globe. In addition to the normal applications, higher ductility

and energy absorption capacity are often required in different fields like industrial

building floors, highway paving, bridge decks, etc. Nevertheless, conventional

concrete possesses very slight tensile strength, limited ductility, low resistance to

cracking, and little energy absorption. Internal micro-cracks are inherently exist in the

concrete specimens and its low tensile strength is owing to the propagation of such

micro-cracks, ultimately leading to brittle fracture of the concrete. Therefore,

enhancing the toughness of concrete and decreasing the size and possibility of

weaknesses would lead to better concrete performance.

Previously, efforts have been made to impart enhancement in tensile properties

of concrete by way of adding a small fraction (0.5-2%) of short fibres to the concrete

mixture throughout mixing process (Zollo 1997; Brandt 2008; Yahaghi et al. 2016).

In such situations fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) has been shown to perform its

functions satisfactorily. Fibre reinforced concrete can be defined as a composite

material containing of mixtures of cement, coarse and fine aggregates, and a dispersion

4

of discontinuous short fibres that are randomly distributed in the fresh concrete mix.

There are various types of fibres, no matter polymeric or metallic, generally utilized

in concrete mixture for their benefits. Among others, the most common types fibre

used in fibre reinforced concrete are glass fibres, steel fibres, synthetic fibres such as

nylon and polypropylene (PP), natural fibres and fibres from pre- and post-consumer

wastes. Fibres in general and polypropylene fibres, in particular, have gained

popularity recently for use to improve the properties of concrete (Brandt 2008).

In brittle materials like plain concrete without any fibre, micro-cracks develop

even before applying load, mainly due to drying shrinkage or any other cause of

volume change. While loading, the cracks propagate and open up, and owing to the

effect of stress concentration and formation of additional cracks in places of minor

defects. The development of such micro-cracks along the concrete members, is the

main reason of inelastic deformation in concrete (Hsie et al. 2008). It has been

recognized that the addition of polypropylene fibre in concrete mixture is potential in

bridging the cracks, load transfer, and improving micro-cracks dispersal system

(Aldahdooh et al. 2014). Moreover, the fibres would act as crack arrester and would

significantly enhance the properties of concrete not only under compression, tensile,

and flexure (Yap et al. 2013), but also under impact blows (Nili & Afroughsabet 2010)

and plastic shrinkage cracking (Zhang et al. 2011).

One of the fundamental solutions towards attaining enhanced concrete

properties in terms of strength, durability and microstructures is the combined use of

polypropylene fibre and pozzolanic materials in concrete. Polypropylene fibre is

presented in the mixture to reduce brittleness of the matrix thus reducing the

susceptibility to cracking of a concrete (Karahan & Atis 2011). As most of the

problems related to the durability properties such as permeability, chloride penetration,

carbonation, and acid and sulphate attacks start from concrete cracking, a substantial

solution that decreases the brittleness of concrete is required and foremost efficient.

Fibre reinforced cementitious composites, addresses the brittleness of concrete. This

ductile material containing pozzolanic materials, exhibits an excellent ductility under

mechanical loading as well as durability under sever environmental exposure (Mo et

al. 2015). There are many ways to improve the durability of concrete structures.

Among all, providing a dense microstructure of concrete specimens through well-

5

graded particle size distribution to decrease passage of corrosive into the concrete,

increase the compressive strength and improve the durability properties of concrete by

the addition of admixtures are the most applicable. However, these approaches do not

enhance the brittleness behaviour of concrete (Yap et al. 2014; Mo et al. 2014).

Other than mechanical properties, aspects of durability and microstructural

analysis are greatly considered in assessing the behaviour and potential use of any new

waste material in concrete. Therefore, a great deal of research is necessary to study in-

depth the utilization of these materials on a large scale to develop adequate

performance data that will permit changes to construction specifications.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

There is no doubt that cleaner and more efficient management of various forms

of waste generation is receiving more attention in order to maintain sustainability in

green construction. The utilization of waste materials is one of the fundamental issues

of waste management strategies in many parts of the world. The advantages of

recycling include reducing environmental pollution, reducing landfilling and disposal

of wastes and preserving natural resources. Concrete is typically characterized as

brittle materials, with a low tensile strength and energy absorption capacity.

Consequently, using fibre reinforced concrete in fields where ductility and durability

are the main considerations is an alternative solution. Therefore, consumption of

cheaper and viable materials in concrete instead of raw materials is necessary. Since a

low volume fraction of short fibres has been suggested for the development of the

strength and durability properties of concrete, it paves the way to use waste carpet

fibres to get more details on properties of concrete containing this fibre.

During the past decades, many research works on the utilization of waste ashes

as supplementary cementing materials in concrete have been carried out. One of the

latest inclusion in the ash family is palm oil fuel ash which played an enormous role

in this regards. The influence of carpet fibres and POFA on the physical, mechanical,

durability and microstructure properties of concrete is not common in the existing

6

studies of literature. Taking into account the availability and the possible fibrous

behaviour of waste polypropylene carpet fibres and pozzolanic nature of the POFA,

research works on the utilization of the materials have been initiated to investigate the

followings;

The influence of carpet fibre and POFA on the fresh state properties of

concrete.

The combined effect of carpet fibre and POFA on the mechanical,

durability and microstructure properties of concrete.

1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study

The aim of the study is to develop the fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)

incorporating industrial waste carpet fibre and palm oil fuel ash (POFA). In view of

the benefits obtained by the utilization of carpet fibre and POFA, the specific

objectives are as follows:

i. To investigate the physical and chemical characteristics of waste carpet

fibres and POFA and optimization of fibre’ length and POFA content.

ii. To propose a mix design guidelines for the proportioning of waste

carpet fibre and POFA for the FRC.

iii. To determine the fresh state, strength and deformation characteristics

of fibre reinforced concrete incorporating waste carpet fibres and

POFA.

iv. To analyse the durability properties of fibre reinforced concrete

incorporating waste carpet fibres and POFA.

v. To evaluate the microstructural characterization and the factors

influencing the performance of waste carpet fibre and POFA in FRC.

7

1.5 Scope of the Study

The research would be experimental in nature and focuses primarily on the

development of a fibre reinforced concrete incorporating waste carpet fibres at volume

fractions of 0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, 1.0% and 1.25%, and POFA at replacement

levels of 10-30% of ordinary Portland cement (OPC). Carpet fibre was used as an

addition while POFA was used as supplementary cementing material. Therefore, an

essential number of intensive investigations and analysis were performed as mentioned

below. The study emphasize physical and mechanical, durability and microstructure

properties of concrete, which is believed to be within the limits set by the objectives.

The first phase deals with characterisation of constituent materials and testing

of the properties of carpet fibre and POFA. These comprise; density, melting point,

tensile strength, water absorption and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the

carpet fibres. It also deals with the determination of the physical properties and

chemical compositions of OPC and POFA by X-ray fluorecence (XRF) and also

determination of the morphological and microscopic structure of POFA by SEM and

energy dispersive X-ray diffraction (XRD).

The second phase deals with mix design and proportioning of the constituent

materials for concrete, and also optimisation process. These contain optimum length

of the fibre, optimum POFA content.

The third phase deals with the investigation of fresh and hardened states,

durability and microstructure properties of concrete containing carpet fibre and POFA.

These contain the slump, VeBe time, fresh density, air content and heat of hydration

from fresh concrete and, compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths,

ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), modulus of elasticity, impact resistance, creep and

drying shrinkage, water absorption, sorptivity, chloride resistance, sulphate resistance,

acid resistance, carbonation depth and fire resistance from hardened concrete. The

fourth phase deals with the investegation of microstructural properties such as

scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential

thermal analysis (DTA) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD).

8

1.6 Significance of Study

Large amounts of waste materials cannot be eliminated. Nevertheless, the

environmental defects can be reduced by providing more sustainable usage of these

waste materials. This is known as the ’’Waste Hierarchy’’. Its goal is to decrease,

recycle, or reuse waste, the latter being the desired option of waste disposal. Figure 1.1

displays a drawing of the waste hierarchy. This study is limited to industrial waste

carpet fibre and palm oil fuel ash.

Since discontinues short fibres has been proposed for the development of the

concrete performance, the use of carpet fibres will result in a reduction of the amount

of waste generated from industry and also enhanced the brittleness properties of

concrete. Suitably used, POFA can significantly develop the mechanical, deformation

and durability properties of concrete which will be decrease the pressure on the

industrial and domestic consumption of Portland cement. As both carpet fibre and

POFA are industrial waste materials requiring minimal spending, their use will

considerably decrease the overall cost of construction, thereby justifying the name of

“Green Concrete Composite”. Consequently, the mixture of carpet fibre and POFA to

production of concrete composite will open up new research opportunities.

Figure 1.1 The waste hierarchy

y

9

1.7 Research Approach

1. Perform a comprehensive literature review on the utilization of waste materials

such as waste textile, fibres and pozzolanic ashes in concrete and other related

construction activities.

2. Select the waste carpet fibres, POFA, cement, aggregates and other required

materials based on their characteristics.

3. Study of various test procedure standards such as BS EN, ASTM, ACI and

RILEM for performing tests on concrete containing waste carpet fibres and

POFA.

4. Conducting a primary study and trial mixes to verify and control the proposed

mix ratios before beginning the full scale experiment.

5. Carry out a series of tests for optimization of fibre’s length and POFA content

to use in full scale experiment.

6. Develop an appropriate schedule of experimental programs with test to

investigate the combined effect of waste carpet fibre and POFA on concrete

composites and compare its performance with that of without any POFA and

fibres.

7. Conduct corresponding studies to comprehend the combined effect of carpet

fibre and POFA on physical, mechanical, deformation and durability properties

of concrete.

8. Inspect and compare microstructure analysis of concrete containing carpet fibre

and POFA with that of without any fibres and POFA.

9. Analysis of experimental results and discussions on the findings.

10. Draw conclusions and make available recommendations on the application of

waste carpet fibre and palm oil fuel ash as a new fibrous and supplementary

cementing materials for construction.

10

11. Propose fields of further study of waste carpet fibre and POFA applications in

concrete industry along with mix design guidelines.

1.8 Thesis Organization

Chapter 1: Provides a general appraisal and an overview of the problem

background to support the problem statements. In addition, the chapter also highlights

the aim and objectives, scope and limitation of the research. The significance of study

and the research approach were clearly spelt out.

Chapter 2: Deals with the critical review of the related and relevant literatures.

Chapter 3: This chapter describes a comprehensive breakdown of the

consecutive sequence of the methodology that is occupied for successful achievement

of the research from the design stage of the experimental work to its rational

conclusions.

Chapter 4: This chapter emphases on the characterization of the constituent

materials, comprising the physical properties and chemical compositions of OPC and

POFA, and characteristics of waste carpet fibre. The chapter also deals with the mix

design of the concrete containing carpet fibre and POFA, and the optimization of the

fibre’s length and POFA content in terms of workability and strength properties.

Chapter 5: This chapter reveals the physical and mechanical properties of

concrete containing carpet fibres and POFA. These include workability in terms of

slump and Vebe, fresh density, air content, setting time and heat of hydration for the

fresh concrete. It also presents the results obtained and discussion made on the

evaluation of mechanical and deformation properties of hardened concrete. Tests

falling in this category comprise, compressive strength, post failure compressive

strength, tensile and flexural strengths, ultrasonic pulse velocity, modulus of elasticity,

impact resistance, drying shrinkage and creep. Moreover, the related microstructure

analysis of concrete specimens cured in water for different curing period are also

present in this chapter.

11

Chapter 6: This chapter deals with the results and discussion arising from

durability tests conducted on concrete containing carpet fibre and palm oil fuel ash.

Durability aspects performed in this chapter are; permeability (water absorption and

sorptivity), chloride penetration, sulphate attack, acid attack, carbonation and fire

endurance. The durability properties of concrete mixture are also support with

microstructure analysis in terms of scanning electron micrograph (SEM),

Thermogravimetry analysis (TGA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), in order to deep

understanding the performance of concrete in different environmental conditions.

Chapter 7: The chapter concludes this dissertation by stating the achievements

and findings of the study and the contribution of the research to the existing

knowledge. Recommendations are also made for further study in related fields to

enhance the quality of concrete using waste materials such as carpet fibre and palm oil

fuel ash.

263

REFERENCES

Abdullah, K., Hussin, M.W., Zakaria, F., Muhamad, R. & Hamid, Z.A., 2006. POFA: A

potential partial cement replacement material in aerated concrete. In Proceedings of

the 6th Asia-Pacific structural engineering and construction conference (APSEC

2006), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 5-6.

ACI 308.1 (2011). Specification For Curing Concrete. American Concrete Institute-ACI

Committee, Detroit: ACI Committee.

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