ICPC Policy Brief

Human Security in Africas Great Lakes

Region

Njoki Wamai

2

Table of Contents

1. Summary................................................................................................................

2. Introduction..........................................................................................................4

3. Conceptual Framework on Human Security.....................................................7

4. Human Security Challenges in the Great Lakes Region.................................11

Small Arms and Light Weapons and the Youth Bulge ......................................12 Refugees and IDPs..............................................................................................13 Natural Resource Governance.............................................................................16 Food (in) Security, Public Health and Environmental

Security.................................................................................................................18 Violence Against Women.....................................................................................21 Corruption and Lack of Rule of Law...................................................................23

5. Policy Recommendations and Priority Areas

Conclusion...........................................................................................................24 The Role of ICPC ............................................................................................... 25

3

ABBREVIATIONS

AU Africa Union

CGLR Conference of the Great Lakes Region

DDR Disarmament, Demobilisation, Reintegration

DRC Democratic Republic of Congo

EAC East African Community

ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States

ICGLR International Conference of the Great Lakes Region

ICC International Criminal Court

ICPC International Centre for Policy and Conflict

IDPs Internally Displaced Persons

R2P Responsibility to Protect

SALW Small Arms and Light Weapons

TJRC Truth Justice and Reconciliation Commission

UNHDR United Nations Human Development Report

4

Introduction

Since the end of the Cold War, the Great Lakes Region(GLR) has recorded the

most vicious conflicts in Africa. These conflicts have not only threatened the

national security of states in the Great Lakes but worse still the human security

of the people in the region. After the Rwandan Genocide genocide initiated an

exodus of unprecendented refugees in the region in 1994, the GLR has come

from one crisis to another.

The series of crisis have attracted various responses from regional and

international organisations leading to the emergence of normative frameworks

for conflict prevention such as Responsibility to Protect (R2P) and increased

attention to the International Criminal Court (ICC) which are both critical in

protecting and promoting human security.However, despite these developments

the international community is faulted for failing to respond effectively leading

to a cycle of the conflicts in the region which have so far claimed three million

lives.1

According to Khadiagala the term Great Lakes was formely a geographical

space which encompassed fresh water lakes and their river basins in the African

tropics.2However, today the GLR has assumed an analytical category while

1 Conference of the Great Lakes Region website. 2 Khadiagala (2007) p.1

5

retaining its geographical reach that combines East and Central Africa.3 Security

actors have since set up institutions to address political, security and economic

relationships in the GLR such as the International Conference of the Great Lakes

Region(ICGLR). According to Khadiagala, the core states of the Great Lakes

which include DRC,Tanzania,Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi face similar

security challenges in addition to other sorrounding states such as Kenya,

Zambia, Angola and Central African Republic. The GLR challenges are

inextricably linked although each has its own unique challenges. Events in one

country invariably affect the others, and often the wider region.

The GLR unlike other regional security systems in Africa has had a difficult

regional integration process. The Communaute Economique Des Pays des

Grands Lacs, the premier organisation failed because it was an organisation

only in name centred around the former Zairean dictator Mobutu Seseko.When

Mobutu died the organisation died with him. A number of other regional

communities have since emerged with the Economic Community of Central

African States(ECCAS), East African Community (EAC) and the ICGLR being

the most notable.

The ICGLR organization is composed of eleven member states, namely:

Angola, Burundi, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Democratic

Republic of Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda,South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and 3 Ibid

6

Zambia.The ICGLR was launched in 1996 as a regional response to the

interconnected and transnational nature of protracted conflict and resulting

security challenges in several of the core countries of the Great Lakes region.

For the purpose of this policy brief, the core states referred to by Khadiagala

will be considered in addition to Kenya and Zambia. They include Burundi,

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),Uganda, Rwanda and Tanzania.This

policy brief attempts to identify the most pervasive human security challenges

in the region while identifying human security policy priorities which civil

society organisations such as the International Centre for Policy and

Conflict(ICPC) can partner with the ICGLR .

Specifically the policy brief seeks to answer the following questions.What is

human security? What are the most pervasive human security challenges in the

Great Lakes Region? What is the ICPCs role in addressing these security

challenges in concert with the regional security organisations? The next section

will now attempt to define the security concept while situating it within the

larger discourse on human security.

7

The Human Security Concept

According to the United Nations(UN) in its seminal United Nations Human

Development Report(UNHDR), human security means safety from chronic

threats such as hunger,disease and repression and protection from sudden and

harmful disruptions in the patterns of daily life.4Japan, Norway and Canada and

the World Bank have also embraced this concept in their foreign policies in

pursuit of freedom from want and freedom from fear.

The concept of human security makes human beings the referent for security

rather than states. According to Owen, human security and state security should

be symbiotic although he notes more often than not the states rights supersede

the individuals rights due to power imbalances between the two.5The state is an

important provider of human security though some states abuse their powers and

fail to provide the same security.Perhaps this scepticism among states especially

where their sovereignity is threatened informed the conspicous absence of

human security in the celebrated UN Report on High Level Panel on Threats,

Challenges and Change of 2004.6

Addtionally, the human security concept embraces new issues security

challenges such as food insecurity, climate change, epidemics,organised crime

and other vulnerabilities and threats to human beings into the security realm. 4Bellamy and McDonald (2002),P.375 5 Owen (2008),p.449 6 Owen (2008),p.451

8

This broad defination has led to the argument by critics that the concept is too

broad to be a useful construct for security and for foreign policy. These critics

see this new approach as one that will replace traditional approaches such as

national security. For instance, Roland Paris has argued that human security

should be seen as an analytical category as opposed to a concept. He criticises

the human security concept for lacking defined analytical categories. According

to Paris, human security is a category of research into military and non-military

threats into societies, groups and individuals.7

Other critics have concerns that securitizing new security challenges such as

food insecurity, pandemics and natural disasters or migration, for example, may

have unintended consequences that do more harm than good.8They have also

argued that diluting the security concept and dissipating its meaning raises

questions about the future role for traditional security forces. 9Additionally,

there are competing definitions of human security and there is no agreement on

how best to implement the concept.10

Despite the conceptual challenges presented by the human security concept, this

concept continues to generate interest among analysts and citizens especially in

the GLR in Africa where it finds resonance. 7 Paris (2001) p.87-102 8 Freedman (1998 ) p. 50 9Ibid 10Ibid p. 87-102

9

Annan has argued that human security in its broadest sense,embraces far more

than the absence of violent conflict.It encompasses human rights, access to

education, healthcare and good governance and choices for every undividual to

fulfil his os her own potential.11

King and Murray have adopted multidimensional accounts of human security

that measure years lived outside a state of generalised poverty.12They have

argued that human security should be a measure of only those domains of

wellbeing that are important enough for human beings to fight over and put

their lives or property at great risk. 13

Thomas and Tow have argued that the human security approach has three

interlocking features.First, it recognises transnational threats and the role of

international norms. Second it asserts that states and individuals confronting

such vulnerabilites cannot address them adequately and thirdly, there is need for

a transnational approach through mobilisation of international civil society.14

Bellamy and McDonald have contested Thomas and Tows arguments that the

state and the international community should be the referent point for human

security. Bellamy and McDonald argue that a human security agenda has three

components. First, it must focus on the things that makes humans insecure such

11Annan(2000) Press Release 12 King and Murray (2001-2002) p.592 13 Ibid p.593 14Thomas and Tow (2002),p.178

10

as lack of food. The UNHDR provides seven sources of insecurity which

include:housing, healthcare, sanitation, food, political participation, protection

from persecution and clothing. Second, the role of the state in fulfilling and

protecting individuals security should also be interrogated.Thirdly,they argue

that the human security agenda can only be relevant if it is based on its ability to

interrogate, evaluate and criticise the practices that make people insecure.

The most conclusive defination of human security in this briefs opinion is by

Sabina Alkire. According to Alkire, the objective of human security is to

safeguard the vital core of all human lives from critical pervasive threats without

impeding long term human fulfilment.15Although the two are mutually

exclusive, human security is different from state security which is concerned

with a territorial unit and the people who dwell within it while human security

addresses that of people and groups. The next section will look at other inter

related concepts.

Human Security and Human Development

Human Development like human security is both multidimensional and people

centred. Alkire argues that human development is broader than human security

15 Alkire (2003) p.8

11

since it aims to ensure that individuals in their homes and communities

flourish.16

In contrast they differ as far as focus is concerned according to Alkire. While

human development focuses on the growth with equity, human security focuses

on making people secure. Additionally, human security is preemptive and both

short-term and long-term while human development is long term.17

Human Security and Human Rights

The concept of human security and human rights are inextricably connected

since both attempt to identify a core of fundamental human rights which

should be respected, protected and fulfilled.

However, since human security focuses on vital and pervasive threats it may not

prioritise all human rights equally as the human rights concept does.

Additionally, when it comes to implementing these rights different insititutions

will prioritise some rights compared to others as noted elsewhere.18The next

section reviews the most vital and pervasive threats that threaten human security

in the Great Lakes region. These include:ploriferation of small arms and light

weapons (SALW) and the youth bulge, refugees and internally displaced

persons (IDPs), natural resource exploitation, food insecurity and environmental

16 Ibid.p.6 17 Ibid 18 See Alkire and Abass

12

degradation, public health challenges, women rights violation, corruption and

lack of the rule of law.

1. Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) and Youth Bulge

Although accurate figures are hard to obtain, it is estimated that 100 million

small arms exist in Africa, especially around the Horn which includes Somalia,

Ethiopia, Southern Sudan and the Great Lakes Region.19

SALW is a human security challenge in the GLR because its interaction with

other security challenges such food insecurity, corruption and governance

challenges and the youth bulge leads to armed conflict and ultimately other

security challenges. Youth bulge is a youth crisis that results from an increase in

youthful population without corresponding socio-economic and political

opportunities for youth resulting to exclusion which can trigger conflict where

grievances exist.

Ploriferation of SALW in the GLR can be traced to a number of factors in the

region. First, the prolonged humanitarian crisis in the region from the Sudan

Wars of Liberation to seven military coups in Uganda, intrastate conflict with

the Lords Resistance Army, the Rwandan Genocide, Burundian Civil War and

conflicts in the DRC have all increased availability of illegal SALW.

Additionally, inadequate and ineffective Disarmament, Demobilisation and

19 Mbugua (2007),p.5

13

Reintregration(DDR) progammes in the region have failed to address this

security challenge.

Second, pastoral communities in the region own SALW due to lack of state

capacity and consequent protection in the borderlands. This has turned cattle

rustling into a deadly confrontation between communities in Kenya, Sudan,

Ethiopia, Uganda, DRC and Zambia. Similary in urban areas,weak state capacity

and corruption has exacerbated insecurity and crime in the region as citizens

turn to illegal firearms for protection.

Third, state failure in Somalia and its sorrounding porous borders provided

SALW for the region. During Siad Barres regime, many citizens were in

possession of small arms as the former dictator urged them to stockpile for

armed struggle in creating a greater Somalia. After the fall of his regime and

demise of the Somalia state, the SALW found ready market in the GLR through

Kenyas porous and corruption infested borders.

Fourth, low human development and the youth bulge has also led to increased

crime as youths acquire guns as a source of livelihood to commit various crimes

such as robberies, hijackings,burglaries, drug trafficking, gang-related violence,

money laundering and cattle rustling.

14

SALW has led to diversion of development funds such as health care and

education to equipping police to fight crime in the Great Lakes region. 20

By managing the GLR porous borders effectively, implementing DDR

programmes, reducing poverty, crime and corruption the availability of SALW

in the region can be countered. The Nairobi Protocol For The Prevention,

Control and Reduction of Small Arms And Light Weapons in the Great Lakes

Region and the Horn of Africa of 2004, is a policy framework which civil

society should hold governments accountable to.

Additionally, increased opportunities for youth in the GLR while considering

the gendered dimension in education, employment and political participation

will reduce the likelihood of excluded youth constituting a pool for recruits in

armed conflicts and terrorist networks which threaten to continue the cycle of

insecurity in the region.

2. Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons as a Human Security

Challenge

The Great Lakes Region has the largest population of displaced people and

refugees in Africa. The region with eleven member states hosts 2 million

refugees and 10 million IDPs.21 These influx of people in the region especially

20 Ibid 21 Bernstein and Bueno (2007) p.73

15

in the early nineties was as a result of failed governance in many states which

led to catastrophic results such as the Rwandan genocide.

The challenging issue of refugees in the GLR can be traced back to the 1950s

when the Tusti refugees fled persection and war in Rwanda for Uganda . In the

1990s, Tutsi and modertate Hutus fled again after persectuion by the Hutu

leadership and later Hutu refugees fled Rwanda due to fear of reprisal attacks

from genocidaires. The Hutu refugees who fled to Goma in Eastern DRC and

Tanzania were intimidated by the Hutu genocidaires and militants who fled with

them.

Refugees and IDPs raise a number of security threats to the host country and to

the the refugees themselves. According to Mills and Norton, refugees impact on

three types of security: Human security, societal security and national security of

the host country.

Firstly, refugees have had a profound impact on state security in the great lakes

region. As earlier noted state security or national security is about territorial

integrity, political autonomy, internal stability and economic wellbeing. Refugee

populations may harbour rebels leaders who continue to plunder and instigate

armed conflict in the host country as evident in Eastern DRC where former Hutu

genocidaires patnered with local rebel causing insecurity.

16

Secondly, human insecurity is the motivation for the refugee crisis since people

become refugees when they fear for their personal safety.22 Displacement also

makes people vulnerable to other humans security threats such as lack of access

to food, healthcare,water, shelter,lack legal and physical protection from

physical violence and sexual violence. Rwandese refugees suffered many

threats to human security including persecution from the genocidaires who

instilled fear in them. May refugee populations such as those in Daadab in

Kenya continue to face these challenges.

Thirdly, refugees have had effects on regional security in the great lakes with

increased stress on food security , energy security and social welfare in the

regions poor states. Increased terrorist attacks in Kenya and Uganda from

extremists who are thought to sometimes reside among refugee populations also

shows the regional security challenges posed by this human security

challenge.The region should implement the celebrated Great Lakes Protocol on

Internally Displaced Persons.

3. Natural Resource Exploitation as a Human Security Challenge

Mismanagement of natural resources causes insecurity in communities whose

natural resources are supposed to benefit them. Alao has identified a number of

human security issues that emerge from natural resource mismanagement such

22 Mills and Norton (2007),p.13

17

as acrimonius group relations , corruption, youth vulnerablity and exclusion and

civil wars. 23

Similary Kameri Mbote argues that natural resources influence conflicts in

three ways. First, as sources of the conflict when ownership of natural resources

is contested due to conflicting land systems such as customary and modern

laws.24Additionally, natural resources become a source of conflict when

productive land is isolated for extraction of natural resources by the government

or multinationals threatening the human security of those that depended on the

land for food.

Second, natural resources sustain conflict by providing financial resources for

rebl groups and the government during conflict. For instance, the Banyamulenge

a faction in the DRC financed itself with continued extraction of Coltan in the

Kivu province with repurcusions on peace and human security since they

abandoned the peace proccess.

Third, natural resources have been used to end conflicts by rewarding different

factions to persuade them to consider alternative livelihoods as the Lome Peace

Process in Sierra Leone did. However, the peace process was not sustainable and

there is need to focus on the structural causes of the violence.

23 Alao (2010),p.103 24 Kameri-Mbote( )p.7

18

The DRC is the couldron of human security challenges in the GLR. After the

end of the Cold War, the local and international groups descended on an

unstable DRC, with interests in its natural resources. Alao notes that at one stage

there were up to ten interrelated conflicts simultenously taking place in

DRC.25These include:DRC government vs assorted rebels groups;Rwandan

government vs Rwandese insurgents; Rwandan government vs DRC

government;the Ugandan government vs Sudanese supported rebels; the

Ugandan and Rwandan government vs Zimbabwean and Angolan governments;

Ugandan government vs Rwandese government; Rwandan government backed

DRC rebels vs Ugandan backed DRC rebels; Burundian government vs

Burudian rebel factions; Angola government vs UNITA and any group

supporting UNITA; the Mai Mai elements vs Rwandan government and the

RCD ( Rally for the Congolese Democracy); the Sudanese government vs

Ugandan government. Although a peace process championed by Mbeki in 2003

restored relative stability, the country is yet to attain sustainable peace and

achieve human security.

Although processes like the Kimblerly Process and the Extractive Industry

Transparency Iniatiative (EITI) have been introduced as international policy

initiatives to address human security concerns, stability of the country and the

region rests with improved governance at national and regional level.The next

25 Ibid ,110

19

section reviews food security,public health and environmental security as a

human security challenge.

4. Food Insecurity, Public Health and Environmental Degradation as a

Human Security Challenge

Civil strife and lack of governance in the GLR have exacerbated food insecurity

in the region by eroding farming bystems and rural livelihoods. 85% of the

population in the GLR depends on agriculture for their livelihoods. Apart from

Kenya which constantly suffers draughts and famine, the GLR has fertile soils

which attract migrants to the region.

The region has so far recorded one of the highest population densities in the

world in Rwanda and Burundi. Armed conflict has also led to increased

population in the region with Rwanda leading with 600 people per square

kilometer.26The high population density in the GLR has increased vulnerability

to environmental security challenges as the number of people depending on

scarce resources for food, housing and energy increases through practices such

as deforestation.

The Great Lakes Declaration on Peace, Security and Democracy identifies

evironmental security as a challenge of the GLR and proposes equitable and

26 Bantekas Ilas (2010),p.51

20

well managed land reform programmes which can enable food security and

arrest resource scarcity conflicts.

Despite improving health conditions in the Great Lakes region, the region faces

a desperate humanitarian crisis and most countries in the region have the

greatest maternal and child mortality rates. Additionally, HIV/Aids among other

sexually transmitted infections is highly prevalent partly due to the transient

nature of IDPs and refugees in the region in addition to sexual violence which

many women and children face during armed conflict.

The advent of HIV/Aids in the region has exacerbated household food insecurity

in affected households.27 In 2000 alone, 18 million people died from disease as

compared to 300,000 who died from conflicts.28Threats such as HIV/Aids have

killed more people more than conflicts since the end of the Cold War, yet few

states and international organisations have accepted public health concerns as a

security challenge.29The GLR has some of the leading prevalence rates of HIV

in world. These are: Kenya (6.3%), Uganda (6.5%), Rwanda (2.9%), Burundi

( 3.3%), Zambia (13.5%) and Tanzania (5.6%) all 2009 estimates from the

CIA.The next section will review how certain groups of the population face

human security challenges.

27 Ibid 28 Owen (2008),p.446 29 Owen (2008),p.447

21

5. Violence Against Women

Women in the great lakes region face multiple types of discrimation either

socially, economically or politically. Politically, little progress has been made

except in Rwanda and Uganda where womens representation in parliament

accounts for 48.8% and 33% respectively.30

Despite the significant achievements made in the quest for gender equality

through norm setting such as the ratification of the Convention on Elimination

of all Forms of Discrimination against Women(CEDAW) and the Womens

Protocol to the Africans Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, women in the

GLR continue to face gross human rights violations and ultimately their human

security is threatened. For instance, during armed conflict rebel groups and

national armies use rape as a weapon of war, prompting the UN to pass Security

Council Resolution 1820 which identifies sexual violence as a crime against

humanity.

Apart from discrimination based on sex and the consequent threats to their

human security, women in the great lakes region experience discrimination

based on economic status, ethnic group, birth, age, disability, marital status,

30 CIA Fact Book 2009

22

refugee or migrant status which results to multiple disadvantages as noted

elsewhere.31These compounding of rights violations has increased vulnerability

to other human security challenges for women. For instance,women refugees in

the DRC lack access to Anti-Retroviral Therapy(ART) and have challenges

accessing servies offered in the Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission

(PMCT) in the HIV Programme.32

Similary, discrimination of women within customary law is rampant in the Great

Lakes region especially in the areas of citizenship, inheritance, marriage and

divorce which threatens the human security of women. For instance the

Zambian constitutional court in the Longwe case, where a woman was denied

entry into a hotel because she was unaccompanied shows that discrimination of

women based on citizenship is common in the GLR.33Additionally, other courts

in Uganda and Kenya have ruled to prevent discrimination of women based on

cultural practices such as inheritance.

States should ensure traditional, historic, religious and cultural attitudes are not

used to justify violations of womens right to equality before the law and to

equal enjoyment of rights as noted by the Human Rights Council.

31 Ssenyonjo(2010),p. 176 32 Ibid.p.193 33 Ibid. P.209

23

6.Corruption as a Threat to Human Security

Corruption is a leading human security challenge in the GLR. Various reasons

such as weak political institutions and poor wages have been identified as the

causes of corruption.

Corruption has various effects. First, it leads to poverty and underdevelopment.

An estimated US20 billion is lost to corruption every year in Africa.34 Secondly,

corruption undermines democractic governance in society. Thirdly, corruption is

a threat to the human security when funds meant for improving livelihoods in

public health, infrastructure development and food security are siphoned for

private gain. In dire cases political and economic corruption has triggered

conflict which has led to loss of lives as the Kenyan and Zimbabwean electoral

malpractice shows.

The main forms of corruption in the region include: Bribery, embezzlement,

fraud, abuse of office, nepotism and other forms of abuse of office.Pervasive

corruption is a great challenge in the GLR especially in Kenya,

Uganda,Tanzania, Burundi and the DRC, which has led to loss of millions of

lives through electrol malpractice and embezzlements of development funds.

34 Durojaye(2010),p. 219

24

Conclusion

This policy brief has identified the most pervasive human security threats in the

GLR. These include Small Arms and Light Weapons and the Youth Bulge,

Refugees and IDPs, Natural Resource Governance, Food (in) Security, Public

Health and Environmental Security,Violence Against Women, Corruption and

Lack of Rule of Law.

These different security challenges call for different yet interconnected and

regional policy priorities for effectiveness. For instance, implementation of

regional policies on IDPs or SALW should accompany improved governance

and zero tolerance to corruption while arresting impunity.

There is need for increased vigilance and partnership within civil society in the

GLR if the human security challenges presented are to be addressed. ICPC and

other civil society organisations can assist the GLR states in various

peacebuilding priorities which include accountability for human security

friendly policies and norms. Though suggestions can be made on policy

priorities, the ICPC is best suited to determine its policy direction within its

human security programme based on its strategic priorities and resource

constraints. That being said, the brief has made some suggestions below:

25

Addressing Youth SALW and Youth Bulge

ICPC could encourage regional organisations such as ICGLR and GL

states to implement gender sensititve DDR programmes through

increased monitoring and training of the five post conflict states.

ICPC can hold states accountable on the implementation of the Nairobi

Protocol For The Prevention, Control and Reduction of Small Arms And

Light Weapons in the Great Lakes Region and the Horn of Africa of

2004.

ICPC could also promote labour intensive works schemes to reduce the

youth bulge in the region while initiating a youth policy dialogue in the

region that addresses youth challenges from a gendered and

multidimensional perspective.

Refugees and IDPS

ICPC should work with other stakeholders in the region to promote

implementation of the celebrated Great Lakes Protocol on Internally

Displaced Persons.

ICPC should also join other stakeholders in developing a refugee policy

and using it to demand accountability from GLR states.

26

Governance, Corruption and Rule of Law

The Great Lake states should implement the AUs Convention on

Corruption while encouraging consitutionalism to end impunity with

increased vigilance from civil society.

Civil society organisations such as ICPC should assess the extent that

states in the GLR have systems to arrest corruption. ICPC can also

produce a corruption index for the GLR.

ICPC should encourage the GLR states to employ transitional justice

mechanisms which are victim centred to address economic crimes.These

can include trials, TJRCs, vetting, reparations and traditional justice

mechanisms.

Natural Resource Exploitation

On natural resources, ICPC could lobby the great lakes states to join the

Extractive Industry Transparency Act (EITA) while educating citizens on

the linkages between natural resource governance and corruption to

enable them hold their governments accountable.

ICPC should also encourage the eleven states that are part of the Pact on

Security, Stability and Development in the Great Lakes Region to

27

implement this protocol that has instituted a regional certification system

for Coltan,Cassiterite, Coltan,Wolframite and Gold.

Violence Against Women

Encourage the ICGLR states to ensure reporting and prosecution of

sexual offences and set up gender desks with trained police officers.ICPC

should also lobby the regional ICGLR to make punishments for sexual

violence harsher.

Gender sensitive transtional justice mechanisms and processes should be

instituted for sexual violence among other violations faced by women in

the region. Individual and communal reparations should be encouraged

for women who have suffered.

Lobby the great Lakes Forum on Peace (AMANI Forum), which is

comprised of parliamentarians in the region to pass laws that will end

violence against women such Sexual Offences Acts while domesticating

the Maputo Protocol.

28

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