Human Body Systems

Unit 1: Identity

Directional TermsGeneral, directional terms are grouped in pairs of opposites

based on the standard position.

• Superior and inferior. Superior means above, inferior means below. The elbow is superior (above) to the hand. The foot is inferior (below) to the knee.

• Anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal). Anterior means toward the front (chest side) of the body, posterior means toward the back.

• Medial and Lateral. Medial means toward the midline of the body, lateral means away from the midline.

• Proximal and distal. Proximal means closest to the point of origin or trunk of the body, distal means farthest. Often used when describing arms and legs. If you were describing the shin bone, the proximal end would be the end close to the knee and the distal end would be the end close to the foot.

• Superficial and deep. Superficial means toward the body surface, deep means farthest from the body surface.

Directional Terms

Regional Terms

• o  Abdominal: Abdomen

• o  Antecubital: Front of Elbow

• o  Axillary: Armpit 

• o  Brachial: Arm

• o  Buccal: Cheek

• o  Calcaneal : Heal

• o  Carpal: Wrist

• o  Cephalic: Head

• o  Cervical: Neck

• o  Coxal: Hip

• o  Digital: Fingers

• o  Femoral: Thigh

• o  Gluteal: Buttocks

• o  Inguinal: Groin

o Lumbar: Lower spineo  Nasal: Noseo  Occipital: Back of heado  Olecranal: Behind the elbow jointo  Oral: Moutho  Orbital: Eyeo  Patellar: Kneeo  Pelvic: Pelvis o  Popliteal: Back of kneeo  Sacral: area of spine containing sacrum and coccyxo  Scapular: Shoulderso  Sternal: Breast Boneo  Tarsal: Ankle o  Thoracic: Chest/Upper backo  Umbilical: Belly buttono  Vertebral : Back

Regional Terms

Tissues

Epithelial tissues • are widespread throughout the body

• they form the covering of all body surfaces,

• line body cavities and hollow organs

• are the major tissue in glands

• perform a variety of functions that include protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception

Connective tissues

• bind structures together• form a framework • support for organs and the body as a

whole• store fat • transport substances • protect against disease• help repair tissue damage

Muscle Tissue• composed of cells that have the

special ability to shorten or contract in order to produce movement of the body parts

• highly cellular and is well supplied with blood vessels

• the cells are long and slender so they are sometimes called muscle fibers

• are usually arranged in bundles or layers that are surrounded by connective tissue

• Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle tissue.

Nervous tissue• found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves• responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities

•stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning

•cells in nervous tissue need to be able to communicate with each other by way of electrical nerve impulses

Using Bone Features for Identity

•Specialists called forensic anthropologists are trained to analyze the secrets locked in a bone’s shape and structure and can use this information to help solve crimes, trace human origins, or identify those who have gone missing.•Forensic anthropologists use a combination of quantitative and qualitative measures to predict traits from bone.•Anthropologists can help identify a deceased from his or her skeletal remains bearing characteristics of ancestry, sex, stature, age and trauma.

Using Bone Features for Identity

•Sex: Pelvis, skull, femur, tibia, humerus•Race: Skull•Height: femur, tibia, humerus,•Age: pelvis, femur, tibia, humerus

DNA

• Double helix• Carries genetic

information• Sugar/phosphate

backbone• Sugar:

deoxyribose• Bases: adenine,

guanine, cytosine, thymine

• Base pairing: A with T and C with G

PCR

Polymerase Chain Reaction

• Denaturation: At 94 C (201.2 F), the double-stranded DNA melts and opens into two pieces of single-stranded DNA.

• Annealing: At medium temperatures, around 54 C (129.2 F), the primers pair up (anneal) with the single-stranded "template" (The template is the sequence of DNA to be copied.) On the small length of double-stranded DNA (the joined primer and template), the taq polymerase attaches and starts copying the template.

• Extension: At 72 C (161.6 F), the taq polymerase works best, and DNA building blocks complementary to the template are coupled to the primer, making a double stranded DNA molecule.

Restriction enzymes• an enzyme that cuts DNA at specific

recognition nucleotide sequences • Such enzymes, found in bacteria are

thought to have evolved to provide a defense mechanism against invading viruses.

• Your specific code determines the number of times this set of scissors will snip and the number and size of DNA pieces that will be left behind.

• These pieces can then be separated and compared using the process of gel electrophoresis.

• As these fragments move, their varying lengths propel them through the gel at different speeds.

• Scientists can use these RFLPs, Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms, a set of DNA puzzle pieces unique to only you, to create a pattern called a DNA fingerprint.

Unit 2: Communication   

CNS and PNS

• Central nervous system: composed of the brain and spinal cord. Your brain and spinal cord serve as the main "processing center" for the entire nervous system, and control all the workings of your body.

• Peripheral nervous system: The portion of the nervous system that is outside the brain and spinal cord. Connects and sends messages to CNS.

Brain Regions• Occipital lobe: processes vision

• Temporal lobe: processes language

• Parietal lobe: processes touch (hands, fingers, face, lips)

• Frontal lobe: specialized in planning and voluntary

movement, paying attention, interpreting our emotions

and social situations

• Cerebral cortex: houses the four lobes of the brain; two

hemispheres; most complex thinking: remembering an

interpreting emotions

• Limbic system :satisfying biological needs, reproduction,

and emotion, memory

• Hypothalamus: hunger, thirst, sex drive

• Pituitary gland: cycles of consciousness thalamus

processes all sensory information to cerebral cortex

• Hippocampus: formation and storage of new memories

• Amygdala : processes associations between unpleasant

emotions and memory for those emotions

• Basal ganglia: group of neurons working together to

help plan and produce movement (Parkinson's)

• Medulla : controls basic autonomic functions like

circulation, breathing, digestion

• Pons: relay station from hindbrain to cerebral cortex

• Cerebellum: coordination of motor function

• Brainstem : lowest part of brain; basics of life support,

and neurons that control sensory/motor skills

Neurons• Sensory neuron: a

neuron conducting impulses inwards to the brain or spinal cord

• Association neuron: neurons found in the brain and spinal cord that conduct impulses between neurons

• Motor neuron: a neuron that conveys impulses from the central nervous system to a muscle, gland, or other effector tissue

Action PotentialResting Potential

Depolarization

Repolarization

Return to Resting Potential

Na+/K+ pump

Hormones

• Any one of the many circulating chemical signals found in all multicellular organisms that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and coordinate the various parts of the organism by interacting with target cells.

• Hormones are secreted by tissues in the body referred to as glands.

• Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream while exocrine glands secrete hormones into ducts, or passageways, before they reach their target.

• The endocrine system, works with the nervous system to regulate and control all the actions of the human machine.

Endocrine System• Endocrine System : The glands and parts of glands that produce endocrine

secretions, help to integrate and control bodily metabolic activity, and include especially the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, islets of Langerhans, ovaries, and testes.

• Endocrine Gland : A gland (as the thyroid or the pituitary) that produces an endocrine secretion -- called also ductless gland, gland of internal secretion.

• Exocrine Gland : A gland (as a sweat gland, a salivary gland, or a kidney) that releases a secretion external to or at the surface of an organ by means of a canal or duct.

• Glucagon : A protein hormone that is produced especially by the pancreatic islets of Langerhans and that promotes an increase in the sugar content of the blood by increasing the rate of breakdown of glycogen in the liver.

• Insulin :A vertebrate hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by promoting the uptake of glucose by most body cells and the synthesis and storage of glycogen in the liver.

Endocrine System Cont.

• Hypothalamus : The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors, which regulate the anterior pituitary.

• Pituitary gland : An endocrine gland at the base of the hypothalamus; consists of a posterior lobe, which stores and releases two hormones produced by the hypothalamus, and an anterior lobe, which produces and secretes many hormones that regulate diverse body functions.

Negative feedback loop - The body senses an internal change and activates mechanisms that reverse, or negate, that change.

• body temperature regulationPositive feedback loop - a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that accelerate or increase that change

• blood clotting

Hormone Imbalance and Feedback Loops

Hormone Imbalance and Feedback Loops (insulin)

Hormone Imbalance and Feedback Loops (thyroid)

The Eye

The Eye• Accommodation : The automatic adjustment of the eye for seeing at

different distances affected chiefly by changes in the convexity of the crystalline lens.

• Astigmatism : A defect of an optical system (as a lens) causing rays from a point to fail to meet in a focal point resulting in a blurred and imperfect image.

• Blind spot: The small circular area in the retina where the optic nerve enters the eye that is devoid of rods and cones and is insensitive to light.

• Cone : Any of the conical photosensitive receptor cells of the vertebrate retina that function in color vision.

• Cornea: The transparent part of the coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and pupil and admits light to the interior.

• Depth Perception : The ability to judge the distance of objects and the spatial relationship of objects at different distances.

• Hyperopia: A condition in which visual images come to a focus behind the retina of the eye and vision is better for distant than for near objects -- called also farsightedness.

The Eye

• Iris : The opaque muscular contractile diaphragm that is suspended in the aqueous humor in front of the lens of the eye, is perforated by the pupil and is continuous peripherally with the ciliary body, has a deeply pigmented posterior surface which excludes the entrance of light except through the pupil and a colored anterior surface which determines the color of the eyes.

• Lens : A curved piece of glass or plastic used singly or combined in eyeglasses or an optical instrument (as a microscope) for forming an image by focusing rays of light.

• Myopia : A condition in which the visual images come to a focus in front of the retina of the eye because of defects in the refractive media of the eye or of abnormal length of the eyeball resulting especially in defective vision of distant objects -- called also nearsightedness.

• Optic nerve: Either of the pair of sensory nerves that comprise the second pair of cranial nerves, arise from the ventral part of the diencephalon, form an optic chiasma before passing to the eye and spreading over the anterior surface of the retina, and conduct visual stimuli to the brain.

• Pupil: The opening in the iris, which admits light into the interior of the vertebrate eye; muscles in the iris regulate its size.

• Refraction: The deflection from a straight path undergone by a light ray or a wave of energy in passing obliquely from one medium (as air) into another (as water or glass) in which its velocity is different.

• Retina : The sensory membrane that lines most of the large posterior chamber of the vertebrate eye, is composed of several layers including one containing the rods and cones, and functions as the immediate instrument of vision by receiving the image formed by the lens and converting it into chemical and nervous signals which reach the brain by way of the optic nerve.

• Rod :Any of the long rod-shaped photosensitive receptors in the retina responsive to faint light.

The Eye: Focusing Light

• Light rays enter the eye through the cornea.

• The iris works like a shutter in a camera.

• After passing through the iris, the light rays pass thru the eye's natural crystalline lens.

• Light rays pass through a dense, transparent gel-like substance, called the vitreous that fills the globe of the eyeball and helps the eye hold its spherical shape.

• In a normal eye, the light rays come to a sharp focusing point on the retina.

• The retina's functions much like the film in a camera. It is responsible for capturing all of the light rays, processing them into light impulses through millions of tiny nerve endings, then sending these light impulses through over a million nerve fibers to the optic nerve. 

Unit 3: Power   

Digestive System• Digestion: allows your body to get the

nutrients and energy it needs from the food you eat

• Mouth: mechanical digestion, salivary amylase starts protein breakdown

• Esophagus: peristalsis pushes food down tube

• Stomach: holds food while being mixed with enzymes to help with digestion

• Small intestine: most digestion occurs here, absorption of nutrients

• Pancreas: secretes digestive enzymes• Liver: produces bile to help digest fat• Gall bladder: stores bile• Large intestine: responsible for

processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and convenient (water reabsorption)

Enzymes

• Salivary amylase: starches and carbohydrates

• Pepsin: proteins• Pancreatic amylase: starches and

carbohydrates• Lipases: fats• Proteases: proteins

Enzymes

• Catalysts• facilitates or helps a

reaction to occur more readily by reducing the energy required for the reaction to occur

• Lock and Key model• Induced Fit model• Substrate• Active Sites

ATP

Respiratory System

Respiratory System

• Alveoli :Terminal air sacs that constitute the gas exchange surface of the lungs.

• Bronchi: Pair of breathing tubes that branch from the trachea into the lungs.

• Minute Volume: The volume of air breathed in one minute without conscious effort. Minute volume = Tidal Volume x (breaths/minute)

• Residual Volume: The volume of air remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation.

• Spirometer: An instrument for measuring the air entering and leaving the lungs.

• Tidal Volume: The volume of air breathed in and out without conscious effort.

• Vital Capacity: The total volume of air that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation.

Gas Exchange• Gas exchange is the process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide

(the respiratory gases) move in opposite directions across an organism's respiratory membranes, between the air or water of the external environment and the body fluids of the internal environment.

• The net diffusion of a substance occurs because of a difference in its concentration, or gradient.

• Within an animal's body, as oxygen is used up and carbon dioxide produced, the concentration gradient of the two gases provides the direction for their diffusion.

• As air or water nears the respiratory membrane, the oxygen concentration on the outside of the membrane is higher than on the internal side so oxygen diffuses inward

• The concentration gradient for carbon dioxide is in the opposite direction, and so net diffusion of carbon dioxide keeps it diffusing out of the body.

Urinary SystemThe role of the kidneys is to maintain homeostasis by controlling the chemical composition of the blood. The kidneys do this by:

Removing waste products from the bloodLeaving nutrients such as proteins and glucose in the bloodMaintaining the acid-base balanceRegulating water and electrolyte balance

Urinary System

Urinalysis

• A test that determines the content of the urine.

• Macroscopic Examination: Color and clarity

• Chemical analysis: pH, specific gravity, protein content, glucose content, ketone content

• Microscopic Examination: red blood cells, white blood cells, epithelial cells, crystals, bacteria

Unit 4: Movement  

Joints

Joints

• Abduction: Movement away from the midline of the body

• Adduction : Movement toward the midline off the body

• Circumduction: A movement at a synovial joint in which the distal end of the bone moves in a circle while the proximal end remains relatively stable

• Dorsiflexion : Bending the foot in the direction of the dorsum (upper surface)

• Extension: An unbending movement around a joint in a limb (as the knee or elbow) that increases the angle between the bones of the limb at the joint

• Flexion : A bending movement around a joint in a limb (as the knee or elbow) that decreases the angle between the bones of the limb at the joint

• Plantar flexion: Bending the foot in the direction of the plantar surface (sole)

• Range of Motion: The range through which a joint can be moved

• Rotation : Moving a bone around its own axis, with no other movement

MusclesType of Muscle Striations Voluntary Location in

bodyFunction in body

Skeletal Y Y Skeletal muscles

Movement of body

Smooth N N Hollow organs and blood vessels

Move substances within the body

Cardiac Y N Heart Contract heart

Muscle

Muscle contraction

Arteries vs. VeinsArteries Veins

Direction of Blood Flow: Oxygenated blood from the heart to various parts of the body.

Deoxygenated blood from various parts of the body to the heart.

Anatomy: Thick, elastic muscle layer that can handle high pressure of the blood flowing through the arteries.

Thin, elastic muscle layer with semilunar valves that prevent the blood from flowing in the opposite direction.

Overview: Arteries are red blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.

Veins are blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart.

Oxygen Concentration: Arteries carry oxygenated blood (with the exception of the pulmonary artery).

Veins carry deoxygenated blood (with the exception of pulmonary veins).

Arteries vs. Veins vs. Capillaries

• Capillaries are the smallest of all blood vessels and form the connection between veins and arteries.

• Capillaries have very thin walls comprised only of endothelial cells, which allows substances to move through the wall with ease.

• Main function of capillaries is gas exchange

Varicose Veins

Blood Flow

Cardiac Output

• The volume of blood ejected from the left side of the heart in one minute.

• Changes in heart rate influence the amount of blood that is pumped to our tissues.

• Changes in cardiac output often signal disease of the heart.

• Factors such as exercise and heart damage both affect the movement of blood in your body and, consequently, can impact cardiac output.

ABI (ankle brachial index)

• The ABI is a painless measurement that evaluates the circulation in your legs.

• the doctor listens to the flow of blood and measures the blood pressure in both the arms and the feet

• Normally, these two pressures should be about equal.

• A significantly lower pressure in the ankle usually indicates that there is a problem with blood flow in the legs.

• Peripheral artery disease: A form of peripheral vascular disease in which there is partial or total blockage of an artery, usually one leading to a leg or arm.

• Peripheral vascular disease : Vascular disease affecting blood vessels outside of the heart and especially those vessels supplying the extremities.

Energy and Motion – Exercise Physiology   Vocab

• Aerobic: Containing oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that requires oxygen

• Anabolic steroids: Any of a group of usually synthetic hormones that are derivatives of testosterone, are used medically especially to promote tissue growth, and are sometimes abused by athletes to increase the size and strength of their muscles and improve endurance

• Anaerobic: Lacking oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that lacks oxygen and may be poisoned by it

• Blood Doping: A technique for temporarily improving athletic performance in which oxygen-carrying red blood cells previously withdrawn from an athlete are injected back just before an event

• Cellular respiration: The most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway for the production of ATP, in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel

• Creatine phosphate: A compound of creatine and phosphoric acid that is found especially in vertebrate muscle where it is an energy source for muscle contraction

• Erythropoietin : A hormonal substance that is formed especially in the kidney and stimulates red blood cell formation

• Glycogen : A highly branched polymer of glucose containing thousands of subunits; functions as a compact store of glucose molecules in liver and muscle fibers

• Lactic acid : An organic acid present in blood and muscle tissue as a product of the anaerobic metabolism of glucose and glycogen

• Muscle Fatigue: Inability of muscle to maintain its strength of contraction or tension; may be related to insufficient oxygen, depletion of glycogen, and/or lactic acid buildup

Exercise and ATP• For your muscles -- in fact, for every cell in your body -- the source of

energy that keeps everything going is called ATP. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the biochemical way to store and use energy.

• The body has access to two different types of energy systems: anaerobic and aerobic.

• Anaerobic: It uses a substance called creatine phosphate (CP) to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is located in our muscles and is the body's main energy source, allowing us to move and function

• The body's long-term energy source is aerobic in nature, meaning the presence of oxygen is necessary. This energy system relies on the chemical breakdown of muscle glycogen, blood glucose, plasma-free fatty acids and stored intramuscular fats to produce ATP.

• Many activities involve a mix of both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems

• The more intense an activity and the closer it is to your maximum work output, the greater the amount of energy that is derived from anaerobic sources as opposed to aerobic energy systems used with sub-maximal activities.

Unit 5: Protection

Skin

Skin

• The skin is a living, functioning organ that plays a key role in maintaining the body’s homeostasis.

• The skin protects the human body, but it also allows humans to connect with the outside world.

• The skin is composed of two main layers, the epidermis and the dermis, and contains accessory organs such as sweat glands and hair follicles.

• The skin is a dynamic organ that functions in protection, temperature regulation, sensation, excretion and absorption in the human body.

• Burn damage to skin can impact numerous body functions and body systems.

• Both the body’s ability to sense pain and to suppress pain help protect the human body from injury and death.

Skin VocabularyCollagen An insoluble fibrous protein of vertebrates that is the chief constituent of the fibrils of connective

tissue (as in skin and tendons) and of the organic substance of bones.Connective Tissue Animal tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues, having a sparse population of

cells scattered through an extracellular matrix. Dermis The sensitive vascular inner mesodermic layer of the skin.Elastin A protein that is similar to collagen and is the chief constituent of elastic fibers.Endorphin A hormone produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibits pain perception .Epidermis The outer nonsensitive and nonvascular layer of the skin of a vertebrate that overlies the dermis. Epithelium A membranous cellular tissue that covers a free surface or lines a tube or cavity of an animal body

and serves especially to enclose and protect the other parts of the body, to produce secretions and excretions, and to function in assimilation.

Exocrine gland A gland (as a sweat gland, a salivary gland, or a kidney) that releases a secretion external to or at the surface of an organ by means of a canal or duct.

First-degree burn A mild burn characterized by heat, pain, and reddening of the burned surface but not exhibiting blistering or charring of tissues.

Keratin Any of various sulfur-containing fibrous proteins that form the chemical basis of epidermal tissues (as hair and nails) and are typically not digested by enzymes of the gastrointestinal tract.

Melanin Any of various black, dark brown, reddish brown, or yellow pigments of animal or plant structures (as in skin and hair).

Pain Basic bodily sensation that is induced by a noxious stimulus, is received by naked nerve endings, is characterized by physical discomfort (as pricking, throbbing, or aching), and typically leads to evasive action.

Sebaceous gland Any of the small sacculated glands lodged in the substance of the derma, usually opening into the hair follicles, and secreting an oily or greasy material composed in great part of fat which softens and lubricates the hair and skin.

Second-degree burn A burn marked by pain, blistering, and superficial destruction of dermis with edema and hyperemia of the tissues beneath the burn.

Third-degree burn Severe burn characterized by destruction of the skin through the depth of the dermis and possibly into underlying tissues, loss of fluid, and sometimes shock.

Burns

Burns

• First-degree burns may be treated with skin care products like aloe vera cream or an antibiotic ointment and pain medication such as acetaminophen (Tylenol).

• Second-degree burns may be treated with an antibiotic cream or other creams or ointments prescribed by a doctor.

• The treatment of third-degree burns may require the process of skin grafting or the use of synthetic skin. Severe burns covering large parts of the body may need more intensive treatments such as I.V. antibiotics to prevent infection or I.V. fluids to replace fluids lost when skin was burned.

Bone

Bone VocabularyBone marrow A soft highly vascular modified connective tissue that occupies the cavities and cancellous part of most bones and occurs in two forms – yellow and red.

Bone remodeling The continuous turnover of bone matrix and mineral that involves first, an increase in resorption and osteoclast activity, and later, reactive bone formation by osteoblast activity.

Calcitonin A polypeptide hormone especially from the thyroid gland that tends to lower the level of calcium in the blood plasma.

Callus A growth of new bone tissue in and around a fractured area, ultimately replaced by mature bone.

Cartilage A usually translucent somewhat elastic tissue that composes most of the skeleton of vertebrate embryos and except for a small number of structures (as some joints, respiratory passages, and the external ear) is replaced by bone during ossification in the higher vertebrates.

Compact bone Bone tissue that contains few spaces between osteons; forms the external portion of all bones and the bulk of the diaphysis (shaft) of long bones.

Diaphysis The shaft of a long bone.Epiphysis The end of a long bone, usually larger in diameter than the shaft.

Fracture The breaking of hard tissue (as bone).Osteoblast A bone-forming cell.Osteoclast Any of the large multinucleate cells closely associated with areas of bone resorption (as in a

fracture that is healing).Osteocyte Cell that is characteristic of adult bone and is isolated in a lacuna of the bone substance.

Parathyroid hormone A hormone of the parathyroid gland that regulates the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus in the body.

Spongy (cancellous) bone Bone tissue that consists of an irregular latticework of thin plates of bone called trabeculae; found inside short, flat, and irregular bones and in the epiphyses of long bone.

Different Types of Breaks

4 stages of bone healing

• Step 1 – Hematoma Formation Blood vessels that are ruptured during the break swell to form a mass called a hematoma. This mass forms between the broken bones.

•  

• o  Step 2 – Fibrocartilage Callus Formation New capillaries begin to form into the clotted blood in the damaged area. Connective tissues cells form a mass of repair tissue called a fibrocartilage callus. This callus contains some cartilage, some bone and collagen fibers and the combined mass closes the gap between the broken bones.

•  

• o  Step 3 – Bony Callus Formation The fibrocartilage callus is gradually replaced by one made of spongy bone. This new mass is referred to as the bony callus. Osteoclasts and osteoblasts move to the area and multiply.

•  

• o  Step 4 – Bone Remodeling Over the weeks and months to come, the callus is remodeled with the help of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. The shape of the bones will gradually return to normal and there will eventually be little evidence of the fracture.

Calcium Feedback Loop

Lymph and Blood CellsAgglutination Clumping of microorganisms or blood cells, typically due to an antigen-antibody interaction.

Alleles Alternate forms of a single gene that control the same inherited trait (such as type A blood) and are located at the same position on homologous chromosomes.

Antibody An antigen-binding immunoglobulin, produced by B cells, that functions as the effector in an immune response.

Antigen A foreign macromolecule that does not belong to the host organism and elicits and immune response.

B lymphocyte (B cell) A type of lymphocyte that develops in the bone marrow and later produces antibodies, which mediate humoral immunity.

Blood type (group) One of the classes (as A, B, AB, or O) into which individual vertebrates and especially human beings or their blood can be separated on the basis of the presence or absence of specific antigens in the blood.

Immunity A condition of being able to resist a particular disease especially through preventing development of a pathogenic microorganism or by counteracting the effects of its products.

Lymph A usually clear fluid that passes from intercellular spaces of body tissue into the lymphatic vessels, is discharged into the blood by way of the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct, and resembles blood plasma in containing white blood cells and especially lymphocytes but normally few red blood cells and no platelets.

Lymph node Any of the rounded masses of lymphoid tissue that are surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue, are distributed along the lymphatic vessels, and contain numerous lymphocytes which filter the flow of lymph passing through the node.

Lymphocyte Any of the colorless weakly motile cells that originate from stem cells and differentiate in lymphoid tissue (as of the thymus or bone marrow), that are the typical cellular elements of lymph, that include the cellular mediators of immunity, and that constitute 20 to 30 percent of the white blood cells of normal human blood.

Macrophage An amoeboid cell that moves through tissue fibers, engulfing bacteria and dead cells by phagocytosis.

Memory cell A long-lived lymphocyte that carries the antibody or receptor for a specific antigen after a first exposure to the antigen and that remains in a less than mature state until stimulated by a second exposure to the antigen at which time it mounts a more effective immune response than a cell which has not been exposed previously.

Pathogen A specific causative agent (as a bacterium or virus) of disease.

Pedigree A diagram of a family tree showing the heritable characters in parents and offspring over multiple generations .

T lymphocyte (T cells) A type of lymphocyte responsible for cell-mediated immunity that differentiates under the influence of the thymus.

Lymphatic System

• Consists of organs, ducts, and nodes and transports a watery clear fluid called lymph.

• Lymph vessels interact with the circulatory system to drain this fluid from your cells and tissues.

• Lymph also distributes immune cells around the body.• Anything that is foreign to the body and gets your

immune system fired up is referred to as an antigen. Antibodies are proteins in blood and lymph that seek out and bind to specific antigens. These specialized proteins are one of the primary defenders in your body’s army of immunity. Your body contains tons of antibodies, each designed to target and destroy a specific antigen.

Blood Transfusions  Type A Type B Type AB Type O

Red Blood Cell Surface Antigen

 A  B  AB  none

Plasma Antibodies

 Anti B  Anti A None Anti A & Anti B

Can Receive Blood From…

 O and A O and B AB, A, B, O

Universal Recipient

O

Can Give Blood to…

A, AB B, AB AB A, B, O, AB

Universal Donor

Possible Genotype

IAIA or IAi  IBIB or IBi  IAIB ii

Unit 6: Homeostasis

Homeostasis Unit Key Terms and Concepts

Case Study A detailed analysis of a person or group, especially as a model of medical, psychiatric, psychological, or social phenomena.

Homeostasis The maintenance of relatively stable internal physiological conditions (as body temperature or the pH of blood) in higher animals under fluctuating environmental conditions.

Identity The distinguishing character or personality of an individual.

Intervention Any measure whose purpose is to improve health or alter the course of disease.

Concepts 1.    Factors in the external environment affect the body’s internal environment and overall ability to maintain homeostasis.2.    Human body systems work together to defend against disease and injury and to maintain health and wellness.3.    Medical interventions, measures that improve health or alter the course of a disease, include preventative measures, diagnostic tests, treatments, and rehabilitation.