Sasha Sitkowski

ELIZABETH MACARTHUR HIGH SCHOOL

HSC MODERN HISTORY

2020 SYLLABUS

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SECTION I

POWER AND AUTHORITY IN THE MODERN WORLD

Core Study

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1. SURVEY

- An overview of the peace treaties which ended WW1 and he consequences

TREATY WHO’S INVOLVED? THE EFFECTS VERSAILLES (JUNE 28TH, 1919)

Germany and the Allied Powers

o The treaty overall designated Germany responsible for all damages and losses of WW1.

o Germany was forced to pay crippling war reparations (War Guilt Clause), plunging them into an insane amount of debt ($33 billion US).

o Loss of land (West Prussia, Hultschin, Northern Schleswig)

o Army was reduced to 10,000 men and tanks were not permitted.

o National resentment towards allied powers which fuelled Nazi propaganda (underlying cause of WW2)

BREST-LITOVSK (MARCH 3RD, 1918)

Russia and the Central Powers

o The treaty marked Russia’s withdrawal from WW. o Russia lost land including Lithuania, Estonia, Livonia

and some of White Russia. o Finland, Ukraine and Georgia became independent. o Forced to pay war reparations (300 million roubles)

NEUILLY (NOV 27TH, 1919)

Allied Powers and Bulgaria o Bulgaria was forced to cede lands to Yugoslavia and Greece.

o Bulgaria had to reduce its army to 20,000 men o Bulgaria was forced to pay £100 million as reparations

SAINT-GERMAIN (SEP 10TH, 1919)

Allied Powers and Austria-Hungary

o Dissolved the Austria-Hungarian empire and recognised the independence of Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia.

o Land from Austria was given to Italy as well as some of the Dalmatian Islands.

o Austria was forbidden from uniting with Germany (politically or economically)

o Had to pay war reparations (but not nearly as much as Germany)

2. FOCUS STUDY: THE RISE OF DICTATORSHIPS AFTER WW1

- The conditions that enabled dictators to rise to power in the interwar period.

During the interwar period Germany (Hitler), Italy (Mussolini) and Russia (Stalin) were in situations that

allowed for a dictator to rise to power. These situations involve:

1. Political instability:

When the government is unstable or collapsed completely it allows or provokes a leader to easily

rise. This is evident when Stalin used the political upheaval after the Russian Civil War to win

favour over Lenin, then enforcing a totalitarian government to reduce his chances of being

overthrown.

2. Impacts of WW1

The impacts of WW1 were both political, economic and social. Germany’s government was on the

verge of collapse, they were in severe amounts of debt due to the War Guilt Clause and the

German people were uprising to severity of Germany’s losses. The German people felt that they

“Europe was therefore seething with unresolved problems and tensions

– Stephen J. Lee (historian)

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had been unfairly treated and needed a figure to lead them towards security, allowing for Hitler

to rise.

3. Personalities

Prominent personalities were successful in gaining a totalitarian government by being likable or

having an overpowering demeanour. Hitler did this by allowing the German people to believe

that he was one of them. He also made convincing promises to the people, saying that Germany

will flourish once again, making him likeable.

- An overview of the features of the dictatorships that emerged in Russia, Italy and Japan.

ITALY (MOSSOLINI)

o “everything in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state” – Mussolini

o Aimed to embrace all elements of society and embody national will. o Italian dictatorship attempted to turn the nation in the direction of

totalitarianism.

o Opposition to the fascist party were removed ▪ Hundreds were arrested and others fled the country ▪ No freedom of press.

o Introduction of the ‘Corporate state’ ▪ Destroyed democracy and placed all power in the hands of Mussolini. ▪ Living standards remained poor

RUSSIA (STALIN)

o Stalin dominated the communist party ▪ Factories and farms were under party control ▪ Young Communist League – children were forced into

o Use of force and terror where not opposition was allowed JAPAN o Japan did not have a charismatic figure leading the nation, where Hirohito

reigned but did not rule. ▪ Government was influenced by military ▪ Displayed many features of a dictatorship

o Japan was dominated by various patriotic societies influenced by the military ▪ Practiced terror and assassinations of zaibatsu members and

politicians. o No attempt to strengthen the party government was made. o Media came under state control and opposition were not allowed

3. THE NAZI REGIME TO 1919

- The rise of the Nazi Party and Hitler in Germany and the collapse of the Weimar Republic.

The Golden Years (1924-29)

o In 1924, Reparations Commission set up a panel of experts to fix the German economy.

▪ Reparations were reduced.

▪ Modernised economy and created booming industries.

o Parties of extreme left and right polled poorly in elections.

o Hindenburg was elected president in 1925 and was not a lover of democracy.

o Became a member of the League of Nations an signed the Locarno Pact in 1926.

“Mussolini did not seize power; he was invited to take it”

– Ian Kershaw (historian)

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o Hitler and the Nazi party were fuelled by post WW1 unrest and Hitler’s charismatic personality

allowing Hitler to gain thousands of followers during the early 1920s.

o Hitler used the chaos of the hyperinflation in 1923 to stage a coup which ultimately failed, and he

and many followers were arrested.

▪ Hitler became a national figure due to his arrest.

o In 1928 the Nazi Party only received 2% of the vote.

o Socio-economic crisis of the Depression became political where Mullers SPD-lead government

fell and was replaced by Bruning.

▪ Replaced by Von Papen in 1932

▪ Replaced by Schleicher.

o The great depression forced Germans to believe that the current democracy was failing to fix the

democracy and the Nazi party seemed to be offering solutions to the crisis.

▪ The Nazi party blamed communist, Jews and liberals for the economic collapse.

▪ Nazi’s promises to restore Germany which ultimately lead to their success.

- The initial consolidation of the Nazi power from 1933-1934.

o The Reichstag Fires (February 27th, 1933)

▪ Nazis were convinced that the Communists were responsible for the fire.

▪ The fires were used to the political advantage of the Nazis to gain popularity.

o The Enabling Act (1933)

▪ The act would allow the new Nazi chancellor to enable laws without the involvement of

the Weimar Republic.

▪ Social communist party had been banned.

▪ The act allowed Hitler to be a legal dictator and led to the policy of Gleichschaltung

(Nazi coordination power where opposition was eliminated)

o In 1933 the Nazi Party reorganised the local government which ensured the Nazi Party had full

provincial control over the country.

o The Gestapo were reorganised as the Secret State Police.

o Many trade unions were considered a threat to the Nazi Party and were abolished in 1933.

▪ To prevent the working class from uprising, the Trade Unions was replaced with the

‘German Labour Front’.

o ‘Law Against the Establishment of Parties’

▪ Any party other than the Nazi Party was now illegal.

▪ An establishment of any party will be punished with imprisonment from six months t

three years.

o The People’s Court (1934)

▪ Was enforced by Hitler due to his dissatisfaction with the Reichstag fire trial.

▪ The court had full control over most political offences against the Third Reich and

usually involved severe penalties.

o The Night of the Long Knives (1934)

▪ A political purge that involved the wiping out of the SA’s leadership and any others that

were seen a threat or enemies of the Third Reich.

▪ SS units were ordered to arrest the leaders of the SA and Hitler also took the opportunity

to arrest and execute other political opponents.

“German people would forever blame the republic for what had happened to them. Not

surprisingly, significant numbers of this social group turned towards the Nazi Party during the

Depression.

– Webb (historian)

“Hitler’s elimination of SA leadership not only silenced left-wing dissidents within his own

power, but also swung business interests and the army behind the Nazi regime

– Ken Webb (historian)

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o On August 19th, 1934, Hitler declares himself Fuhrer and Germany became a totalitarian

government after Hindenburg’s death.

- the nature of Nazi ideology.

Adolf Hitler put together a group ideas and systems to ensure that his country was run in a way that

instilled his belief in the Aryan race. These ideas were recognised as Nazi Ideology. Hitler believed that an

individual’s personality, behaviour and attitude all came down to their race which resulted in the belief

that the ‘true German’ race was overall superior than that of others.

Nazi ideology was built on the foundations of the German nationalistic view that Germany a divine

country and those who belonged were proud to be German. By encouraging those who are “truly German”

to embrace Nazi ideology, it made it easier for Hitler to control the German people into acting out against

the minorities.

o Social Darwinism – took Darwin’s idea of evolution and natural selection and argued that some

races were inherently superior than others.

o Anti-Semitism – hostility and prejudice against Jews.

o Night of Broken Glass – organised attack on Jewish property (Nov. 1935)

o Nuremberg Laws - a series of two laws that forbade Jews from marrying Germans, and it also

forbade German women from being employed in Jewish households. This was the Law for the

protection of German Blood and German Honour. The second law was the Reich Citizenship Law,

which stripped Jews of all citizenship rights and split the nation into Aryan's and Jews.

- The role of prominent individuals in the Nazi state.

Rudolf Hess

▪ Hess served in the German army during WW1.

▪ Studied in the University of Munich where he engaged in nationalistic ideologies and propaganda.

▪ He joined the Nazi party in 1920 and became a close friend of Hitler’s.

▪ 1933 he became Deputy Fuhrer and was second succession to Hitler after Goering.

▪ Many Nazi laws went through Hess.

Hermann Goering

▪ Was one of the primary architects of the Third Reich.

▪ He established the Gestapo Secret Police and the concentration camps the “corrective treatment”

for the minorities of Germany and neighbouring countries.

▪ Goering was first succession to Hitler.

Baldur Von Schirach

▪ German politician who was best known for his involvement in the Hitler Youth scheme.

▪ Was appointed Reich leader in 1933 and became a part f Hitler’s inner circle and was later

appointed district leader of Vienna in 1940.

▪ Hitler had personally given him the job of driving Jews and Czechoslovaks out of Vienna.

Joseph Goebbels

▪ German politician who was the Reich Minister of Propaganda where he would present a

favourable image of Germany. He is also responsible for creating the Fuhrer myth.

“all great cultures of the pest perished only because of the originally creative race died out

from blood poisoning … those who want to live, let them fight, and those who do not want to

fight in this world of eternal struggle do not deserve to live”

– Adolf Hitler

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▪ He had control of media, education, entertainment (books, films etc) and propaganda and

anything that was considered “un-German” was abolished.

▪ Hitler appointed him district leader of Berlin in 1926. ▪ “The era of extreme Jewish intellectualism is at an end,” - Goebbels

Heinrich Himmler

▪ Leading member of the Third Reich and was an important architect of the Third Reich.

▪ He was the overseeing officer of the Nazi police.

▪ He established the first concentration camp and organised extermination camps throughout

Europe.

▪ Himmler was the mastermind behind the abolishment of the SA which strengthened Hitler’s

control over the country.

- The various methods used by the Nazi regime to exercise control including laws, censorship,

repression, terror, propaganda and cult of personality.

Police state

o The SS was initially set up to be Hitler’s bodyguard service who were fanatically loyal the Fuhrer.

In 1935 the SS had up to 200,000 personnel who were stationed throughout Germany including

concentrations camps.

o The Gestapo was the Third Reich secret police force was used to monitor the German civilians in

search of opposition to the Nazi rule. Their job was to identify the threat and eliminate it. The use

for the secret police instilled fear amongst the population.

The Legal System

o Judges and military personnel had to swear fealty to the Fuhrer and were to act in the best

interests of the Nazi State.

o The Peoples Court was introduced to try those who were accused of crimes against the state.

o Punishments for crimes were abolished so local prosecutors were able to decide the sentence to

enemies of the Reich which were generally more extreme.

o Protective custody was introduced so the “people of interest” could be arrested without doing

anything illegal.

Propaganda and censorship

o Propaganda and censorship were a method of subtly brainwashing the German people into

obeying Nazi ideology.

o Newspapers were only allowed to print information favourable and approving of the Nazi’s.

o Listening to foreign radio stations was banned.

o Mass rallies were held in support of the Nazi campaign involving music, speeches and

demonstrations of military strength.

o Any books or films written by or about Jewish people were banned from public use.

o The Hitler Youth was introduced as a way of ensuring the future of Nazi Ideology. It involved

activities like camping and hiking, much like Boy Scouts and was used to brainwash young boys

to buy into Nazi ideology by creating “true-German” children.

Control of culture

o Art that presented the Aryan race to be superior and the showed the military power of Germany

was favoured.

o Classical ad rural architecture was favoured by Hitler.

o 2,500 authors were banned and books needed permission to be published.

o Any jazz style music or “un-German” music was banned from radio and stores.

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- The impact of the Nazi regime of life in Germany, including cultural expression, religion,

workers, youth, women and minorities (including Jews).

o Pictures of Hitler and swastikas were plastered on buildings and flags throughout Germany

either instilling fear or loyalty to German Civilians.

o Censorship and propaganda diminished cultural variation and restricted films and literature.

o The German people was less likely to be influenced by British or American ideas.

o Germany was a country either fuelled by fear or loyalty to the Fuhrer, creating large amounts of

tension between the German society.

- Opposition to the Nazi Regime.

o Passive resistance from the German community such as: not being involved in Nazi Party

regulations or reading banned books or watching banned films.

o The Nazi Regime saw resistance from the church as it contradicted their values.

o Youth groups like the ‘Swing Kids’, ‘The White Rose’ and the ‘Edelweiss Pirates’ opposed Nazi

ideology. They rebelled by:

▪ Creating anti-Nazi slogans

▪ Camping trips in the countryside to about Nazi control.

▪ Graffiti.

▪ Protest marches.

4. THE SEARCH OF PEACE AND SECURITY IN THE WORLD 1919-1946.

- The ambitions of Germany in Europe and Japan in the Asia-Pacific.

Germany’s main ambitions for Europe, Japan and the Asia-Pacific were driven by gaining territorial,

economical political advantages. Bot japan and Germany had the same ideology if racial superiority.

Germany also wished to gain land that had been lost due to the Treaty of Versailles. Japan’s expansions

were promised to instil their idea of racial superiority within Asia and would allow secure resources and

the Asia-Pacific region.

- The intentions and the authority of the League of Nations and the UN.

o The League of Nations (LON) was created post WW1 (1920) as an international peace keeping

organisation. The LON had four primary countries: France, Italy, Japan and the UK and later

Russia joined. The LON ultimately failed to restore peace as many countries were not involved

(Germany and the US) or refused to join. The LON also lacked vital enforcement mechanisms. The

League did not have any way of punishing those who did not obey and were overall powerless

from an uprising

o The UN was established in 1945 with the same intentions as the LON however, the UN has a

security council to serve as its leadership. It also only needs two thirds of the vote to pass an idea

as opposed to the LON which had to be unanimous. The UN includes powerful countries and

states that makes it difficult for an uprising to occur.

“most of Germany’s youth were successfully brought over to accept the regime … Germany’s

young were some of Hitler’s most enthusiastic supporters”

– Ken Webb (historian)

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SECTION II

JAPAN 1904-1937

National Study

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1. SURVEY: IMPACT OF JAPANESE EXPANTION

- Impact of Japanese expansion: Russo-Japanese War, annexation of Korea.

Russo-Japanese War

o The Russo-Japanese War was fought between 1904-1905, where Japan intended to stop the

expansion of Russia into Asia. Both Russia and Japan had imperialistic ambitions in Manchuria

and Korea.

▪ Naval and conventional warfare.

o The war resulted in Japanese victory which lead to Japanese influence in Manchuria and proving

themselves to be a main power in the east.

o Japanese people were unhappy with the result of the war and expected more form the victory.

▪ Riots in Tokyo

Annexation of Korea

In 1910 the Japan-Korea Treaty was signed. In this treaty, Korea was officially annexed (a territory or

region is added to one's own territory by appropriation) and became a protectorate of Japan.

o Did not challenge Japan’s relations with other foreign powers.

o Increased their access to natural resources.

o Korea became a ‘puppet state’ of Japan.

- Status as a great power: 21 demands, role in WW1, Washington Conference

21 Demands

o Twenty-one demands were made on China by the Japanese in 1915. The demands were to extend

control in Manchuria and China’s economy.

▪ This was greatly opposed by Britain and the US.

▪ Chinese responded with nationwide boycott of Japanese goods.

o Britain and the US forced Japan to drop five of the demands which would have allowed Japan to

have almost total control over China’s economy.

Role in WW1

o Japan joined the Allied Powers during WW1 with the goal to reach a status of a World Power.

o Using WW1 as a chance to take the North Pacific Islands which were owned by Germany prior to

WW1. In 1919 Japan gained control of the territories through the Treaty of Versailles.

Washington Conference

o The Washington Conference (1921-1922) was used called by the US to limit the growth of

Japan’s, the US and Britain’s navy to relive tension growing in East Asia. (3:5:5)

▪ Japan leaves the League of Nations.

▪ Taisho democracy was failing and leaving the LON allowed them to focus more on

reconstruction.

o Japanese militarism and its imperial ambitions had become a concern for other major powers

and policymakers worked to reduce the threat.

“some Koreans welcomed the Japanese modernisation projects, others fiercely resisted what

they saw was an illegitimate takeover.”

– McClain (historian)

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- Political, social and economic issues in Japan by 1921.

POLITICAL SOCIAL ECONOMIC

▪ Prime minister Takashi is assassinated – Diet becomes a focus.

▪ Taisho political crisis of 1912 ▪ Split government

1. military officials advocated for military spending.

2. Politicians who aimed to have no military interference.

▪ There was a shift towards city areas (urbanisation).

▪ Highly educated and academic upper and middle class – Argued for the right for vote (male suffrage)

▪ Two successful wars stimulated the economy.

▪ Rapid industrialisation ▪ Economic loss from boycotted

goods ▪ Post war slump ▪ Zaibatsu developed heavy

industry.

(Brian Brennan – historian^)

3. CHALLENGES TO TRADITIONAL POWER AND AUTHORITY IN THE 1920S, INCLUDING:

- The introduction to limited liberal democracy

Limited Liberal Democracy – a democracy in which the emperor still holds power and the country is

family run (e.g. zaibatsu, emperor, military) and only 1% of the population was eligible to vote.

1. Emperor – god-like figure head of the country

2. Genro - unofficial designation given to certain retired elder Japanese statesmen, considered the

"founding fathers" of modern Japan who advise the Emperor.

3. Diet – house of representatives

a. Prime minister – not responsible to parliament

b. Cabinet – Nineteen Minister of State appointed by the emperor and were responsible to

him alone

4. House of Counsellors

o Japan entered a new era in politics where limited liberal democracy was introduced for two

reasons

▪ Leaders from older generation (e.g. during the Meiji Restoration) had either died out or no

longer had any political influence.

▪ Political order shifted from being influenced by the genro to a more open system of

governance.

o Hara Takashi (Seiyukai party) becomes Prime Minister in 1918

▪ He formed Japan’s first “party cabinet” which mainly consisted of elected officials and

was the making steps towards implementing democracy.

▪ “imperial ordinance on the restoration of peace” was issued by Takashi.

o Democracy was strongly supported by the Kenseikai party (opposition)

- Political influence of the zaibatsu

Zaibatsu – family owned primary and financial industries that had a large influence on the Japanese

economy which resulted in influence on politics. (major zaibatsu: Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo and

Yasuda).

o Expanded their influence in the 1920s after the Great Depression and WW1

“Hara’s appointment signalled that japan will move steadily toward democracy”

– McClain (historian)

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▪ Given a negative view from Japanese people

o Zaibatsu had control over banks, mines, insurance companies and therefore had power to

control the economy.

▪ Many Zaibastu had close connections with politicians as they sought to free themselves

from government control.

▪ control the people who work for them (influence who they vote for)

o Zaibatsu can marry into the political parties as they are family owned.

o The military and bureaucrats oppose the zaibatsu

- Impact of the Seyukai and other political parties on Japanese political systems and

governments

Lower House – the house of representatives (elected members).

Upper House – the house of peers (imperial family and their associates)

Seiyukai (right wing) – the most stable political group and was formed in 1900. Backed by landlords and

zaibatsu.

o The 1931 election was won by the Seiyukai

o Corrupt – influenced by zaibatsu

o Represented local partisan and private interests rather than national interests

Minseito (left wing) – more liberal than the Seiyukai and wanted parliament to have a greater say in the

formulation of policy.

o In 1928 the Minseito party lost 217 seats against the Seiyukai who won 218.

o Minseito leader was appointed prime minister by Emperor Hirohito in 1929.

o More liberal and wanted parliament to have more say

Other parties were constantly being divided into breakaway factions.

- Challenges of the genro, bureaucracy and army to party politics.

The Genro – influential elder statesmen from the Meiji period. They became increasingly influential

during the 1920s, but their influence came to an end as they began to die out.

o Usually had military of bureaucratic careers and advised the Emperor on his choice in Prime

Ministers.

o Held back Democracy because they had influence of the House of Representatives.

o claimed to be above party politics

o they usually held a seat in the House of peers in later life

o genro began to die out by the 1920’s and were becoming obsolete.

Bureaucracy

o independent to zaibatsu, political parties and military and only followed the emperor.

o The institution of the professional bureaucracy goes back to the Meiji. When ex-Ssamurai became

part of and hierarchical administrative structure

“Behind the political parties are Zaibatsu bosses”

– Bix (historian)

“from the start, political corruption was a problem”

– Cullen (historian)

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o bureaucrats developed their own professional self-interest and claims to offer impartial advice as

well as being un-swayed by special interest of party politics.

▪ Many bureaucrats became overtly political due to corruption in political parties during

the 1930s

o Bureaucrats pushed our form agenda to save the state from corrupt party rule claiming that it

was the Emperors true wishes

o bureaucrats remained independent of the parties and military

The Military

o The army and Navy head and in order date influence on politics due to the fact the old cabinets

had to include representatives of the army and Navy who were recommended to the emperor by

respective armed forces

o The military were determined to evade civilian control

o in 1931 Manchuria incident the military acted without the prior approval of the government

o public opinion supported the Japanese army in the fighting the party politicians were powerless

to restrain the army

o politicians who approved cut bets in military spending face great opposition

o party politicians face the possibility of assassination by rogue military forces.

4. RISE OF MILITARISM IN THE 1930S, INCLUDING:

- Political and Economic impact of the Great Depression

POLITICAL ECONOMIC ▪ presented a great challenge to Japanese

politics because they made difficult and controversial economic decisions that affected millions of poor and unemployed people

▪ Zaibatsu benefits from the Depression by buying smaller businesses.

▪ the economic policy of Takahashi is created with putting Japan on the road to recovery

▪ Takahashi kept a close control on government expenditure

▪ the military dominated cabinets from 1936 favourite state interventionism in the economy

▪ unemployment film the easing expenditure on politicians

▪ During the first effects of the Depression, the Japanese government initiated the fiscal program (made things worse)

▪ Re-joined the international god standard in 1931.

▪ Shortage of rice ▪ At the end of 1931, Takahashi (finance

minister) to Japan off golden standard. ▪ Japan broke the US in European markets

with cheap Japanese goods ▪ because of the collapse of the silk

industry there was a move to cotton textile production

▪ in 1935 Xbox exceeded imports for first time since World War One

▪ by 1936 Japan was the world's largest exporter in cotton goods

▪ arms expenditure rose 2 1/2 times in the period of 1931 to 1935

▪ raw materials from Manchuria aided the economy

“power slipped away from the oligarchs”

– McClain (historian)

“military became a ‘sanctuary’ outside the government”

– Kosaka

“the bureaucracy did not owe their jobs to the parliament. They served as appointees of the

emperor”

– Gordon (historian)

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- development and impact of modernization and urbanization and rising social tensions.

o Due to industrialization In Japan there was a drift from the rural areas to the cities

o Health, hygiene and education improve.

o In the 1920s eighteen percent of Japan lived in urban areas but by 1935 this has risen to 32.7%

o Port cities like Osaka and Yokohama experience enormous growth due to the import overall

materials

o By the 1930s all Japanese cities were linked by electric railways

o The huge numbers of people in cities resulted in government intervention an education

programs designed to encourage one thinking and practises in health hygiene the childcare

o Governments in the 1930s promoted modern ways, western clothes and work ethic.

o Overcrowding lead to healthcare problems among the working classes

o Many unemployed citizens in cities during the depression

o Rural people found themselves unemployed and homeless

o Many rural women turned to prostitution in order to survive and feed their families

- role and significance of the army and political divisions within it

o The prestige of the army and Navy was increased by the success in the Japanese Russian war of

1904-5

o The army was associated with traditions international unity. They believed that they were to

achieve foreign expansion that was necessary for Japan survival and prosperity

o The army tended to favour northern expansion into Manchuria in China

o The Navy became powerful after victories over the Russians at Port Arthur in 1904

o The Navy tended to concentrate on expansionism to the South

o The Navy strategy was developed in the 1920s and 30s and stressed the idea ‘fortify the north

and fight the South,

KODO-HA (IMPERIAL WAY) TOSAI-HA (CONTROL) ▪ Formed around general Arkai and general

Mazaki but the faction was a loose grouping which lacked cohesion

▪ was an ultranationalist and anti-group ▪ From 1934 young officers of the cutter

half action planned assassination an coups.

▪ on August 12th, 1935 I financial officer used a sword to kill general Nakata.

▪ the attempted overthrow of the government was to begin with assassination of seven key figures but only three were assassinated

▪ Was the more moderate and conservative group in the army

▪ What's more cautious regarding the Soviet Union and opposed kodo-ha policy of a pre-emptive strike

▪ Tosai-ha began to lose their influence and the Kodo-ha faction gained the ascendancy

▪ the murder of general Nagata signal to many in the army and Japanese establishment that the cutter ha was a destabilising and dangerous threat

- hostility towards the zaibatsu and the collapse of party politics

o prime minister Tsuyoshi was assassinated in 1932, this signalled the end of party politics.

o There was a general hostility to the zaibatsu by the small businessman and middle-class

entrepreneurs from the military and small businesses.

o small political parties what hostile towards the zaibatsu

o hostility to zaibatsu also came from ultra-nationalistic far right elements in the army and

patriotic societies. the right often had an idealised vision of the old agrarian Japan with its

frugality and social cohesion

o Kita Ikki (political philosopher) argued that the restoration of Japan could be completed by

destroying the power of the zaibatsu and the bureaucrats

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o right wing fanatics wanted to purge Japanese political life of corruption by targeting business and

zaibatsu executives in assassinations.

- differing domestic response to militarism

o Popular support for military solutions was not universal

o the suppressed Communist Party we're opposed to right wing Japanese militarism which they

viewed as fascist

o what are the most consistent opponents to military zoom was the distinguished educationalist

Kano Jigero

o many political and military Conservatives viewed the Manchurian incident of 1931 as evidence

for insubordination

o A huge letter writing campaign was organised to beg the court for leniency and the sentence

were light considering the men had been convinced of murdering the Prime Minister

o the military conspirators in the attempt of 1936 had their supporters even though the emperor

had the conspirators arrested and approved their execution

- the role of emperor Hirohito.

o The emperor’s role was to be the focus of Japanese nationalism and serve as the employment of

the state

o the Japanese emperor was viewed as a sacred entity above society he was not just an organ of the

constitution with a constitutional role

o ultra nationalist and militarist found it useful to have an emperor who was a remote sacred

figure

o emperor Hirohito was really seen, and he made very few public statements

o Hirohito's real views were unknown but could be influenced by ultranationalist to justify the

invasion of China all their numerous political assassinations

o emperor Hirohito or did the government to put down the 1936 coup execute the coup leaders

which seemed to be personal

o emperor Hirohito was influenced how many figures including the genro the military and the

zaibatsu which altered his decision making.

5. JAPANESE FOREIGN POLICY, INCLUDING:

- aims and strategy of Japanese foreign policy to 1937

o Japans foreign policy in the period of 1921 to 1937 was dominated by one overarching aim that

Japan should be regarded and respected as one of the world's great powers

o Though the League of Nations mandate territories Japan gained islands in the North Pacific

o Japan sought to contain the Soviet Union

o Japan was treated like a major European power after gaining the former German concessions in

China

o after its naval victories in the Russian Japanese cool Japan enter the policy of naval expansion

which alarmed The US in the UK

o at the Washington naval conference November 12th 1921 two 6th of February 1932 Japan

agreed to accept a cap on its naval strength. Japan was also limited to their submarine warfare in

shipbuilding

▪ Japan was now placed at a disadvantage relative to the UK in the USA

o in 1936 Japan withdrew in London Naval Conference.

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- impact of ideology on Japanese foreign policy in 1937

o Official state audiology stressed the subordination of the individual to the emperor and the

merging of individual into the mass of the state.

o have japans expansionism lead to war with China in 1937 and conflict with both of Britain and

USA

o Japanese foreign policy aims at the exclusion of western colonists from Asia

o Japan was sensitive to the racial prejudice display towards Asian people by Europeans and

Americans

o Japan claimed it was eight other Asian nations to throw off Washington colonists

o in February 1932 the Japanese set up in Manchuria and renamed it Manchukuo which became a

puppet state of Japan

o brighter World War Two Japanese swords undermine influence of the US in the Philippines, The

British in Malaysia and Singapore and the Dutch in East Indies.

o Japan made direct contact with emergent Asian nationalist leaders in the Philippines Singapore

and East Indies and so again they didn't WW2

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SECTION III

CONFLICT IN INDOCHINA 1954-1979

Peace and Conflict

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1. SURVEY: DECOLONISATION OF INDOCHINA, INCLUDING:

- conflict in Vietnam 1946-1954

o France took over Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) during the 1800s

▪ economic benefits

o Ho Chi Minh

▪ Leader of Vietminh

▪ Communist nationalist movement.

o In 1945, Ho Chi Minh seized power and declared birth of the independent Democratic Republic of

Vietnam (DRV)

▪ Was not recognised by the US or France

o 1945-6, the French reclaimed parts of southern Vietnam

o 1947 – first Indochina war begun

▪ Communist China and Russia supported the Vietminh with weapons.

▪ The US supported France.

o Containment theory – Cold War foreign policy of the United States and its allies to prevent the

spread of communism after the end of WWII.

- the nature of Vietnamese victory against the French in 1954

o Vietminh used guerrilla warfare tactics with peasant support as well as USSR and Chinese aid

o Ho Chi Minh Trail – a series of trails along the Vietnam border and into Laos and Cambodia

▪ Moved troops and supplies to the north and south.

o Dien Bien Phu – the Vietnamese defeated the French using conventional warfare tactics

▪ The US chose not to support the French

- the significance of the Geneva conference for Indochina in 1954

o Chaired by Britain, USSR, France, China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and the US. o Ended conflict and ceasefire and France had to leave Vietnam.

o Vietnam split into two, where civilians had to choose whether there wanted to be a part of the

north or south

▪ North – independent communist state (DRV)

▪ South – nationalistic dictatorship supported by the French and the US

o Laos and Cambodia were recognised as neutral

o Elections were held in 1956 to decide if the South wanted to unite with the North.

“[the] Vietnamese people... are determined to fight to the bitter end against any

attempt by the French colonialists to reconquer their country.” – Ho Chi Minh

“The French had been confident that the Viet Minh could not bring heavy artillery

into positions on the mountains without being spotted or destroyed” – J. Green

(historian)

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2. CONFLICT IN VIETNAM, 1954-1964, INCLUDING:

- Political, social, economic and military developments within North and South Vietnam

DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH VIETNAM (SAIGON)

Political Social

• Political instability under Ngo Dinh Diem’s Can Lao Party – secretive, aloof from rural affairs, corrupt (appointed family/friends to government)

• Diem relied on force, repression, and US support. • Diem and brother founded an underground

organisation to spy on officials, leaders and citizens. • Diem assassinated in 1963.

• Religious sects destroyed (e.g. Cao Dai and Hoa Hao in 1955.)

• Diem was unloved, untrusted • there was a lack of unity around Diem or goal of

independence. • Buddhist majority repressed, Roman Catholics

favoured (business favours, employment) - Public protests, monks burned themselves in

Saigon Military Economic

• 1960 – National Liberation Front/Vietcong established to support insurgency against Diem regime.

• Increasing numbers of US military advisors in Vietnam.

• Diem undid land Vietminh land reforms—civilians now had to buy land/pay rent to landlords.

• Agroville Program (1959)—forced farmers into sanctuaries to prevent communist influence.

- The nature and development of US policy towards Indochina to 1964

o Idealism – US saw itself as a fatherly, protective figure of SV. Believed they could create a democratic

utopia.

o Domino Theory - US believed the successes of the Chinese Communists and outbreak of the Korean

War would make all Southeast Asia communist

▪ SEATO – Agreement between Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines,

Thailand, and US to work together and stop the spread of communism in Southeast Asia

DEVELOPMENTS IN NORTH VIETNAM (HANOI)

Political Social

• Became a centralised, communist state • Purification—thousands of ‘enemies of the people’ (landowners, French loyalists) were executed.

• By 1960, most North Vietnamese were compliant and supportive of the regime.

• Trust and support of Ho Chi Minh—known as Uncle Ho Military Economic

• Received aid from USSR and China. • Hugely supported VC through Ho Chi Minh

Trail. • North Vietnamese Army (NVA) grew and

capability.

• Land reform policies announced in 1957—individual businesses/private wealth seized; land organised into large agricultural cooperatives

- success, rice production increased by over double. • 100+ new factories constructed, country mining own coal,

achieving economic targets of three-year plan.

“The meeting produced a ceasefire that instructed French Forces to withdraw south

of the 17th parallel, while the Viet Minh would withdraw north of this line’ – J. Green

(historian)

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o Self-interest – US didn’t want to lose their massive economic/military investment (bases,

equipment, aid packages) to the USSR.

3. THE SECOND INDOCHINA WAR, INCLUDING:

- US foreign policy towards Vietnam from 1964

o 1963: LBJ elected, supported containment but wanted to ensure his party’s election.

o 1946 – US began secret bombing of NV beginning of escalation. Tonkin Incident—US ship Maddox

moved into NV territorial waters and was attacked

▪ US retaliated with air raids against NV.

▪ Tonkin Resolution – voted in Congress, gave Johnson power to do whatever he deemed

needed to be done.

o 1965 – 23,000 troops. Operation Rolling Thunder (continuous bombing over 3 years). 3x bomb

tonnage was dropped on the North than on Europe, Asia and Africa in WWII.

o 1966 – Troop numbers increased to about 180,000 (continued to increase until 1970)

▪ Pacification (winning hearts and minds) healthcare, education, subsidised rice.

▪ Search and destroy – marines cleared areas following air strikes.

o 1967 – Operation Junction City – largest land offensive, attacked Iron Triangle base area. Phoenix

Program – CIA tried to find and eliminate supporters of CV, involved infiltration and torture.

o 1968 – Tet Offensive.

▪ NVA/VC attack caused outrage and changed policy.

▪ My Lai massacre—500 villagers (mainly kids, women, old men) killed by a US platoon.

▪ Paris Peace Talks opened.

- the nature and effectiveness of the strategy and tactics employed by the North Vietnamese

army, the National Liberation Front, the army or Republic Vietnam and the USA

Strategy – the overall campaign plan, which may involve complex operational patterns, activity, and

decision-making that govern tactical execution.

Tactic – are the actual means used to gain an objective

NORTH

Leadership and morale

o Ho Chi Minh disclosed commitment for a unified and independent Vietnam

o successful regime in allowing agricultural self-sufficiency, limited oppositions and further

promoted public nationalism within Vietnam and the USA

“Johnson’s immediate motivation in Vietnam was political self-defence as much as

defence of the Free World…” – M. Maclear (journalist)

“American policy makers grew increasingly concerned about the Indochinese situation”

– J. Green (historian)

“Ho Chi Minh was not a nationalist leader but a Moscow-controlled communist”

– J. Green (historian)

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o villagers and the North worked together, allowing the Vietcong to weave among them, further

aiding in support and intelligence on RVN

o rendering conventional war strategies of the US useless - South campaigns (rolling thunder)

consequently strengthened determination of NV

Fighting tactics

Guerrilla warfare - developed and perfected through their history of resistance against colonial

oppressors

o Utilised knowledge of terrain - mountain / jungle

o HCM trail - stable source of food and ammo

o VC - travelled in small groups allowing for them to be inconspicuous

o Cu Chi tunnels - hit or run missions or ambushes to avoid confrontation and provide sanctuary

for troops, to successfully physically weaken and significantly lowering morale of the Southern

forces

o Surprise attacks / caught off guard did not suit the South's warfare preparation

o Booby traps - sufficient in both psychologically and physically attacking Southern forces

SOUTH

Failure of Southern government

o Ngo Dinh Diem - nepotism and corruption, increasingly dictatorial

o Failed to achieve economic policies (Agrovilles) - instability and discontent among the

Vietnamese population and furthering support for the Communist

o End of Diem’s rule - constantly changing leaders, failed to provide SV with a stable and unifying

leader like Ho Chi Minh

▪ Failed to gain support from peasants – e.g. W.H.A.M which contradicted the South’s

original aims as these strategies aligned peasants with the goals of the Vietcong

o The US's involvement with a history of foreign oppression portrayed RVN in a negative image

o widespread discontent with the Southern regime and ineffective economic and military

strategies developed a dependence on US military, politics, and economics to maintain the

Southern regime

- impact of the 1968 Tet Offensive

IMPACT ON NAV/VC IMPACT ON US/ARVN

o Many of the VC’s best fighters were killed

o NVA and VC were now outnumbered o After Tet, they relied more on Guerrilla

warfare. o Gained control of NLF o Took 4 years to recover from military

setbacks (47% of VC killed)

o Dramatic impact on the people’s views in Western countries

o American people felt lied to.

o 2% of the US army were killed o 5% of the ARVN were killed

“the guerrilla must move amongst the people as a fish swims in the sea”

– Mao Zedong (Chinese communist revolutionary)

“we fought a formless war against a formless enemy” – P. Caputo (journalist)

“light of victory at the end of the tunnel”

– General Westmoreland

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o General Giap was satisfied with the outcome

- impact of the war on civilians in Vietnam

NORTH

o Incessant bombings over the Northern regions destroying various tactical locations

▪ by 1975 the US Air forces had dropped over 8 million bombs

o Industries were targeted destroying 70% of the existing facilities in the North resulting in a

major increase in unemployment, not helping civilians regain their feet after years of French

economic exploitation

o Schools, Hospitals and houses were destroyed affecting living standards and the Mekong Delta

‘food bowl’ of Vietnam drove starvation

o Nixon’s Line-backer II bombing campaign

▪ a large majority of North Vietnamese children were rendered permanently deaf

o ‘Agent Orange’

▪ destruction of around 1 million acres of forest land, leaving in its wake a devastating

legacy of birth defects and cancers in the coming generations.

▪ Farming became an impossible feat, due to the mass use of ‘Agent Orange’ in reducing

the dense jungle foliage

SOUTH

o Hamlet Plan 1962

▪ Traditional Vietnamese life was destroyed

▪ uprooted 33% of South Vietnamese farmers from ancestral land and drove them into the

cities as farming became less viable due to ‘Agent Blue’ - defoliant used to prevent

resources to the North

o Attempted rectifying of woes through the WHAM program in 1966 ended in disaster as it could

not survive in conjunction with the constant bombing of villages in the South

o Rapid westernisation of the South, notably Saigon, led to an influx of money and corruption in the

capital with the Black-Market revenue reaching 10$ billion US dollars

o Women moved from traditional farming roles to prostitution to combat rising prices and by 1967

there were 200,000 women in prostitution

o My Lai massacres.

▪ US troops slaughtered innocent civilians promoted a community of fear, psychological

states of fear impact all aspects of life, unwilling to participate in society

▪ attack questioned the U.S. claim of moral superiority and its status as the world's

defender of freedom and right

- the nature and significance of anti-war movements in the USA and Australia

o Became an extension of the feminist and civil rights movement

▪ Another Mother for Peace (ANMP)

▪ Save our Sons

▪ Peace and Freedom Party

“until Tet, they [the US] had thought they

could win the war, but now they knew they

could not” – General Giap

“Westmoreland called for a shift in US strategy … to do so he would have required

additional forces and asked for an additional 206,000 troops” – J. Green (historian)

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o Historians have claimed that the anti-Vietnam War movement was the most powerful in

American history

o Brough American society to the brink and effectively ended the careers of Presidents Johnson

and Nixon

o Reporters in Vietnam could televise the brutalities of the war into American living rooms

o Images of napalmed villages caused many in the ‘silent majority’ to question America's moral

right to wage war in Vietnam

o Mai Lai massacre fuelled the movements

o Police brutality at peace protests

o Vietnam moratorium movements spread around the world, witnessing a cross section of society

protesting the war

o 70’s - more than half of Americans believed the war in Vietnam was morally wrong

- the reasons for the nature of the US withdrawal

EFFECTIVNESS Peace with honour The US realised that there was no way to be victorious against the North Vietnamese, so Nixon decided to leave with ‘peace and honour’

o US troops had to be withdrawn while also convincing South Vietnamese President Thieu that he wasn’t be deserted.

Vietnamisation o US aimed to build up the ARVN to fight on its own to

survive as an independent state. o US forces could be withdrawn but aid to the South

maintained to make ARVN a viable, independent fighting force

Madman Theory o Nixon and his administration tried to make the

leaders of hostile Communist nations think Nixon was irrational and volatile.

o The theory aimed to instilled fear in the North Vietnamese leaders.

Bombing Cambodia

o In early 1969, NVA launched a new offensive against

South.

o Nixon responded by trying to sever links between

NVA forces and their supply routes

▪ Operation Menu.

o Nixon getting nowhere throughout 1970.

o NVA launched another offensive in Feb.

o May US and ARVN invaded Cambodia to root

out communist bases – was a failure.

▪ No bases found and communist forces

that were there retreated deeper into

Cambodia.

o The invasion enflamed anti-war protests.

o Declining morale within US and ARVN forces.

o Mutiny was feared – 1971 there was 500

known attempts of fragging.

o Rationale behind Vietnamisation was ARVN

could defend their country without US → to

test this Feb 1971 5000 ARVN sent into Laos

to attack NVA supplies.

▪ Unmitigated disaster, within 2 weeks

half ARVN force dead.

Easter Offensive

o In 1972 Nixon believed totally that failure in Vietnam would mean his electoral defeat.

o Had to get Americans out, guarantee survival Thieu all by November.

o On 30th March North launched Easter Offensive – 3-pronged attack against the South.

o Gained quick success with NVA/VC gaining control of Central Highlands, some Northern

provinces and areas just north of Saigon.

o 31st March Nixon responded by bombing selected targets, “these bastards have never been

bombed like they are going to be bombed this time.”

o Americans dropping 3000 tonnes of bombs a day.

o Northern offensive ended in July but US bombed until October.

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Paris Peace Talks

o On 9th October US bombing came to end → 2 key negotiators in Paris Peace Talks (Henry

Kissinger and Le Duc Tho) seemed to have reached an agreement.

▪ US withdrawal within 60 days.

▪ Return of US POWs

▪ Right of South to decide its own future.

▪ A promise of a new DRV/US relationship.

▪ US promise to help with reconstruction.

o President Thieu annoyed that he had not been part of negotiations.

o He ordered ARVN to attack NVA.

o North saw this as American bad faith.

o At home Nixon advised to hold off signing a weak agreement as this might harm election (Nixon

wins in a landslide).

o In Paris, Kissinger handed LE Duc Tho long list of amendments.

o Le Duc Tho walked out of talks and went home.

o Nixon sent North an ultimatum to resume talks or face major consequences – Hanoi did not reply.

- the reasons for the communist victory in Vietnam

4. THE SPREAD OF CONFLICT TO CAMBODIA AND LAOS, INCLUDING:

- the impact of conflict on civilians in Indochina and Laos

o Operation Menu

▪ devastating for civilians, particularly in the Southern and Eastern regions of Cambodia as the

death tolls are often cited to be between 600,000 and 750,000 deaths, with the majority

being civilians

▪ widespread destruction, both in terms of civilian deaths and long term economic damages.

Infrastructural damage influenced civilian lives as over 40% of roads and 30% of bridges

were unusable. This damage further compounded the economic debt of Cambodia which was

already in an imbalanced state

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o social instability was a major factor as traditional elements within Cambodian society were put

under stress

o fall of the Lon Nol government and incessant bombings

▪ Khmer Rouge consolidated their terror regime in an extremely short amount of time

with relative ease

o Lower food production was the result of food riots in September 1972, with additional

unemployment and displacement becoming widespread with the countless Cambodians fleeing

rural areas and within six months the population of Phnom Penh swelled from around 700 000 to

over one and a half million

- the reasons for the communist victories in Cambodia and Laos

o Sihanouk’s downfall and Lon Nol’s seizure of power prompted the Khmer Rouge to retaliate.

o Civil war ensued.

o Sihanouk announced he had formed a United Front of Kampuchea with Khmer Rouge –

tremendous propaganda for Khmer Rouge.

o Period of complex violence between:

▪ Cambodian nationalists vs. North Vietnamese.

▪ US/ARVN vs. VC/NVA

▪ Khmer Rouge vs Lon Nol regime.

o Lon Nol’s regime finally collapsed in April 1975.

o Khmer Rouge took over the capital, Phnom Penh.

- Democratic Kampuchea under Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge: aims and impacts of the regime

foreign policy

Main Aim: To create a new Khmer society – Kampuchea and Year Zero declared.

o Racial Purity

o Cultural Purity

o Communal living

o Achieving through radical agrarian Marxism (RAM).

Radical agrarian Marxism

o Aimed at converting Cambodia into a nation of uneducated, rural peasants.

o All Cambodians must serve Angkor, and in turn, Angkor would provide people with guidance and

direction towards a new state of prosperity.

Racial purity

o Preservation of Khmer racial purity.

o No tolerance towards Vietnamese and Chinese inhabitants of Cambodia.

o Ancient minorities such as Muslim Cham people and Montagnard’s targeted.

o These groups forced to flee and those who couldn’t were killed.

o Established Cambodia as a racially closed country.

o Created deep chasms in society.

Cultural purity

o Removing foreign influences and return to a purer Khmer past.

o All modern technology confiscated and destroyed.

o Phnom Penh evacuation.

o Intellectuals targeted – only 50 of 725 professors and assistant professors remained alive at the

end of the regime.

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o Influenced by Mao Zedong’s cultural revolution.

o Separation from international community – allowed Khumer Rouge to implement their aims

without intervention.

o Angkar established as an unquestioned form of guidance for the new Khmer people – replaced

traditional religions and became state-wide idol.

Communal living

o Established a communal way of life with everyone working towards greater Kampuchea.

o Extreme controls were placed over civilians such as constant surveillance.

o Eradicated all familial loyalty and redirected it to Angkar.

o Intentional separation of families to different farming zones removed family tied and strengthened

individual connection to Angkar.

o Civilians no longer paid wages for their work – was for the benefit of the state not the individual.

o Individual and family privacy became extinct.

o All activities made public such as eating, sleeping and getting married.

o Black peasant garb worn by all Cambodian civilians was a physical symbol of the removal of

personal identity.

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SECTION IV

CHANGING WORLD ORDER 1945-2011

Change in the Modern World

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1. WORLD ORDER 1945-1989, INCLUDING:

- An overview of the Cold War world and superpower rivalry

o The Cold War is the term given to the tense relationship between the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States between 1947 and 1991. The idea of a Cold War comes from the idea that both sides never faced each other in battle but rather fought through proxy wars; militarily but also economic and culturally.

o Cold War animosities between the two superpowers had arisen during World War 2 when the Russians believed that the Allies were failing to open a second front in Europe against the Nazis (delaying D Day) in order to weaken the Soviet Union, this distrust was further enflamed during the peace negotiations.

Communism – Everything belongs to the state and should be run by the government on behalf of the people. Capitalism – All Industry, business and agriculture should be owned by private people or firms.

- Challenges of the United Nations during the Cold War 1946–1991

Atomic Race:

o At the end of the War, only the United States had nuclear weapons but the first Soviet atomic bomb test in August 1949, focused American minds on the need to advance to keep ahead of the Soviets.

o 31 Jan 1950, President Truman commissioned accelerated production of the building of a ‘super bomb’ (Hydrogen bomb)

▪ 1 Nov 1952 The American carried out their first test of a hydrogen bomb obliterating a pacific island.

▪ Nine months later the Soviet Union tested their own in the central Asia desert.

Cuban Missile Crisis: o During the Cold War, Fidel Castro seized power in Cuba and aligned himself with the Soviet

Union where the Soviets began building missile sites in Cuba. ▪ Cuba was seen as a threat as it’s missiles could reach any city. ▪ Cuba was considered as a communist country

o Kennedy chose to blockade Cuba which stopped all ships going there and restricted the USSR from sending military equipment to Cuba.

- The emergence of the ‘American Century’

o It was with great reluctance that the United states emerged from its self-imposed neutrality in

December 1941 after Japan bombed Pearl Harbour, forcing the US to enter WW2. o This reversed the long-held policy of abstaining from involvement in international conflict. o Since its foundation the United States had a long tradition of isolationism, avoiding alliances or

commitments that would threaten its independence. o The failures of 1914-45 would convince the Americans that their future peace and prosperity lay

in taking a leading role in establishing and maintaining a stable and peaceful international order. The US would permanently abandon isolationism and attempt to spread it’s own political and economic values around the world.

o At the end of WW2, it was the world’s only superpower, its currency was a global reserve and it had a leading hand in the United Nations.

- The fall of the Berlin Wall

o After WW2, Germany was split up between the Allies as well the capital Berlin where the USSR

occupied the east (communist) and France, UK and US occupied the west (capitalist).

▪ Stalin tried to force out Allies 100 miles within the Soviet zone (1948)

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▪ The soviet’s blockaded the Allied zone forcing the Allies to conduct an airlift for almost a

year to supply the Western zone.

o East and West Berliners were able to freely cross to different sides of Berlin.

▪ In 1953-56, 1.5 mil East Berliners has permanently crossed to the West (western

propaganda – appealing)

o 1961 – 12 August Ulbricht the East German chancellor at the time gave orders for the border to

be closed from midnight.

o 13 August – barb wire swiftly erected, shortly followed by a 12ft concrete wall nearly a hundred

miles long backed by guard towers, minefields, police dogs and orders.

o The wall came down partly because of a bureaucratic accident but it fell amid a wave of

revolutions that left the Soviet-led communist bloc teetering on the brink of collapse and helped

define a new world order.

2. THE COLLAPSE OF THE USSR AND THE NATURE OF THE POST-SOVIET SOCIETIES,

INCLUDING:

- Reasons for the collapse of the Soviet Union and the role of Mikhail Gorbachev

Gorbachev’s implementation of both Perestroika and Glasnost catalysed the fall of the Soviet Union but

were not the only reasons for its collapse. The economy of the USSR prior to Gorbachev’s leadership was

already in shreds which would have eventually crippled the country. By failing to fix the economic woes

of the Soviet Union, before implementing his drastic reforms Gorbachev shocked the fragile Soviet Union

into further decline

Economic Crisis:

o The USSR was in a state of economic crisis where not enough of quality goods were being

produced.

▪ Military spending

o Soviet General Secretary Brezhnev had failed to improve living standards and instead provided

economic resources to the already privileged groups

▪ Economic stagnation

▪ Annual growth rate of the economy averaged at only 1.5% in 1981.

o The USSR looked stable to external countries; this is why the USSR seemed to “collapse” as it did.

Perestroika:

o Perestroika was one of the major economic reforms Gorbachev introduced with intent to reduce

economic stagnation where the reforms included:

▪ He revocation of the ban of private businesses and foreign investment

▪ Revocation of the “Law of Enterprises”.

o The economic reforms of the Perestroika period were inadequate to create the rudiments of a

market economy.

o The reform and left “only 750 000 out of 135 million workers employed in privately run

companies”

Glasnost:

o ‘policy of openness’ which aimed to give the public a sense of ‘openness’ but ended in failure and

was one of the catalysts to the USSR collapse.

▪ Threatened the bureaucrats.

o The new reform allowed for the repercussions of Perestroika to be voiced and soon the public

was pushing well past the boundaries that Gorbachev had set

o Glasnost proved to be most significant in the satellite states like Poland and Czechoslovakia

where ‘openness’ allowed for citizens to protest against the Soviet government and led to

declarations of independence across the Eastern European countries.

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- Political, social and cultural impacts of the dissolution of the USSR in Russia and Eastern

Europe.

- Nature and role of the Russian Federation under Vladimir Putin to 2011

Emergence:

o December 1999, Boris Yeltsin suddenly resigned from the Russian Presidency, his Prime

Minister, Vladimir Putin

▪ was a KGB operative in East Germany during the Cold War and then as a high-ranking

official to the mayor of St Petersburg before coming to Moscow in 1996.

▪ Putin was perceived early on to be determined to restore some of the prestige and

power of Russia.

Reforms:

o Vladimir Putin served two terms as President from 2000-2008, before being stopped by limits.

Between 2008-2012 he formed a tandemocracy with Medvedev’s basically ensuring his power.

o His first act as president in May 2000 was to reform the administrative structure of the Russian

Federation to concentrate more power in his own hands.

o In July that year the Russians passed a law giving Putin the right to dismiss the heads of federal

subjects. In 2004, the election of these subjects was replaced with a nomination of the president.

Response to domestic crisis:

o Kursk Crisis: the first major test as president came during a large scale naval exercise when the

Submarine.

▪ Putin was slow to accept international assistance and when accepting five days later help

from British and

▪ Norwegian engineers the 118 members of the crew had been killed.

SOCIAL Political CULTURAL ▪ Hyperinflation meant Russians

turned to the black market for clothes, food and essentials

▪ Pro-democracy demonstrators who feared they could lose their democracy, staged massive demonstrations

▪ By 1998, 74 million people lived below the poverty line, in comparison to 2 million in 1989, the consumption of alcohol had doubled

▪ Boris Yeltsin was responsible for implementing a series of political and economic reforms that transformed Russia into a democratic state with a capitalist economy

▪ Russia underwent a mass privatisation of their assets; industry and infrastructure, oil and gas reserves, banks etc.

▪ Rise of oligarchy ▪ In the end of communism, a power

vacuum had been created, the new government had to move fast to design new constitutions and economic structures.

▪ Change occurred in three phases: 1. Yeltsin and economic shock

therapy 1991-92 2. Privatisation and the rise of

the oligarchs 1993-95 3. The Russian financial crisis

1998 ▪ The Russian economy was on the

brink of collapse, the Rouble was extremely devalued

▪ By the end of 1995, the Russian people were tired of instability and reforms, and the Communist Party re-emerged as a political force with 22% of the vote in the December 1995 elections

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o The Kursk had been hailed as an unsinkable vessel, the accident was seen a humiliation to the

Russian military and national pride.

▪ When he met the families of the victims, they shouted at him and accused him of

incompetence.

Putin Doctrine:

o Chechnya also put extreme pressure heavily on Putin’s early years in power. The former soviet

republic had pushed for independence but been recognised as part of Russia in a 2003

referendum.

o Central to Putin's policy initiatives has been to reassert Russia as the regional power. The

integration of previous Soviet countries into the block led to some observes declaring a third

Cold War.

o Putin Doctrine: the policy of recovering the economic, strategic and political assets lost by the

Soviet State in 1991.

o Putin even declared war of Georgia when it made moves to join NATO and threatened to halt

natural gas deliveries to the Ukraine after the Ukraine sought closer ties with Europe. In 2006 &

2009 he followed through on his promise.

3. THE INFLUENCE OF THE USA INTERNATIONALLY 1991-201,1 INCLUDING:

- The nature of US foreign policy in the post-Cold War world, including the use of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’

power

Hard power –The willingness to use military force rather than diplomacy to achieve international foreign

policy aims

▪ The Bush administration’s use of pre-emptive strikes is one of hard power.

▪ The reasoning behind this is that it is better to deal with an enemy while they are still weak, and

before they emerge as a real threat

▪ Economic sanctions may be regarded as an expression of hard power because they coerce

nations to act in line with international norms by restricting trade and stopping supplies

Soft Power – Soft power refers to the idea of being able to attract states towards sharing your interests

and values.

o The main categories under which soft power can be measured are:

▪ The attractiveness of a culture, including education, technology and entertainment

▪ The virtue of political values

▪ Exercising a fair foreign policy

o The most effective instruments of soft power are education and technology

WAR IN IRAQ (2003)

o In 2002, US President George W. Bush announced the possible use of force against Iraq to eliminate a dangerous threat to international peace and security to enforce the 2002 Security Council resolution 1441:

▪ “Recognizing the threat Iraq’s non-compliance with Council resolutions and proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles poses to international peace and security”

▪ “Decides that Iraq has been and remains in material breach of its obligations under relevant resolutions, including resolution 687 (1991), in particular through Iraq’s failure to cooperate with United Nations inspectors and the IAEA, and to comp”

o The Security Council made countless attempts of threats of insurgence where Iraq refused to fully comply with these resolutions. In March 2003, the US invaded Iraq and soon ended the regime of Saddam Hussein.

o Other leading nations (France, Germany and Russia) argued that the international law did not justify US intervention in Iraq - the US justified their intervention as it being an act of ‘self-defence’.

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- supporters and opponents of US foreign policy, focusing on Europe, Asia and the Middle East

EUROPE

o NATO grew out of America’s post WWII Marshall Plan that helped rebuild war-torn Europe,

creating stable and secure political and economic conditions of growth

o The original 12 members have since grown to 28 member nations

o The US has had a strong military presence in Europe dating back to the end of WWII,

maintaining garrisons and air bases with the support of many European governments who are

also members of NATO

o NATO is the largest and most powerful military alliance in history

▪ Its core principle was mutual defence against possible invasion of its members by

Russia

o Since the collapse of communism, there are renewed fears that three strategic Baltic states

(Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia) are at risk from Russian intervention

o NATOs expansion has angered Russia however has ultimately kept the peace in Europe in

addition to binding together the US, Canada, the European allies, largely keeping a stable world

order

o NATO’s areas of engagement have included:

▪ Bosnia and Herzegovina – in 1995, 60 000 NATO troops were deployed to the Balkans

▪ Kosovo – in 1999, NATO ended the humanitarian crisis and stabilised the security

situation. Today, NATO troops remain in Kosovo due to the fragile security situation.

RUSSIA

o US/Russian relations were good under Yeltsin, but turned for the worse after the NATO bombing

of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1999

o Relations have significantly deteriorated under Putin

o Major disagreements include:

▪ 9/11 – the foreign policy of Bush put US interests first

▪ Peaceful revolutions in Georgia (2003) and the Ukraine (2004) – Putin blamed the US for

encouraging anti-Russian revolts

▪ Missiles in Europe – in 2002 the US announced it would withdraw from the Anti-Ballistic

Missile Treaty and would build a missile defence system in Europe. Putin called the

decision a mistake

▪ Iraq 2003 – Russia strongly opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq but did not use its veto

power in the UNSC

▪ NATO expansions in Eastern Europe, creeping closer to Russia

“intervention and regime change were necessary to forcibly disarm a nation that was not

complying with the demands and requirements of the international community and which they

argued was a global danger” – D. Sykes (Historian)

“NATO expansion undercut Western and American goals in Europe”

– Michael Mandelbaum (historian)

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4. NEW CENTRES OF GLOBAL POWER 1989-2011, INCLUDING:

- The emergence, growth and influence of the European Union

The EU was established on Nov 1st, 1993 and pushed for corporations and integration. Reasons for this

included:

o Soviet communism in East Europe had cast a shadow over the social democracies and economic

system of Western Europe and better economic outcomes could eb gained when united.

o The state of the economy and military in Western Europe was in decline and change was needed.

Jacques Delors – President of the European Commission

o Encouraged member states to work towards a single market in Europe.

o Had a goal to remove all barriers to the free movement of goods, labour and services by 1992.

Single European Act (1986)

o abolished national vetoes on some of the trade issues in Europe

o strengthened the power of the European Parliament

Maastricht Treaty (1991)

o the plan to adopt a single currency - the euro - which commenced among 11 member states,

initially for non-cash transactions only, in 1999 (Britain opted out)

o the establishment of a European Central Bank the concept of European citizenship, with the right

to move freely between states

o the right for any citizen to work and vote in any member state

o the intention for Europe to act in concert on issues of foreign affairs.

Over the course of the next three decades, the EU grew in size and power as its membership increased.

The EU was gaining power as it was enlarged across the continent and given stronger powers with each

new treaty.

- The rise and influence of BRIC: Brazil, Russia, India and China

o The central aim of BRIC was the introduction of a multipolar world order. Since the end of the

Cold War, the United States has enjoyed hegemony in nearly every sphere.

o With the rise of China as an economic power, Russia reasserting its power in Eastern Europe, a

rising middle class in India, and Brazil emerging as a leader in South America it was inevitable

that these emerging powers would call for a greater share in global governance, especially when

it came to issues of security.

o One of the major priorities of BRIC was the push for reform in international organisations such as

the United Nations Security Council to better reflect current geopolitical realities.

▪ Security Council permanent members - the United States, Russia, China, France and

Britain reflected the great political powers of 1945.

▪ By the mid-2000s the permanent members had become open to reform of the system.

- Resurgence of modern nationalisms and the influence of non-state actors

Non-state actor – an individual or organization that has significant political influence but is not allied to

any country or state.

o By the mid-2000s after the Cold War, there was a rise of modern nationalisms

▪ A result of loss of faith in national institutions of the nation state.

▪ Failure of Western liberal democracies

o Issues to nationalistic movements was immigration.

o Non-state actors shaped the modern world by:

▪ New media and its effect on modern nationalisms

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▪ Multinational technology companies

▪ Militant Islam.

o The role of non-state actors in the collection and use of data is a challenge facing 21st-century

national governments.

o The international nature of technology companies means that laws regarding the handing over of

data are still evolving.

▪ Applies not only to information about policy and national security.

o Data is becoming an important aspect of advertising and marketing, leading to fears about

privacy and how that data is used.

▪ Companies such as Google, Facebook, Amazon and Alibaba can capture an enormous

amount of information about users' browsing habits and history and sell it to third

parties for very large sums of money.

MODERN NATIONALSIMS – YUGOSLAVIA

o Member republics of Yugoslav Federation (Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnian Muslims and

Albanian) pushed for independence.

o The Serbian President became the new President of Yugoslavia and dominated Yugoslavia frm its

capital (Belgrade)

▪ Had effective control over the Yugoslav Army

o Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in June of 1991

▪ Caused nationalist tensions as Serbian forced attempted to prevent other member

republics from following suit.

o Bosnia had a largely Serb population and Serb forced began systematic ethnic cleansing of the

region where Bosnian Muslims and ethnic Croats were killed or driven out.

o NATO and the US were forced to step in with airstrikes on Serbia in an attempt to stop violence

after the Albanian enclave of Kosovo (southern region of Serbia)

MILTANT ISLAM

o Terrorism had become more international after 1991 - First Persian Gulf War (1991)

o The ongoing US military presence in Saudi Arabia had caused conflict between the US and Islamic

groups

▪ As the military bases occupied Islamic holiest pilgrimage sites.

▪ Resulted in:

- The African embassy bombings in Tanzania and Kenya (1998)

- Bombing of USS Cole in Yemen (2000)

▪ President Bush declared war or terror in 2001

o Islamic fundamentalist-inspired terrorism has been a significant force as it has shaped US foreign

policy responses.

5. THE UNITED NATIONS IN POST-COLD WAR HISTORY 1991-2011, INCLUDING:

- International challenges to peace and security in the post-Cold War world and debate over the

role and influence of the United Nations

Role and Influence of the UN:

o The UN aimed of countering threats to global peace and security

o Blue helmets – UN military personnel who are deployed to peace keep in civil war situations.

o The UN also oversees peace agreements, disarmament and human rights monitoring.

“between 1992 and 1995, some 100,000 people died in the war in the Balkans”

– Michael Mandelbaum (historian)

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o By the early 2000s however, the UN was being bypassed by powerful member states.

▪ War in Iraq without UN approval.

o The UN peace keeping forces were flawed as they had no authority to use force and were often

powerless to intervene and could not act (unless for self-defence).

o Peace keeping measures could only be enforced when both parties of conflict agreed to UN

presence.

UN and International Law

o Established in 1945, the ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN. o The Court settles (in accordance to international law) legal disputes that are submitted by the

states to give opinion authorized by specialised agencies. o The Court is composed of fifteen judges who are elected and serve a term of office of nine years.

They are appointed by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council. o In the case of Yugoslavia, the UN established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former

Yugoslavia in May 1993 ▪ The first indictment was in November 1994, against a detention camp commander, for

atrocities committed against non-Serb civilians in Bosnia. ▪ In November 1995, two high-profile Bosnian Serb leaders, Radovan Karadžić and Ratko

Mladić, were indicted on charges of genocide. ▪ The first trial commenced in May 1996. ▪ In May 1999, the UN set another standard in international justice when it indicted a

sitting head of state, Yugoslavian leader Slobodan Milošević, for his actions against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo in the same year.

Challenges to peace and security post-Cold War

Intervention and Sate Sovereignty:

o The intervention of the United Nations in domestic conflicts led to new questions about the UN's

role and state sovereignty.

o If the UN was to intervene in intrastate conflict, civil war and differences between ethnic groups,

then this would go against the principle in international relations, of non-intervention in internal

disputes.

Responsibility to Protect

o The UN's failure to protect civilian populations in Somalia, Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia led

to reforms within the UN.

o Arguments that state sovereignty was inviolable were pushed aside when it came to gross and

systematic abuse of human rights.

▪ The principle of responsibility to protect extended the idea of state sovereignty by

declaring that those countries that wanted to enjoy their sovereignty needed to accept

responsibility for the safety and welfare of their populations.

▪ If those states failed in this responsibility, the international community would intervene

to protect.

o At the UN World Summit in 2005, member states officially adopted the principle.

▪ Paragraphs 138 and 139 of the summit outcome documents outlined the

responsibilities of states and detailed the types of interventions that could be carried

out should the state fail in its duty

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- Assessment of the role and impact of the United Nations as international peacekeeper in the

former Yugoslavia 1991–1992

Conflict in Yugoslavia

o When Slovenia and Croatia declared independence the Serb-dominated federal parliament

rejected the move.

▪ Slovenians were worried that Serbia would dominate the federation after the end of the

Cold War.

o Croatia was complicated the presence of Croatian Serbs.

▪ Serbian President sent in troops to protect local Serbs

▪ Resulted in conflict in September of 1991.

▪ In February of 1992, the UN was forced to intervene in the conflict in Yugoslavia.

o The struggle between Croats and Serbs turned into a civil war.

▪ Bosnian Muslims making up nearly 45 per cent of the population, Serbs making up over

30 per cent, and a minority of Croats, dividing up the republic would lead to significant

conflict.

o On 5 April 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared its own independence.

▪ The Serb minority rejected this outcome.

o Bosnian Serb nationalists also rejected the so-called three-state solution, which would have

divided Bosnia into Croat, Muslim and Serb areas, and commenced a program of driving out

ethnic Muslims from their area the process of ethnic cleansing.

o In April, the Serbs blockaded the city of Sarajevo in a siege that lasted four years.

o Under the leadership of the Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic, Serb forces took some two-

thirds of Bosnia in quick time.

▪ Their methods were brutal, and included torture, mass rape, displacement and

deportation of civilians, and destruction of property.

▪ Ethnic groups including Muslims and Croats, were put in detention centres and

murdered in large numbers.

▪ The UN declared the program of ethnic cleansing a genocide.

Role and impact of UN Forces:

o On 25 September 1991 United Nations Security Council placed an embargo on the shipment of

arms to Yugoslavia.

▪ Critics have suggested that this ban favoured Serbia because it had control over the

military and existing arms.

o UN forces first entered Yugoslavia in February 1992, only months after Serbia invade Croatia

o The United Nations Protection Force (UNPF) entered the country to create safe havens for local

Croats against Serb forces and committed to stay for an initial period of 12 months.

o In February 1992, the UN had determined that the threat of a new conflagration was more

serious than groups expressing objections to the UN plan.

o The UN mission was to create safe havens in Croatia to protect civilians from the killing.

▪ These United Nations Protected Areas (UNPAS) needed to be demilitarised.

▪ A further goal was to remove all of the Serb-dominated Yugoslav Army from Croatia.

o Throughout 1992, a series of expansions of the mission allowed the UN to control who came into

and out of the UNPAs and allowed peacekeepers to move outside the zones

o The role and actions of the UN included securing Sarajevo's airport to allow much-needed food

and medical aid to reach those displaced by the war.

o The UN enforced a no-fly zone of military aircraft in Bosnian airspace and sought to prevent

weapons from getting into Bosnia by sending observers to border control stations.

o Since the Serb leadership did not cooperate with the UN peacekeepers, the president of

Macedonia invited a contingent of UN peacekeepers into his country out of fear that the war

would spill over there.

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o The failure to stop the murder of people, even in safe areas, was a fundamental shortcoming of

the mission. The following source study examines the reasons for the UN's failure to protect

Bosnian Croats and Muslims.

“their reluctance to authorize the use of force (particularly airstrikes against the Bosnian Serbs

and for their concern for the security of UN peacekeepers”

– Brad Kelly (historian)

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Sasha Sitkowski

Elizabeth Macarthur High School

HSC Year 2020