HOW PEOPLE CHANGE

INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THERAPY

THE PLENUM SERIES IN SOCIAL I CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY Series Editor: C. R. Snyder

University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas

HOW PEOPLE CHANGE Inside and Outside Therapy

Edited by Rebecca C. Curtis and George Stricker

SELF-DEFEATING BEHAVIORS Experimental Research, Clinical Impressions, and Practical Implications

Edited by Rebecca C. Curtis

SELF-HANDICAPPING The Paradox That Isn't

Raymond L. Higgins, C. R. Snyder, and Steven Berglas

A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.

HOW PEOPLE CHANGE

INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THERAPY

EDITED BY REBECCA C. CURTIS

AND GEORGE STRICKER

Derner Institute of Advanced Psychological Studies Adelphi University

Garden City, New York

SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA. LLC

Llbrary of Congrass Catalogtng-tn-Publtcatton Data

How people change : inside and outside therapy I edited by Rebecca c. Curtis and George Stricker.

p. Cl. -- <The Plenum serles ln soclal/cllnlcal psychologyl Includes blbliographlcal references and Index.

ISBN 978-1-4899-0743-1 ISBN 978-1-4899-0741-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-0741-7

1. Behavlor therapy. 2. Change <Psychology) I. Curtls, Rebecca C. II. Stricker, George.

[DNLM: 1. Behavior Therapy. 2. Personallty. 3. Psychology, Cllnlcal. HM 425 H847) RC489.B4H62 1991 616.89'142--dc20 DNLM/DLC for Llbrary of Congress 91-2691

ISBN 978-1-4899-0743-1

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Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1991 Softcoverreprint ofthe hardcover1st edition 1991

To all of those who have taught us how people change, especially our patients and clients

CONTRIBUTORS ELLIOT ARONSON, Stevenson College, University of California, Santa

Cruz, Santa Cruz, California 95065

BARBARA BENEDICT BUNKER, Department of Psychology, State Univer­sity of New York at Buffalo, New York 14260

SHEILA M. COONERTY, Department of Psychology, Long Island Univer­sity, Forest Hills, New York 11375

ALLAN COOPER, William Alanson White Institute, New York, New York 10023

JOEL COOPER, Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Prince­ton, New Jersey 08544

REBECCA CURTIS, Derner Institute of Advanced Psychological Studies, Adelphi University, Garden City, New York 11530

JACQUELINE J. DELISLE, Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo, New York 14260

MARVIN R. GOLDFRIED, Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Stony Brook, New York 11794

LESLIE S. GREENBERG, Department of Psychology, York University, North York, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada

DIANA ADILE KIRSCHNER, Private Practice, Gwynedd Valley, Pennsyl­vania 19437

SAM KIRSCHNER, Private Practice, Gwynedd Valley, Pennsylvania 19437

OTTO KLINEBERG, Professor Emeritus, Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, New York 10022

LEIGH MCCULLOUGH, Department of Psychology in Psychiatry, Univer­sity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104

vii

viii CONTRIBUTORS

ESTHER MENAKER, New York University Postdoctoral Program, New York, New York 10003

RENE H. RHODES, Program in Clinical Psychology, Teachers College, New York, New York 10022

CAROL M. RUBIN, Private Practice, 20 Claremont Street, Newton, Mas­sachusetts 02158

JEFFREY Z. RUBIN, Department of Psychology, Tufts University, Med­ford, Massachusetts 02155

GEORGE STRICKER, Derner Institute of Advanced Psychological Studies, Adelphi University, Garden City, New York 11530

PAUL L. WACHTEL, Department of Psychology, City College of New York, New York, New York 10031

PREFACE

In the myth of Daphne and Apollo, Cupid fired two arrows: one causing flight from love, the other passionate attraction. Cupid aimed his first arrow at Daphne, a beautiful nymph who loved her freedom; the next struck Apollo, who lusted after Daphne. Daphne, frightened and intent upon virginity, fled Apollo but was unable to run fast enough. When her strength was almost gone, she sought protection in the familiar waters of her father's river. He answered her prayers: Her hair became leaves, and her feet, roots growing into the ground; she was transformed into a laurel tree. Apollo, kissing the sprouting bark, pledged to honor Daphne by placing a laurel wreath on the head of every hero who won a victory. Unable to evade the consequences of the arrow that wounded her, Daphne called upon the river, the creative power of both nature and time-a symbol of fertility, but also of oblivion-to help her survive when her strength was gone.

Daphne's inner triumph in the face of injury is an appropriate sym­bol for the types of transformation witnessed by psychologists. In his book on symbols, Circlot (1962, p. 173) writes that the crowning of the poet, artist, or conqueror with laurel leaves "presupposes a series of inner victories over the negative and dissipative influence of the basest forces." Further, the tree "denotes the life of the cosmos: its consistence, growth, proliferation, generative, and regenerative processes" (Circlot, 1962, p. 328).

As I reflected upon the contributions to this volume, the image of Daphne's transformation into a laurel tree came frequently to mind. Although the changes that occur in Greek and Roman myths are some­times violent and rapid, the psychological significance of these "truths of fiction," as Horace Gregory (1958, p. xii) tells us in his introduction to The Metamorphoses, is "more convincing than any document or 'case history' can hope to be." Sometimes it is impossible for people in the real

ix

X PREFACE

world to make changes in their actual life circumstances. Like Daphne, when the obstacles people are facing are assessed and the brute power and cruelty of others are experienced, the most that people can hope to change is their perception of their situation and/or themselves.

Hearing the life stories of patients, I have often tried to imagine how I would have endured the series of abuses that patients had described. I have also wondered how change might take place so that in many of these cases a patient would not try to commit suicide again soon after leaving the hospital. Very rapid transformations are required in such circumstances if patients are to avoid long-term hospitalization. And although the metamorphoses of these people, when they occur, are less dramatic than those in fiction, their extremes of passion are not- for these people are ready to die if their desires remain so unfulfilled.

As a clinician with a background in social psychology, certain ques­tions inevitably arose when I became engaged in psychotherapy. For example, are there any commonalities between theories of individual change and theories of social change? Or, even more specifically, what are the similarities and differences among theories of individual change in naturally occurring settings and theories of individual change in therapy?

With questions such as these in mind, a conference entitled "How People Change: Inside and Outside Therapy'' was organized and held at Adelphi University on October 1, 1988. The introduction by Curtis and the chapters by Aronson, Goldfried, the Kirschners, Klineberg, Men­aker, Stricker, and Wachtel are based upon presentations at that confer­ence. Morton Deutsch, Harvey Horstein, and Hans Strupp also spoke there, with the Strupp paper published in Journal of Cognitive Psycho­therapy and Research: An International Quarterly.

Hopefully, the ideas of the contributors will be of use to both scien­tists and practitioners. And knowing that political and social changes affect the lives of many much more quickly and dramatically than does individual psychotherapy, it is hoped that these ideas will be of use as psychologists and other change agents attempt to help themselves and others make interventions which will lead to a less destructive world.

Sometimes change seems so difficult that many of us believe any efforts to make large-scale changes will be wasted. It is difficult, how­ever, to envision how a society can cope when at least 18% (Brazelton, 1990) to 43% (Blakeslee, 1990) of the babies born in major cities have suffered the effects of substance abuse in utero and are possibly neuro­logically damaged for life. It is important, of course, not to make recom­mendations with insufficient knowledge, but it is irresponsible for social scientists not to communicate that we know much more about

PREFACE xi

conditions affecting the maintenance and change of human behaviors than was known 100 years ago. Although we are aware that change can be very difficult, we also know that it is possible. And although the pathways of change cannot be mapped out adequately in one volume, we have hopefully left footprints leading in some useful directions.

To tell of bodies transformed, That is my purpose Because it is you, 0 Gods, Who create change and art, Breathe life into me to further this enterprise

(Ovid, The Metamorphoses, Book I, lines 1-4a, author's translation)

Rebecca C. Curtis Garden City, New York

REFERENCES

Circlot, J. E. (1962). A dictionary of symbols a. Sage, Trans.). New York: Philosophical Library.

Gregory, H. (1958). Introduction. In Ovid: The metaphorphoses (H. Gregory, Trans.). New York: The Viking Press.

Blakeslee, S. (1990, May 19). Child-rearing is stormy when drugs cloud birth. New York Times, pp. 1, 9.

Brazelton, J. B. (1990, September 9). Why is America failing its children? New York Times Magazine, pp. 40-42, 50, 90.

CONTENTS Chapter 1

How People Change: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Rebecca Curtis

The Importance of Understanding How People Change . . . . . . . 5 Overview of the Chapters in this Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 The Facilitation of Growth, Change, and Generativity. . . . . . . . . 8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

PART I. PERSPECTIVES FROM CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 2

Questioning the Sacred Cow of the Transference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Esther Menaker

Chapter 3

The Role of '~ccomplices" in Preventing and Facilitating Change. . 21

Paul L. Wachtel

Chapter 4

Transtheoretical Ingredients in Therapeutic Change............. 29

Marvin R. Goldfried

The Psychotherapy Change Process......................... 31

xiii

xiv CONTENTS

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Chapter 5

Emotion in the Change Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Leslie S. Greenberg and Rene H. Rhodes

Emotion in the Change Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 A Process Perspective on Human Experience and Change. . . . . 40 Emotion and Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Emotion as Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Emotion in Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Primary Emotion in Therapeutic Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Distress and Sadness in the Process of Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Adaptational Dimension of the Expression of Sadness . . . . . . . . 49 In-Therapy Sequences of the Experience

and Expression of Distress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Three Aspects of Emotional Processing in Psychotherapy . . . . . 51 The Interpersonal Aspect of Avoidance:

Socialization of Distress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Phenomenonological Aspect of Avoidance:

Fear of Disintegration. . .. .. . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . 54 Motivational Aspect of Avoidance:

Agency-The Challenge to Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Summary ................................................. 57 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Chapter 6

Davanloo's Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy: A Cross-Theoretical Analysis of Change Mechanisms . . . . . . . 59

Leigh McCullough

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Case Illustration........................................... 60 Overview of STOP Procedures and Change Mechanisms. . . . . . 63 Hypotheses and Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

CONTENTS XV

Chapter 7

Change in the Change Agents: Growth in the Capacity to Heal... 81

Sheila M. Coonerty

The Therapeutic Relationship and Therapist Change. . . . . . . . . . 83 The Therapist's Belief System and Therapist Change. . . . . . . . . . 86 Clinician Development: Concepts and Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Training and Learning in the Integrative Phase of

Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Summary ................................................. 95 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Chapter 8

PART II. PERSPECTIVES FROM SOCIAL,

FAMILY, AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

How to Change Behavior ..................................... 101

Elliot Aronson

The Importance of Details. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Reducing Prejudice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Energy Conservation ...................................... 106 Reducing the Spread of AIDS ............................... 109 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Chapter 9

Changing Attitudes and Reducing Tensions between People . . . . . 113

Otto Klineberg

Chapter 10

The Two Faces of Change: Progression and Regression ........... 117

Sam Kirschner and Diana Adile Kirschner

Progressive Abreactive Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Progressive Abreactive Regression in Family Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Clinical Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

xvi CONTENTS

Case Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Chapter 11

Individual Change in Organizational Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Barbara Benedict Bunker and Jacqueline J. DeLisle

The Individual and the Organization ........................ 130 Six Frameworks for Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Resistance to Change ...................................... 141 Organizational Events and Individual Change ............... 144 Summary ................................................. 152 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Chapter 12

Conflict, Negotiation, and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Jeffrey Z. Rubin and Carol M. Rubin

Conflict "Resolution," Social Influence, and Change .......... 159 Change and Self-Interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Change and Ripeness ...................................... 164 Change and the Role of Third Parties ........................ 165 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

PART Ill. INTEGRATION AND CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 13

How People Change with and without Therapy ................. 173

Allan Cooper and Joel Cooper

Changing Attitudes and Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 The Dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Sustaining Change ........................................ 183 Changing in Psychotherapy: Possibilities and Difficulties ..... 186 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

CONTENTS xvii

For the Future ............................................. 188 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Chapter 14

Toward an Integrative Theory of Psychological Change in Individuals and Organizations: A Cognitive-Affective Regulation Model. ................... 191

Rebecca Curtis

How the Change Process Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Self-Regulation Models and Normal Change Processes ........ 194 Dysfunctions in the Self-Regulation Process .................. 196 The Role of Change Agents ................................. 200 The Toleration of Unpleasant Experiences or the Expectation

That Such Experiences Can Be Tolerated as Essential to the Change Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Examples of the Application of the Integrative Theory in Individual and Organizational Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

How People Change: A Brief Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

George Stricker

Index ....................................................... 215