How Muslims Were Forced to Accept Christianity

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History! how Muslims were forced to accept Christianity.

by ammuslim on Tue Jul 31, 2007 2:33 am

Bismillah: Assalamo ALikum.

HOW THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT AND CHURCHES FORCED MUSLIMS OF

PHILIPPINE TO CONVERTED TO CHRISTIANITY

As I, previously a Christian Filipino-American, began to return to my grass roots I stumbledupon a diamond in the rough; I discovered a history of the Philippines that I had never

encountered. Although this discovery of my heritage is rich in history and is a source of

dignity, my natural reaction was to say, "Aren't they terrorists?" At this time I see my lack of

knowledge.

My name is Mahdiyah and I am among the many in my community of Filipino-Americans

who have converted to Islam. I felt the need to write this chapter about the Muslims in the

Philippines because, surprisingly, to many Filipinos and Filipino-Americans the Muslim


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Filipino and his/her history in relation to the Philippines is a "familiar stranger."1 They are

aware that Muslim Filipinos belong somewhere in the mosaic of Philippine history, but they

are not aware of the Muslim Filipinos actual involvement and struggle.

Chapter Three

The Subjugation of the Elephant: Maguindanao

and the Moro People

Mahdiyah

. . History books in the Philippines tend to lay emphasis on events in other islands and glorify

national heroes from such areas, as if the history of the Philippines is only that of people who

had been conquered while the history of the unconquered ones do not merit a share in the

history of the Philippines. Possibly, with greater tolerance, intensive scholarship on all levels,

deeper and wider moral perspectives, and a greater appreciation of the concept and

implications of a pluralistic society, a future generation of Filipinos would consider the struggle

of the Muslim South as part of the struggle of the entire nation-and the epic exploits of its

heroes may well be the nation's heritage.2

The title of this compilation of essays is, Saving the Elephant: Asian Encounters withImperialism, Orientalism and Globalization. Therefore, I will attempt to provide a definition of

imperialism, and try to gently address those who fall under that definition in relation to

Maguindanao and the Moro people.

George Orwell's essay, "Shooting the Elephant," conveys the struggles that accompany

imperialism and the plight of the subjugated. Orwell was born and raised during a time when

Britain was building their empire which had already reached the country of Burma. He writes

about his experience with the coolies of the area he policed and a situation involving an

elephant. Orwell stated that "at that time I had already made up my mind that imperialism was

an evil thing and the sooner I chucked up my job and got out of it the better." But during histerm in India he was forced to act on his leadership role, as an arm of the British Empire, by

killing an elephant. The elephant in Orwell's essay may symbolize Burma.

Orwell's elephant is viewed as commodity by the English. Therefore, Orwell signifies

imperialists who subjugate the elephant. In an attempt to relate this chapter to Orwell's essay,

the Spanish and the United States signify the white man and his dominion in the East,

paralleling Orwell, while Maguindanao and the Moro people take the place of the elephant.

Introduction: Pre-Spanish Colonization

The Philippine archipelago consists of more than 7,000 islands and islets in the South China

Sea from Taiwan in the north and Borneo in the south. Its inhabitants were mainly nomadic

tribal people who relied on hunting and gathering for their survival, as the Philippines are rich

in natural resources, with fertile plains and rich valleys. Muslims consider lineage, in all

matters, as greatly important, allowing one to trace back their ancestry, knowledge, etc. So, for

a Muslim, there are no negative implications in the word tribe, a community of people in a

traditional society who share customs, beliefs and descent from a common ancestor.


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These tribes were composed of families and close relatives, roughly organized under chiefs

and chieftains. These tribes primarily competed and fought with neighboring tribes for

resources and dominance. The inhabitants of the archipelago were polytheistic, believing in

gods and goddesses.

There were lesser gods and goddesses, like a god of death, a god of agriculture, a goddess of

harvest, sea gods, river gods, and the like. It was also believed that things found in nature were

full of spirits more powerful than man. Spirits of dead relatives were also revered. Sacrifices

were offered to all of them. The ancient Filipinos believed in the immortality of the soul and in

life after death. Disease or illness was attributed to the whims of the environmental spirits and

the soul-spirits of the dead relatives.3

Muslim travelers helped the archipelago tribes adopt a developed social structure, implemented

leadership, laws, and public relations.4

There is no single explanation of the way Islam was introduced to the Philippines. Rather it is

a "complex phenomenon" about which a series of theories have been developed. Six major

theories were produced to describe the coming of Islam to the Philippines. The first was the

trade theory. The second is, for lack of better terminology, the "missionary theory." In this

chapter, because there is no better term, the word missionary will be used, even though

Muslim do not believe in going to other parts of the world with the initial intention of

advancing their beliefs and religion. Muslims believe in giving the invitation to Islam, they

believe that there is no compulsion in religion; so, their sole intention was not to convert

people. However, if people want to know and are willing to listen, Muslims tell them about

Allah and how they worship the Creator of the worlds.

The third theory, which is political in nature, is a conscious replacement for the first theory, in

part due to the latter's alleged improbability. In addition, the exposure to "Muslim traders,during the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries did not reveal any dramatic process of

Islamization, providing that the trade factor was not the important one."5 This theory suggests

that the Muslim traders had a political agenda, although, the political theory applies more to the

conversion of local rulers. "The political theory maintains that the adoption of Islam by the

rulers and the court for political motives explains the growth of Islam in Malaysia."6

The fourth theory is economic, and complements the political theory. A fifth theory described

the spread of Islam as due to the manner in which the Muslims introduced their religion to the

locals. The Muslim way of life may give freedom and a greater sense of belonging to a person

who was part of a caste system. Lastly the sixth theory is the crusader theory. It would be tooeasy to explain the coming of Islam to the Philippines by six methods. The advent of Islam

was much more complicated. The most widely accepted theory among scholars is the

missionary theory, since missionary activity was so prevalent in the thirteenth century. The

introduction of Islam in the Philippines also occurred at different times throughout their history.

During the ninth century Arab traders, as well as Muslims from Persia and India, controlled the

sea trader of the Nanhai7 as they gained more control as one of the world powers. In 878 in


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Knanhu8, Muslim merchants along with their families were killed, causing others to flee to

Kalah, a port in the Malay Peninsula. Trade flourished and the Muslims became increasingly

acquainted with their surrounding area, such as Borneo and Sulu, an island south west of the

Philippines. In fact, Chinese records report that in 982 there was a ship captained by an Arab

in Khanfu. The ship had arrived from Mo-yi, an island that scholars theorized is either

Mindoro or Luzon in the Philippines archipelago, and carried various products from

destinations along the South China Sea.

By the eleventh century, there were many well developed Muslim settlements along the

Muslim trade route traversing the South China Sea, which may have helped facilitate the

spread of Islam to the Philippines. However, there is no substantial evidence that natives

converted to Islam during this time, although Muslims who resided in these areas extensively,

intermarried into native tribes and had close relationships with local rulers, sometimes

establishing economic partnerships. These partnerships may have contributed to the political

power of Muslims in these areas. In the thirteenth century, some Muslims gained political

status in some areas ruled by princes in Sumatra.

This led to one of the first known conversions to Islam in this region of the world. Iskandar

Shah converted to Islam and founded Malacca around the 1400's. Malacca was funded by

wealthy Muslim merchants. It soon expaned eastern trade and became a center of theological

studies. This is when theory two becomes evident. People from this area, or those who

traveled to study the Islamic faith in Malacca, would often pass through and visit places such

as Java, Borneo, while the converts from Java and Borneo would pass through one of the

Philippine islands, Sulu.

With this understanding of how Islam spread in Asia, to such countries as China and Malaysia,

one can conclude that the natives of the Philippine archipelago may have been fairly well

acquainted with Muslims and their way of life by the tenth century. In fact, there is tangible

evidence that Muslims had arrived in the Philippines. On the island of Jolo, there is a hillside

tomb at Bud Dato9belonging to Tuhan Maqbalu. Cesar notes:

Inspite of his Arab name, his ethnic origin is unknown. But "Tuhan" is an important title since

that come to designate chiefs or state ministers as shown by an almost contemporary Sumatran

tomb inscription of 1347. That many Sulu sultans were crowned at the tomb's site also proved

its significance.10

The tomb inscription tells us that the deceased passed away in the Islamic year of 710 after

Hijrah, which is equivalent to 1310 c.e. It was includes an Arabic a saying of the Prophet

Muhammad, peace be upon him, "Whoever dies far away(from home), dies a martyr."11 The

style of calligraphy used, the Prophetic saying, the pointed bow shape of the tomb, the tomb

material, and the tenon at its base are similar to the tombs of foreign Muslims found around

Asian. Some tombs are still preserved in Guangzhou, and suggest that the tomb was prepared

in Guangzhou as well as that Tuhan Maqbalu was Muslim.

The most important pieces of evidence that explain how Islam came to the Philippines are the

tarsilas,12 genealogical records of an individual's ancestral linkage to political and religious


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people of importance. These documents often provide descriptions of the individual, their

activities, and names of related places and people. The tarsilas also refer to historical events

and traditions. According to the tarsilas, one of the earliest Muslims to come to the Philippines

in Sulu was Tuhan Masha'ika13, who married the daughter of the Maimbung chief, Raja

Sipad, also known as Raja Sri Paduka.

Later a Muslim missionary, Makhdum Karim, came to Sulu in 1380 and eventually lived there

with the tribe of Taguimaha in the area of Buansa near Jolo, where he built a masjid. The

tarsilas also show that during the time of the Tuhan Masha'ika's grandsons, who ruled in the

area of Maimbung, a Muslim Prince, Raja Baguinda, from Menangkabaw, Sumatra came to

Buansa as an exile from Palembang when the Javanese Majapahit army pursued the last of the

Srivijayan Empire in 1397. The natives of Taguimaha, who became Muslim through Tuhan

Makhdum, and the Sumatran Prince and his companions, initiated a battle. But the tarsilas note

that the battle ended when the people of Taguimaha discovered the Sumatran Prince and his

company were Muslims. Raja Baguinda settled with the Taguimahas and married the daughter

of a local chief, starting a family of his own. The next Muslim to arrive, according to the

tarsilas, was Sharif Abu Bakr, who married the daughter of Raja Baguinda and became chief.

As early as the thirteenth century, if not earlier, settlements of predominately Muslim

merchants introduced the first glimpse of Islam to the Philippines and raised Muslim families.

Later Muslim descendants had social and political prominence, bringing political institutions,

laws, and madrasahs(Islamic schools). Islam spread rapidly throughout the Philippines,

reaching as far north as Luzon with Muslim settlement in Manila and Tondo. Most traces of

Muslim presence were eliminated when the Spanish arrived and made Manila the capital of the

Spanish colony.

Castellans

During this time, when Islam was spreading throughout the Philippines, the European world

was competing to control trade. Not only was Islam spreading in the Philippine archipelago, it

was also spreading eastward. Muslim control over many trade routes closed off the possibility

for Europeans to trade with the Orient?with the exception of the Venetians. The Venetians

were allies of the Egyptian Muslims against the Greeks and maintained good relations with the

Muslims. As a result, they had permission to trade along the southern route that ended in

Cairo, the only access to trade with the Orient for Europeans. Hence, the Venetians gained a

monopoly, which the Spanish and the Portuguese wanted to break to increase their own

profits. Agoncillo and Guerroro observe:

While the commercial motive took precedence over all other motives, the search for a new

trade route was accompanied by a strong missionary impulse. In 1942 the reconquista, or the

movement to destroy the Muslim power and influence in the Iberian Peninsula, ended with the

capture of Granada. The spirit of the reconquista, however, was to live on in the attempts of

Spain and Portugal to discover and convert heathen lands for Christianity.14

Spain and Portugal continued to be rivals competing for the discovery of new lands. In 1493.

Pope Alexander the Sixth, developed the Inter Caetra, which divided the world in half. The


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half occupied by with non-Christian lands that were located one hundred leagues west of the

Azores and the Cape Verde Islands went to Spain and the lands east of these areas belonged to

Portugal. Because the Pope was from Spain, people were suspicious that he intended to favor

Spain. This led to the Treaty of Tordesillas, in which it was agreed by Spain and Portugal that

the partition line be moved 370 leagues west of the Islands of Cape Verde.

In many history books the travel of the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, who owed

allegiance to Spain, to various islands in the Philippines is noted. Rarely discussed is the fact

that Magellan and his fleet traveled to Moluccas and jumped from place to place, including

Samar, Homonhon, Suluan, Limasawa. Finally they arrived at Cebu, where Magellan settled

down and established a relationship with the local chief and his family. He converted them,

and later their tribe, to Christianity. History books mention Magellan's travels in the Philippines

as well as his death, but do not mention the resistance to Spanish sovereignty by Muslim

Natives. The native Lapu-Lapu inflicted the wound that led to Magellan's his death.

The next major figure is Legazpi, who under King Philip the Second, for whom the Spanish

named the Philippines, sold Moluccas. Legazpi came to colonize the Philippines, despite the

provisions of the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, which placed the Philippines and Moluccas

under the control of the Portuguese. In 1572 Spain received reports from Manila about certain

villages in the island of Luzon:

. . . it is quite certain that the natives of this island of Luzon, whom we Spaniards commonly

call Moros, are not so; for the truth is that they do not know or understand the law of Mahoma

[Mohammed]?only in some of the villages on the seacoast they do not eat pork, and this for the

reason that they have had dealings with the Moros of Burney, who have preached to them a

little of the teachings of Mahoma.15

The Spaniards, referred to as Castillans by the Muslims, referred to the Muslims of Borneo as

Moros and later applied the term to the Muslims in the Philippines. The term Moro was

developed by the Spanish to refer to the Mauritanians of Africa, who were Muslim. This term

was generally applied to all Muslims the Spanish encountered. The Spanish referred to non-

Muslim Filipinos as Indios.

Legazpi and his expedition traveled throughout the Philippines befriending the local chiefs.

Once gained their friendship they made a blood compact, "the ancient Filipino method of

sealing blood brotherhood and friendship"16 which entailed for the Filipinos a "treaty of

friendship." The treaty of friendship was interpreted as a conquest of the Philippines, to ensure

that Filipinos who committed crimes against the Spanish under their law would be prosecuted.

Bot there was no reciprocity, meaning that Spaniards who committed crimes against Filipinos

could not be brought to trial according to the Filipino law. Spanish offenders could be only

brought to a Spanish trial. "This treaty, therefore, signified the loss of freedom of the Filipinos

and acknowledged their reduction as vassals of Spain."17

In 1565 the Spanish officials of Cebu wrote the King of Spain requesting permission to

enslave Moros:


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We beseech his majesty and your highness in this royal name, that, inasmuch as the said

Moros and others take all the gold, pearls, jewels, precious stones and other things of which

we have no information?thus injuring the natives, both by giving us no opportunity to plant out

holy faith among them, and by taking the said gold, they should, if they continue the said

trade, lose their property and be made slaves, for they preach the doctrine of Mahoma.18

In reply, the Spanish King gave the officials in Cebu power to seize land from and enslaveMuslim Filipinos, either by blood and by conversion. They were charged with hindering the

spread of the Christian Holy Gospel and of not taking Spain as their sovereign. The Spanish

King also stated that those newly converted to the doctrine of Mahoma should not be enslaved,

but persuaded to convert to the holy Catholic Church. The Spanish encountered great

opposition among the Muslim natives, who soon became a major obstacle for the Castillans.

Muslim Filipinos allied themselves with Muslims in surrounding areas, such as Borneo,

fighting vigorously to preserve their way of life. This greatly concerned the Castillans, who

sent a letter to the sultan of Borneo, Sharif Ur-Rijal:

What you are to do is to admit preachers of the holy gospels, who may preach the law of the

Christians in your lands in all security; and likewise that any person whatever of your country

may have entire liberty and permission to attend the preaching of the law of the Christians, and

the he who wishes to become a Christian may do so without any ill befalling him.

Further, I desire that you shall send no preachers of the sect of Mahoma to any part of these

islands nor into other parts of your own islands-inasmuch as the doctrine of Mahoma is a false

and evil law, and the religion of the Christians alone is the true, holy, and good.19

It is reasonable to assume that, along with their political and economic goals, the Castillans

sought to extend the imperial regions of Spain in order to extirpate Islam and spread

Catholicism. The Muslims and the Castillans battled one another for a very long time.

There were five stages in the Moro struggles and the Spanish effort to subjugate the Moro

people. In the first stage, occurring around 1565, the Spanish came to the Philippines to

establish a Spanish colony and to Christianize the area. During this stage the Castillans fought

with Muslim Borneans who were allied, due to relations in lineage and faith, to Muslims from

Sulu. In this stage the Castillans were able to eliminate Borneo influence from the

Archipelago. Once the Spanish gained control of an area and established it into a colony,

natives were force to pay taxes. These taxes constituted a kind of tribute, usually one peso, to

fund both the Spanish Church, and efforts in keep Muslims, whether native or foreign, from

influencing people in their new colony.

The second stage of subjugation entailed that the Castillans reduce the Muslims in the

Philippine islands of Sulu and Maguindanao to a people dependent on the King of Spain and

his holy Catholic Church. So, in this stage no Spanish colonies were formed. Instead the

Castillans concentrated their efforts on containing the Moros. Muslims were discouraged from

traveling outside their own islands and were instructed to trade amongst themselves and with

the Spanish. The Muslims were then forced to accept Catholic missionaries on their islands

and to stop any incoming Islamic influences to their land.


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In the third stage, which lasted a span of thirty five years from 1599 to 1635, Muslims from

Maguindanao began to undertake more aggressive efforts to resist the further development of

the Spanish colonies. The Muslims consolidated their allies and support, however the

Castillans were successful in defeating their efforts. The Muslim Filipino territory began to

recede and their numbers decreased. A major turning point for the Castillans came in the fourth

stage, with the establishment of Fort Zamboanga in 1635. In 1637 Castillan invasions in

Maguindanao were successful, followed by more success in Sulu a year later. The Castillanswere greatly encouraged about prospects of conquering the remaining islands of the

Philippines. For a short time period the Castillans were forced to abandon the fort due to the

possible threat by the Koxingas, allowing the Muslims in Sulu and Maguidanao to experience

relative peace for about half a century. The return of the Castillans return to the fort initiates the

fifth stage.

The sixth and last stage of the Moro struggles parallels the decline of Sultanates, reflected in

the Spanish Campaign of 1851 against Sulu. The end result was Spanish domination in the

Philippines."20 The Castillans were wary that their efforts in the Philippines might be

disrupted by the British and the Dutch, who were making their way through Asia at this time.The Castillans may have agreed to this treaty to try to secure the existing colonies in Muslim

areas of the Philippines and to gain more territory before other western powers could. During

the last stage of the Moro Wars many Muslims were subjugated. They turned to Spain as their

sovereign and their descendants upheld the Christian faith.

Though the Castillans were successful in subjugating many Muslims and their colonies, as

well as non-Muslims, they were not able to eliminate revolts against them. Filipino Christian

and Muslim settlements that were under the supervision of the Castillans were forced to follow

a feudal system. Filipinos, Christian and Muslim, were required to fulfill a quota of

commodities that they would produce, only to have it confiscated by the Castillans. Soon after

the Campaign of 1851, the Philippine Revolution against the Spanish opened the eyes of a few

historical figures that are today considered national heroes of the Philippines. They tried to

recruit help from the Muslim community. "The Hongkong Junta once declared that the

Filipinos were forced to fight the Muslims of Sulu and Mindanao who in reality are our

brothers like us fighting for their independence."21

American Occupation

The last stage of the Moro struggle lasted until the end of the Spanish rule over the Philippines.

After the three centuries of toil and strive, Filipinos, both Christian and Muslim, hungered for

peace and freedom. Americans debated about what to do with the Philippines, a territory that

was newly acquired from Spain. In August 14, 1898 the Philippines was put under U.S.

military rule. The American policy toward the Philippines was one of "Pacification"22 in the

north. This was even more magnified in the south, Mindanao, the only area of the Philippines

that the Castillans were not able to subjugate. The Americans sent General Bates to the Sultan

of Jolo to negotiate a treaty that would ensure that the Muslims and the Americans would

peacefully co-exist. The Sultan said that the United States should not be allowed to hold any

position in areas other than the town of Jolo. Under these conditions General Bates,


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representing the Sultan, signed a treaty with the United States. But "the Bates Agreement

negotiated in 1899 had forestalled warfare with the Muslim Filipinos by promising them

autonomy,"23 because in 1903 the United States instructed troops to occupy the southern

Philippines.

For those Filipinos who were subjugated, the Philippines, the former Spanish Islands,

exchanged masters and gained no liberty from the country in whose own Bill of Rights liberty

is embedded. The United States and Spain went into negotiations and formulated the Treaty ofParis. Spain sold the Philippines, including areas which Spain never controlled, Sulu and

Mindanao, for twenty million dollars in December 1898. After Mindanao and Sulu were

illegally sold to the United States they had to deal with the consequences. A year after the

Treaty of Paris, in August 20, 1899, the United States and the Sultan of Sulu negotiated peace.

The Bates Treaty, also known as the Senate Document No. 136, 56th Congress, 1st Session,

Serial 3851, promised the Muslims of Jolo and neighboring islands non-interference in social,

domestic, internal economic and political affairs. The Bates Treaty also assured Muslim

autonomy. The United States agreed not to sell Sulu or any other islands to any other nation.

Also agreed to was the continuation of the monthly allowance of two hundred and fifty dollars

initiated by the Spanish, as well as, the right of slaves to purchase their freedom. The BatesTreaty that the Sultan of Sulu accepted stated that "the support, aid, and the protection of the

Jolo island and Archipelago are in the American nation." However, the English version states

that "the sovereignty of the United States over the whole Archipelago of Jolo and its

dependencies is declared and acknowledged."24 The Bates treaty was the United States' first

step towards the eradication of the Muslim population of the Southern Philippines and the

elimination of the Sulu Sultanate.

Despite the promise by the Americans to refrain from establishing positions in any areas other

than the town of Jolo and their promise of autonomy, they abrogated their treaty by

establishing military rule over the Muslims, creating the "Moro Province." The constabularyofficer of the "Moro Province," Cornelius Smith, described the United States administration

and his involvement in the Southern Philippines as follows: "the government of the Philippines

and that of the Moro Province constituted a dual authority?the former legislating and

controlling the Christian and pagan tribes in the north, the latter the Mohammedan peoples in

the southern islands."25 lthough military rule was eradicated and the Philippines were given its

independence, autonomy was never returned to the Muslims.

The history of the Filipino people is one of struggle, especially for the Muslims. This struggle

may be thought of as a heritage, not only for the Muslim Filipinos but for the entire Filipino

people, as this is a struggle for freedom and independence. The Muslim struggle in thePhilippines has to be seen in a new light. Currently Filipinos may think of Muslims as a

"familiar strangers," familiar in that many are aware there is a substantially large community of

Muslim Filipinos in the Philippines. Muslims may seem strange because Filipinos may

associate all Muslims with various small extremist groups or base their information about

Muslims on what the media provides for them. Muslim Filipinos continue to be strange

because many Filipinos often have a superficial understanding of Muslim theology, practice,

and culture.


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Many people misunderstand the United States' involvement in the Philippines, only con-

centrating on the Spanish-American war. History books often are biased, in this case biased in

favor of the so-called, American effort to develop the Philippines.The Philippine-American

war and the effects of the American Occupation have been taken as the lesser of two evils, a

necessary evil to modernize the Philippines. Even worse, people may have forgotten the entire

episode. The history of the Philippines, Christian and Muslim, is collective because it is a story

of the struggle for freedom. The Christian-Muslim conflict that seems to be so magnified in the

Philippines is, let us not forget, not an indigenous problem, but one created by the Spanish inorder to facilitate their domination of the whole Archipelago.

There needs to be more effort in scholarly research on the Muslims in the Philippines. This

information must be shared with, not only Filipinos, but every person willing to learn. Our

society needs to be further educated about the media and the credibility of the information that

they feed to the public. When is it fallacious or sensationalized? When is it truly unbiased,

trustworthy news that can be relied on? One cannot formulate an opinion about something he

or she is not knowledgeable about. As Dr. Cesar Majul states,

with greater tolerance, intensive scholarship on all levels, deeper and wider moral perspectives,an a greater appreciation of the concept of a more pluralistic society, a future generation of

Filipinos would consider the struggle of the Muslim south as part of the struggle of the entire

nation-and the epic exploits of its heroes may well be the nation's heritage.

NOTES

1 Guimzun, 2.

2 Majul Abid Cesar, Muslims in the Philippines. (Dilman, Quezon City: University of the

Philippines Press. 1999), back cover.

3 Teoadoro A. Agoncillo and Milagros C Guerroro,. History of the Filipino People. (Quezon

City: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co. 1987), 43.

4 Cesar, 40-84.

5 Cesar, 52-53.

6 Cesar, 54-56.

7 Majul Abid Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," in Filipinas: A Magazine for all Filipinos.

Manila: Filipinas Publishing Inc. 1993, 30. See also Chinese records of the Mongol Dynasty,

Tao I Chih Lio, where the word Nanhai refers to the Southeast Asian trade.

8 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," 30. Chinese records, the Ming Annals, state that Khanfu is

currently Canton, as testified by Arab merchants sailing from the Philippines.

9 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," 31. Bad Dato means the hills of datus. Datu means chief.

These hills, located a few miles from Jolo, are still preserved today.


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10 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," 31.

11 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," 31. The tomb was inscribed with a saying from the Prophet

Muhammad, peace be upon him. The tomb says: "'Who ever dies far away [from his home]

dies a martyr'. Allah has taken away the late blessed martyr Tuhan Maqbalu on the date: The

sacred, holy month of Rajab. May Allah increase its holiness. The year ten and seven

hundred."

12 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam,"32. Tarsilas comes from an Arabic word silsilah, meaning

chain or link.

13 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," 32. Masha'ika is a plural form of the Arabic word sheik,

which means elder or leader.

14 Agoncillo and Guerroro, 69.

15 Cesar, Muslims in the Philippines, 90.

16 Agoncillo and Guerroro, 73.






22 Patricia Abinales, "An American Colonial State: Authority and Structure in Southern

Mindanao." in Angel V. Shaw, and Luis H. Francia, eds., Vestiges of War: The Philippine-

American War and the Aftermath of an Imperial Dream 1899-1999 (Washington Square, New

York: New York University Press. 2002).

23 Jim Zwick, "Mark Twain's Anti-Imperialist Writings in the ?American Century.," in Shaw

and Francia.

24 Peter Gowing. Mandate in Moroland: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos

1899-1920 (Quezon City, Philippines: University of the Philippines Press, 1977), 122.

25 From the autobiography of the Constabulary officer of the Moro Province, Cornelius

Smith.

GLOSSARY


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Allah?An Arabic word meaning, One God, which is used by Muslims and Arabic speaking

people, which believe in one of the other Abrahamic faiths.

Coolie?An unskilled laborer from India or China.

Hijrah?the Prophet Muhammad's flight to Medina in 622 C.E. from Mecca, which initiated the

start of the Islamic calendar.

Madrasah?An Islamic school.

Masjid?A place of gathering, study, and worship for Muslims.Moro?A term that comes from the word Moor, which is a member of a Muslim people, a mix

of Arab and Berber stock living in northwestern Africa. This term has come to describe, by the

Spanish, a member of any one of the Muslim Malay tribes in Mindanao and other southern

Philippine Islands.

Mo-yi?The Island of Mindoro or the Island of Luzon.

Tenon?The end of a piece of wood cut so as to fit into the mortise in another piece and so form

a joint.

Sharif?a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbas, Jamal A. "A Peek at History: Mindanao and the Spice Islands." The Philippine Post,

Manila. March 11, 2000.

Datu Jamal Ashley Abbas is a petroleum engineer, special assistant to the Secretary of Energy,

a licensed real estate broker and a scholar; she recounts the close historical relationship

between Mindanao and Moluccas, especially the Sultanates of Maguindanao and Ternate.

________. "Milestone in Moro Historiography." The Philippine Post. Manila. April,

1, 2000.

Datu Jamal Ashley Abbas analyzes various books of the history of the Philippines and the its

peole, as she calls it, the milestones in Moro historiography.

Agoncillo, Teoadoro A., and Guerroro, Milagros C. History of the Filipino People. Quezon

City: R. P. Garcia Publishing Co. 1987.

Teoadoro Agoncilla is a professor of history at the University of the Philippines, Quezon City,

and is considered the country's foremost historian. In this book he traces the Philippine history

form pre-Spanish colonialization to after the American Occupation

Barnhart, Clarence and Barnhart Robert. The World Book Dictionary. Chicago, Illinois:

World Book Inc.,1989.

Cesar, Majul Abid. "The Moros of the Philippines." Conflict. Russak & Company Inc., 1988.

This article was written by the first dean of the institute of Islamic Studies at the University of

the Philippines. Cesar Adib Majul was born in Aparri, Cagayan, Philippines, on October 21,

1923. He was educated at the Universit of the Phili ines and Cornell Universit . He has


13/14

been a member of the faculty of the University of the Philippines since 1948. From 1961 until

1966, he was Dean of the University College, University of the Philippines, and from 1969

until 1971, he was Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines. He

served on the Board of Regents of the University of Mindanao between 1961 and 1962.

During the spring term of the academic year 1966-67, he was Visiting Professor at Cornell

University. The article goes over the history of the Muslims in Southern Philippines and

touches on the current, so called, Chriatian-Muslim conflict in the Philippines.

________. "The Advent of Islam." Filipinas: A Magazine for all Filipinos. Manila: Filipinas

Publishing Inc. 1993.

This is an article that step by step describes the arrival of Muslims and Islam to the Philippine

Archipelago.

________ . Muslims in the Philippines. Dilman, Quezon City: University of the

Philippines Press. 1999.

This book explains the arrival of Islam in the Philippines and the histories of the sultanates ofSulu and Maguindanao from their beginnings until the end of Spanish period. In the 400 years

of Muslim presence in the Philippines, they expanded to control a portion of Borneo, and

fought the Spaniards, never actually being colonized with their northern brothers. The role of

Islam is highlighted as the very basis of the Moros' determination to resist European

colonization.

Gowing, Peter G. and McAmis, Robert D. The Muslim Filipinos: Their History Society

and Contemporary Problems. Manila: Solidaridad Publishing House. 1974.

________. Mandate in Moroland: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos 1899-1920.Quezon City: University of the Philippine Press. 1977.

Mandate in Moroland tells the history and problems of diplomacy throughout the Philippine

Archipelago, especial United States policy towards the Muslim sovereignty over the southern

islands. It talks about the American military presence, acceleration of the economic, political

and social improvement of the people, and the abdication of the Sultan of Sulu, and the

presence of Christian Filipino officials in positions of authority among the Muslim Islands

Guimzan, Herman. "Problems Exist in the Filipino-American Communities as it Concerns

the Communities outlook towards Islam." California. 2003. (Typewritten)

Orwell, George. Shooting an Elephant. Reading and Writing about Essays. 5th edition.

Shaw, Angel V. and Francia, Luis H. Vestiges of War: The Philippine-American War and

the Aftermath of an Imperial Dream 1899-1999. Washington Square, New York: New

York University Press. 2002.

This book is a com ilation of articles written b various authors about the United States


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intervention in the Philippines. The expressed that there is little known about the 1899

Philippine- American War and uses the war as its departure point in analyzing U.S.-Philippine

relations.

http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~aps1/graphic ... hdiyah.htm

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