How Do Computers Work? A Gentle Introduction Poly Pride

How Do Computers Work?How Do Computers Work? A Gentle Introduction A Gentle Introduction

How Do Computers Work?How Do Computers Work? A Gentle Introduction A Gentle Introduction

Poly Pride

04/19/23 How Do Computers Work? Part III Dr. A. Sanchez

2

Hardware and Software

• Hardware– the physical, tangible parts of a computer– keyboard, monitor, disks, wires, chips, etc.

• Software– programs and data– a program is a series of instructions

• A computer requires both hardware and software

• Each is essentially useless without the other


3

CPU and Main Memory

CentralProcessing

Unit

MainMemory

Chip that executes program commands

Intel Pentium 4Sun ultraSPARC IIIPrimary storage

area for programs and

data that are in active use

Synonymous with RAM


4

Secondary Memory Devices

Information is movedbetween main memoryand secondary memoryas needed

CentralProcessing

Unit

MainMemory

Floppy Disk

Hard Disk

Secondary memorydevices providelong-term storage

Hard disksFloppy disksZIP disksWritable CDsWritable DVDsTapes


5

Input / Output Devices

CentralProcessing

Unit

MainMemory

Floppy Disk

Hard Disk

Monitor

Keyboard

I/O devices facilitateuser interaction

Monitor screenKeyboardMouseJoystickBar code scannerTouch screen


6

Software Categories• Operating System

– controls all machine activities– provides the user interface to the computer– manages resources such as the CPU and memory– Windows XP, Unix, Linux, Mac OS

• Application program– generic term for any other kind of software– word processors, missile control systems, games

• Most operating systems and application programs have a graphical user interface (GUI)


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Analog vs. Digital

• There are two basic ways to store and manage data:

• Analog– continuous, in direct proportion to the data

represented– music on a record album - a needle rides on ridges

in the grooves that are directly proportional to the voltages sent to the speaker


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Analog vs. Digital

• Digital– the information is broken down into pieces, and

each piece is represented separately– music on a compact disc - the disc stores numbers

representing specific voltage levels sampled at specific times


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Digital Information

• Computers store all information digitally:– numbers– text– graphics and images– video– audio– program instructions

• In some way, all information is digitized - broken down into pieces and represented as numbers


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Representing Text Digitally

• For example, every character is stored as a number, including spaces, digits, and punctuation

• Corresponding upper and lower case letters are separate characters

H i , H e a t h e r .

72 105 44 32 72 101 97 116 104 101 114 46


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Binary Numbers

• Once information is digitized, it is represented and stored in memory using the binary number system

• A single binary digit (0 or 1) is called a bit

• Devices that store and move information are cheaper and more reliable if they have to represent only two states


12

Binary Numbers

• A single bit can represent two possible states, like a light bulb that is either on (1) or off (0)

• Combinations of bits are used to store values


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Bit Combinations

1 bit

01

2 bits

00011011

3 bits

000001010011100101110111

4 bits

00000001001000110100010101100111

10001001101010111100110111101111

Each additional bit doubles the number of possible combinations


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Bit Combinations

• Each combination can represent a particular item

• There are 2N combinations of N bits

• Therefore, N bits are needed to represent 2N unique items

21 = 2 items

22 = 4 items

23 = 8 items

24 = 16 items

25 = 32 items

1 bit ?

2 bits ?

3 bits ?

4 bits ?

5 bits ?

How manyitems can be

represented by


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Bit Combinations

• Suppose we have three bits … see how different numbers are represented with them

1 0 1 5

22 = 4 0 1+ + = 5

1 1 1 7

22 = 4 21 = 2 1+ + = 7


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Bit Combinations

• Since you were very small, people have told you that you can count up to 10 with your two hands, right?

• Well … you can do better than this …

• With one hand you can count up to 31 …

• With two hands you can count up to 1023 …

• How


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Bit Combinations

0

123

4

20 = 1

21 = 222 = 423 = 8

24 = 16


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Bit CombinationsWhat

number is this??

NOT Showing

SHOWING

!

1


19

Bit CombinationsWhat

number is this??

NOT Showing

SHOWING

!

2

NOT Showing


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A Computer Specification

• Consider the following specification for a personal computer:

– 2.8 GHz Pentium 4 Processor– 512 MB RAM– 80 GB Hard Disk– 48x CD-RW / DVD-ROM Combo Drive – 17” Video Display with 1280 x 1024 resolution– 56 Kb/s Modem

• What does it all mean?


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Memory

Main memory is divided into many memory locations (or cells)

927892799280928192829283928492859286

Each memory cell has a numeric address, which uniquely identifies it

Remember this?


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Storing Information

927892799280928192829283928492859286

Large values arestored in consecutivememory locations

1001101010011010Each memory cell stores a set number of bits (usually 8 bits, or one byte)


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Storage Capacity

• Every memory device has a storage capacity, indicating the number of bytes it can hold

• Capacities are expressed in various units:

KB 210 = 1024

MB 220 (over 1 million)

GB 230 (over 1 billion)

TB 240 (over 1 trillion)

Unit Symbol Number of Bytes

kilobyte

megabyte

gigabyte

terabyte


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Memory

• Main memory is volatile - stored information is lost if the electric power is removed

• Secondary memory devices are nonvolatile

• Main memory and disks are direct access devices - information can be reached directly

• The terms direct access and random access often are used interchangeably

Meaning Pronunciation


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Memory

• A magnetic tape is a sequential access device since its data is arranged in a linear order - you must get by the intervening data in order to access other information


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RAM vs. ROM

• RAM - Random Access Memory (direct access)

• ROM - Read-Only Memory

• The terms RAM and main memory are basically interchangeable

• ROM could be a set of memory chips, or a separate device, such as a CD ROM


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RAM vs. ROM

• Both RAM and ROM are random (direct) access devices!

• RAM probably should be called Read-Write Memory


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Compact Discs• A CD-ROM is portable read-only memory

• A microscopic pit on a CD represents a binary 1 and a smooth area represents a binary 0

• A low-intensity laser reflects strongly from a smooth area and weakly from a pit


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Compact Discs• A CD-Recordable (CD-R) drive can be used to

write information to a CD once

• A CD-Rewritable (CD-RW) can be erased and reused

• The speed of a CD drive indicates how fast (max) it can read and write information to a CD


30

DVDs

• A DVD is the same size as a CD, but can store much more information

• The format of a DVD stores more bits per square inch

DVD = Digital Versatile DiskRead More HERE

Meaning and Pronunciation


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DVDs

• A CD can store 650 MB, while a standard DVD can store 4.7 GB– A double sided DVD can store 9.4 GB

– Other advanced techniques can bring the capacity up to 17.0 GB

• Like CDs, there are DVD-R and DVD-RW discs


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The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• A CPU is on a chip called a microprocessor

• It continuously follows the fetch-decode-execute cycle:

fetch

Retrieve an instruction from main memory

decode

Determine what theinstruction is

execute

Carry out theinstruction


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The Central Processing Unit

• The CPU contains:

Arithmetic / Logic Unit

Registers

Control Unit

Small storage areas

Performs calculations and makes decisions

Coordinates processing steps


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The Central Processing Unit

• The speed of a CPU is controlled by the system clock

• The system clock generates an electronic pulse at regular intervals

• The pulses coordinate the activities of the CPU

• The speed is usually measured in gigahertz (GHz)


35

Monitor

• The size of a monitor (17") is measured diagonally, like a television screen

• Most monitors these days have multimedia capabilities: text, graphics, video, etc.

• A monitor has a certain maximum resolution , indicating the number of picture elements, called pixels, that it can display (such as 1280 by 1024)

• High resolution (more pixels) produces sharper pictures


36

Modem

• Data transfer devices allow information to be sent and received between computers

• Many computers include a modulator-demodulator or modem, which allows information to be moved across a telephone line

• A data transfer device has a maximum data transfer rate

• A modem, for instance, may have a data transfer rate of 56,000 bits per second (bps)


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How do you connect to the Internet?

Ethernet vs. ModemWhich is faster? Why?

Requirements?

What is transmission speed measure in?Modems Ethernet56 KBpS 1 – 100 MBpS112 KBpS


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Questions?


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Documents

How Do Computers Work? A Gentle Introduction Poly Pride