Home Content Author Guidelines Editorial Board About Us Help

. __ Journal oflntemat1onal Special Needs Education - Manifestations of Dyslexia and Dy ... Page 1 of 12

~·SES~

Journal of InternatiSpecial Need Educa

...-

The voice and vision of special educalton

Home Content Author Guidelines Editorial Board About Us Help

Division of International Specio! Education & S

All Publications> Journal of International Special Needs Education> March 2013 > Manifestations of Dyslexia and Dyscal

Volume 16, Issue 1(March 2013)

< Previous

Current IssueAvailable Issues

Journal Information

Print ISSN: 2159-4341Frequency: Bi-annually

Register for a Profile

Not Yet Registered?

Benefits of Registration Include:

• A Unique User Profile that willallow you to manage yourcurrent subscriptions (includingonline access)

• The ability to create favoriteslists down to the article level

• The ability to customize email

041 Previous Article Volume 16. Issue 1 (Ma

Add to Favorites Share Article Export Citations

Citation

Article Citation:Ayo Osisanya, Kelechi Lazarus, and Abiodun Adewunmi (2013) ManifestatiorSpecial Needs Education: March 2013, Vol. 16, No.1, pp. 40-52.

doi: http://dx.doLorg/10.97B2I2159-4341-16.1.40

FeatureArticles

Manifestations of Dyslexia and Dyscalculia

Ayo Osisanya, Kelechi Lazarus, and Abiodun Adewunmi

University of Ibadan, Nigeria

This study examined the prevalence of dyslexia and dyscalculia among rand Mathematics in public primary schools in Ibadan metropolis. A correlbetween the ages of eight and 12 years, and in 4th and 5th grades with tPupil Rating Scale (MPRS), the Siosson Intelligence Test- Revised ThirdTest (TPRA) and the Mathematical Abilities Test (MAT) was adopted. It vprevalent among pupils with academic deficits in English Language and Idyscalculia are in the larger percentage. It was also discovered that learrpeculiar to any gender. Persons with academic deficits in English languadyslexia or dyscalculia, even both. Also, they should be taught accordingPlan.

flle://C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\Desktop\jisne- article.htm 5/612013

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY

Journal of International Special Needs Education

Manifestations of Dyslexia and Dyscalculia

Ayo OsisanyaKelechi Lazarus

Abiodun Adewunrni

University of Ibadan, Nigeria

MANIFESTATIONS OF DYSLEXIA AND DYSCALCULIA

Abstract

This study examined the prevalence of dyslexia and dyscalculia among persons with academic deficitsin English Language and Mathematics in public primary schools in Ibadan metropolis. A correlationalsurvey study, sampling 477 pupils who were between the ages of eight and 12 years, and in 4th and5th grades with the use of four research instruments- the Myklebust Pupil Rating Scale (MPRS), theSlosson Intelligence Test- Revised Third Edition (SIT-R3), the Test of Pupil Reading Abilities Test(TPRA)and the Mathematical Abilities Test (MAT)was adopted. It was discovered that dyslexia anddyscalculia were prevalent among pupils with academic deficits in English Language andMathematics, and that pupils with both dyslexia and dyscalculia are in the larger percentage.- Itwas also discovered that learning disabilities, dyslexia and dyscalculia were not peculiar to anygender. Persons with academic deficits in English language and mathematics should be screened foreither dyslexia or dyscalculia, even both. Also, they should be taught according to a carefullydeveloped Individualized Education Plan.

Keywords: learning disabilities; dyslexia; dyscalculia; reading; mathematics

*.ijf~t5Ri.\f{jt~Hrtr1}}~uj'~~~~I$~I¥J~~:(£~mfJlJ)c~jnm1!fJJiff:(£I¥JOO~~~fJl

1.tlfPIiHi!r.f§• iN~.ijf~~JI54 77~ if.~:(£8 ~ 12~ 1¥J4if.*RfQ5

if.~I¥J~1::.iJ.I~~ffl4 • 1iJf~IJt.: ~%I:!.Wf!f-f~~llfLft~~ (MPRS), Wfm~WtJ~iit-

~ - iX{J$lTJl1i (SIT-R3), ~~BlI~1iE:1J5JtIJut(TPRA), &~~~1JjlJut (MAT).

~*~~OOit~~:(£:tf~i!i! ~ fQtt~~~ I$*I¥J~~ ~~~ff:(£.ffijlilRJll't~:tfOOit~

?i!ffJltt~~ml¥J~~~*~~.~*}1;~~~~ ~m,BlI~fJl1.tjfl$~~:tf'11: • ~~.~:tf~lIm ~ fQ~~~~ l$i~I¥J~~.Q\l~~JOO~~~!!X:it.~il,~~jJij~tB:tfl¥Jfrtij~J!I

iit.ffijli~.J!!;~~.Q\l1t*lj~JL''-1fff!-rnijtitl¥J1'-Aft ~~itiljl¥J~1f.

40

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY

Journal or International Special Needs Education

MANIFESTACIONES DE DISLEXIA Y DISCALCULIA ENTRE ALUMNOS SELECCIONADOS EN LAZONA METROPOLITANA DE IBADAN, NIGERIA

Resumen

Este estudio examina la prevalencia de la dislexia y la discalculia entre personas con deficit acadernicoen Ingles y matematicas en escuelas primarias public as en el area metropolitana de Ibadan. Unaencuesta de estudio correlacional tom6 una muestra de 477 nifios entre 10s 8 y 12 afios de edad, yentre el cuarto y quinto grado con el 1..150de cuatro instrumentos de investigaci6n: La escala deevaluaci6n infantil Myklebust, (Myklebust Pupil Rating Scale -MPRS), el prueba de inteligenciaSlosson (Slosson Intelligence Test- Revised Third Edition -SIT-R3), La prueba infantil de habilidadesd3e la lectura (Test of Pupil Reading Abilities Test -TPRA) y let prueba de habilidades matematicas(Mathematical Abilities Test ~MAT) Se descubri6 que la dislexia y la discalculia fueron prevalentesentre 105nifios con deficit academicos en el idioma ingles y maternaticas y que estos nifios con ambosdeficit; dislexia y discalculia- presentan un alto porcentaje. Esto permiti6 identificar que Lasdiscapacidades de aprendizaje; dislexia y discalculia no son particulares de ningun genera. Personascon deficit academicos en el idiorna Ingles y matematicas deben ser protegidos de cualquier dislexia 0

discalculia 0 de ambos. Tarnbien deben ser ensefiados de acuerdo a un cuidadoso Plan EducativeIndividualizado.

~I

41

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY


Learning, an essential process of intellectual or attitudinalchanges which always influence human behavior in a moresubtle manner has been observed to be the result ofexperience, multifaceted and active process based on theindividual cognitive functioning and reasoning. For learn-ing to be meaningful, such learning should be purposefuland come from perceptions which are directed to the brainby one or more of the five senses of sight, hearing, touch,smell, and taste. Psychologists have also found that learningoccurs most rapidly when information is received throughmore than one sense and is ultimately processed by thebrain. Information received can either be stored in the shortterm memory or in the long term memory. The ability of anindividual to retrieve information will then depend on howsuch an individual can distinctly distinguish between shortand long term memories. Due to some reasons however, thebrain of some categories of human beings does not interpretcorrectly what their senses perceive, and therefore do notlearn the natural way- these are persons with learningproblems or Learning Disabilities (LD). Wendle and histeam, in 1971. revealed that the cause of learning disabilitiesseemed to be malfunctioning of one area or another of thebrain. In many cases the malfunction is caused by physicaldamage to the brain, although such damage is difficult orimpossible to prove because the damage is subtle.

According to Werts, Cullata and Tompkins (2007)children with learning disabilities are typical or average inintellectual functioning. This means that they are childrenwhose score in a range on Intelligence tests would indicateno difficulties in cognitive skills, the learning disability liesin their ways of learning, in their perceptual systems and inhow they interpret and integrate information to make senseof their world (Werts, Cullata & Tompkins, 2007), whileBoon (2010) submitted that the individual is considered tohave a learning disability, if achievement is not commen-surate with age and ability levels in one or more of thespecific areas of reading, writing, mathematics, spelling,listening, and thinking when provided with learningexperiences appropriate for age and ability levels. TheQueensland Studies Authority (2010) maintained thatstudents with a learning disability are a small group ofstudents with learning difficulties who, because of theneurological basis of their difficulties, have persistent longterm needs in one or more of the areas of literacy,numeracy, and learning how to learn. These students donot have any intellectual impairment; they demonstrateidiosyncratic learning styles which are determined by thenature of the specific disorders, and thus inhibit theirlearning at school. Hence, it is clear that the inabilities toread and to solve mathematical problems are specific kindsof learning disorders.

Children with dyslexia have difficulties in theirschooling, such as very poor spelling, difficulty in keepingtime, and poor organization abilities (Shaywitz, 2009). The

problem is usually present in both basic spoken and writtenlanguage, as persons with dyslexia take a long time toretrieve words, so they might not speak or read as fluidlyand fluently as others. It is amazing to know that intelligentpeople with high intelligence quotient (l.Q) often havereading problems, as evidence suggests that high-perform-ing persons with dyslexia could be very intelligent, oftenout-of-the box thinkers and problem-solvers (Shaywitz,2009)

In the same vein, persons with dyscalculia usually haveproblems understanding basic computational skills, as theymost times subitize fewer objects and even when correctmay take longer time to identify the number than their age-matched peers. Persons with dyscalculia also have problemswith reasoning and forming concepts in abstraction, whichwould limit their academic choice eventually. They can bestbe described as having a poor number sense. Mercer (1997)observed that mathematics-related learning disabilities aregenerally characterized by motor problems reflected inillegible or slowly written numbers, memory problemsindicating mastery of facts in an algorithm, languageproblems which includes processing words with multiplemeanings, vocabulary processing and oral mathematicalproblem-solving. Dyscalculia as a type of learning difficul-ties occur in children with low Intelligence Quotient,(Geary, Bailey, Littlefield, Wood, Hoard, & Nugent; 2(09);dyscalcuha can also be found in people with normal tosuperior intelligence.

It has been noted that dyslexia and dyscalculia asdisorders could co-occur in an individual, which is calledcomorbidiiy. For instance, Tressoldi, Rosanti and Lucangeli(2007) averred that one of the most common ways of sub-typing children with dyscalculia is according to whether ornot such children have a co morbid reading disability.Children who have dyscalculia as well as dyslexia usuallyshow a different pattern of difficulties to those who justhave dyscalculia. Also, it has been affirmed that thedyscalculia/dyslexia group had left hemisphere impair-ments that could cause difficulties with verbal processing,and that the dyscalculia only group had right hemisphereimpairments that caused difficulties with non-verbalprocessing (Rourke, 1993) To this end, Tressoldi, Rosatiand Lucangeli (2005) conducted a study in order toinvestigate the extent to which some characteristics ofdyscalculia may be common to dyslexia, and affirmed thatthe more distinctive characteristics of dyscalculia arefunctionally independent of dyslexia.

Interestingly, learning disabilities, dyslexia and dyscal-culia cannot but be gender- related, as some researchersbelieve that higher prevalence rate may be easily observed inboys due to their biological vulnerability, while some haveassumed that the higher prevalence observed in boys mayreflect a referral bias. According to Werts, Culatta andTompkins (2007), the category of students with learning

42

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY


disabilities has grown to be the largest category of studentsin special education. For instance, over five million studentswith disabilities are served in United States (US) publicschools; and over half of these students are classified ashaving a learning disability (Werts, Cullata &: Tompkins,2007). This means that approximately 50% of studentswith disabilities who are being served are identified ashaving learning disabilities. Accordingly, estimates oflearning disabilities in the US school age population varyfrom the modest estimate of two percent to extreme rangesof 20 to 40 percent (Pierangelo &: Giulliani, 2006). Thoughthere has been no studies to indicate an accurate percentageof the prevalence of dyslexia, it is generally believed thatdyslexia can affect between 5 to 10 percent of a given pupilpopulation (Czepita &: Lodygowski, 2006). The prevalenceof dyscalculia among the school age population has alsobeen found to be within the range of 3-14 percent(Barbaresi, Katusic, Coolligan, Weaver &: Jacobsen, 2005;von Aster, Schweiter &: Weinhold Zulauf, 2007). Thisobservation might be worse in some countries, mostespecially the developing nations. For instance, in Nigeriathe number of persons with comorbidity of dyslexia anddyscalculia might be high, Lased on the exceptional pooracademic achievement experienced in examinations over-time. Consequent upon this, it is imperative to determinethe prevalence of these difficulties among the school agepopulation so as to realize the objectives of the NationalPolicy on Education which emphasizes provision ofadequate education for all people with special needs inorder that they may fully contribute their own quota to thedevelopment of the nation, designing a diversified andappropriate curriculum for all the beneficiaries andensuring 1: 10 as the teacher/pupil ratio for smoothteachingllearning exercises in facilitating good understand-ing of the concepts or skills.

Culture and Education System in Nigeria

Historically, progress of education in Nigeria was slowbut steady throughout the colonial era until the end ofWorld War Il,while on the eve of independence in the late1950s, Nigeria had gone through a decade of exceptionaleducational growth leading to a movement for universalprimary education in the Western Region (Onwuchekwa,2006). As at 1990, there were three fundamentally distincteducation systems in Nigeria: the indigenous system,Quran schools, and formal western -style of educationinstitutions. In the rural areas where the majority lived,children learned the skills of farming and other vocations,as well as the duties of adulthood, from participation in thecommunity (Mba, 1991). This process was often supple-mented by age-based schools in which groups of youngboys were instructed in community responsibilities bymatured men.

Nigeria as a nation believes that education is a meansof building the culture, the future and personal develop-

ment of her citizenry. The position of the National Policyon Education (2004) which states that it is the basic rightof every child to be educated makes it mandatory for thegovernment at all levels, guardians and parents to ensurethat their wards no matter how "able' or 'disabled' such apupil might be. Based on this, the nation had developed athree-tier system of primary, secondary and highereducation based on the British model of wide participationat the bottom, into academic and vocational training at thesecondary level, and higher education. This structure ismore conducive, competitive and challenging with chil-dren without special needs. On the contrary, it is rather farto suit the children with special needs, though specialeducation practice in Nigeria has really come a long way;but more values are still needed to be injected into thesystem. The prevalence of the children with special needsmust be determined so as to plan adequately for them. Inaddition, children with specific learning disabilities whicheasily expose the system of education to question due torecent high rate of failure in the results of NationalExaminations must be identified and catered for.

According to the Africa map 'website (2012), Nigeriacurrently has a total of 149,229,090 inhabitants, with theliteracy rate set at 57.1 % of the total population (Males:67.3%, Females 47.3%), the prominent languages areEnglish (official), Hausa, Yoruba, Ibo and Fulani. Theschool enrollment at primary schools was last reported at83.28 (Trading Economies, 2012), while of those attendingschools, 874% were attending formal schools and 8.1%were attending non-formal schools (The National LiteracySurvey, 2010). The National Literacy Survey equally set thenational youth literacy rate in English language at 76.3%,with English language being the official language ofinstruction.

Trends of Dyslexia and Dyscalculia in Nigeria

As at present in Nigeria, there is no available data onthe prevalence of learning disabilities, dyslexia anddyscalcuha in spite of the overwhelming effects on theeducational achievement and psychosocial functioning ofindividuals with such difficulties (disorders) Ikediashi(2012) affirmed that in Nigeria, statistics are not readilyavailable as regards the prevalence of dyslexia, as very littleis known about the disorder. The same reason cantherefore be advanced for the non- availability of reliablestatistics on the prevalence of dyscalculia. Continued highfailure rate in the internal and external school examinationsis adjudged as the evidence of dyslexia and dyscalculia atboth primary and secondary school system. Most of thepupils in primary (Basic) school show evidence of eitherdyslexia or dyscalculia, or even co morbid of such specificlearning disabilities based on the underachievementperformance exhibited. In fact, the results of SeniorSecondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) and theNational Examination Council (NECO) in the recent times

43

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY


Table 1Demographic information of participants.

Sex MeanFrequency Age Frequency Mean Standard Score Frequency

219 8 20 52-68 1

258 9 69 10.69 69-79 10

10 191 80-89 60

11 117 90-109 38812 80 110-119 15

477 477 477

Male

Female

Total

96.8

have attested to the fact that the prevalence of learningdisabilities might be high in Nigeria. It is generally believedthat more than 40% of registered candidates for the SeniorSchool Examinations failed either English Language orMathematics, with less than four credit pass out of eight ornine registered subjects. An underlying cause of this mightbe learning disabilities: dyslexia and dyscalculia, sincethese disorders affect reading and mathematical skills.Also, more than ten percent of the students in year one ofuniversity education have been asked to leave the systemby the second year due to poor performance and inabilityto meet requirements of the university, while some dospend more than the required time in order to graduatewith at least an ordinary pass. It is obvious that learningdisabilities which may be attributed to the failure does notsuddenly surface in adulthood, it would have startedmanifesting in the early years of the school system,specifically during the primary education periods. TheCure research website (2010) published the prevalence ratefor learning disabilities to the populations of variouscountries and regions, with a strong warning however thatthe prevalence extrapolations for learning disabilities areonly estimates, based on applying the prevalence rates fromthe US (or a similar country) to the population of othercountries, and therefore may have very limited relevance tothe actual prevalence of learning disabilities in any region.The figure indicated that Nigeria has 300, 189 studentswith learning disabilities out of the total school population;this figure is clearly unrepresentative of the Nigerian schoolage population, since the Nigerian school age populationrun into millions and mass failures experienced inexaminations could have some underlying learning dis-abilities, and also because learning disabilities has thelargest disability category (Pierangelo &. Giulliani, 2006).

It was in thi.s regard that the present study ai.med atidentifying persons with dyslexia and dyscalculia amongprimary school pupils in Ibadan, and also to assess theprevalence of dyslexia and dyscalculia among primaryschool pupils in Nigeria, in order to determine those at riskof exiting the educational system prematurely. Specifically,the study intended to identify pupils with learning

disabilities, dyslexia and dyscakulia in the primaryschools, examine the comorbidity of dyslexia and dyscal-culia, determine the gender with the higher prevalence rateof dyslexia, dyscalculia and learning disabilities, examinethe relationship between the variables, and determine theprevalence rates of learning disabilities, dyslexia anddyscalculia at least among the Yoruba ethnicity.

In order to achieve these, some research questions andsome hypotheses were raised in this study. We predictedthat dyslexia and dyscalculia were common among primaryschool pupils with academic deficits in English language andMathematics of the Ibadan metropolis, and that dyslexia anddyscalculia co-occur in pupils with learning disabilities. Wealso predicted that there is no Significant difference betweenmale and female pupils with learning disabilities, betweenmale and female participants with dyslexia and betweenmale and female participants 'With dyscalculia.

METHOD

Participants

The participants for the study comprised 477 pupilswith academic deficits in English Language and Mathe-matics. They were purposively selected from 25 publicprimary schools in Ibadan Metropolis, and were in 4th and5th grades. The participants were the pupils who hadacademic deficits in English Language and Mathematics,and further ascertained by the classroom teachers as havinglearning disabilities using the MPRS. They were alsobetween the ages of eight and 12 years. All together, therewere 219 male and 258 female participants. The mean age(M) of the participants was 10.4 years, while the meanintelligence score (M!) on the SIT-R3 was 96.8. Details ofthe demographic information of the participants arerevealed in table 1. All the participants were of Yorubaethnicity and were beneficiaries of the government's freeeducation inclusive of tuition and textbooks. In addition,the participants speak basically English and Yorubalanguages, except in few instances where pidgins are beingspoken, especially at home.

44

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY

Research Design


The study adopted a correlational research design. Thestudy observed variables in its naturalness and tried todetermine the relationship among the variables.

Measures

Four research instruments were used for the studynamely: the Myklebust Pupil Rating Scale (MPRS), theSloss on Intelligence Test Scale - Revised Third Edition(SIT-R3), Test of Pupils' Reading Ability (TPRA) , andMathematical Abilities Test (MAT). The instruments werethe diagnostic package for the participants, and were usedto determine, learning disabilities, participant's intelli-gence, dyslexia and dyscalculia respectively. The Mykle-bust Pupil Rating Scale (MPRS) and The SlossonIntelligence Test Scale Revised Third Edition (SIT-R3)were standardized test scales, while the Test of Pupils'Reading Abilities (TPRA) and the Mathematical AbilitiesTest (MAT) were self-developed tests designed to test fordyslexia and dyscalculia respectively.

The Myklebust Pupil Rating Scale (MPRS, 1981) wasdesigned in order to screen children with learningdisabilities and consequently refer them for furtherassessment. The scale considered demographic character-istics such as pupil's name, age, sex, grade (class), andname of school, residence, birth date, parents' name,teacher's name and date of recording. The Myklebust PupilRating Scale also consisted of five behavioral characteris-tics, namely: Auditory Comprehension and Memory,Spoken Language, Orientation, Motor Coordination andPersonal- Social behavior. Each child was rated on thesefive characteristics in line with the options available. Arating of three was average; one and two were belowaverage while four and five were above average. A rating ofone was considered as the lowest while five was the highestthat could be given. All together, the scale has 24 items anda maximum obtainable score of 120. A child with learningdisabilities should have an overall score that was below 72.This scale had a reliability coefficient of .86 when theinstrument was validated on the Nigerian population,using the test- retest reliability method (Kanu, 2004). Thisensured the cultural relevance of the scale to the Nigerianpopulation.

SIT- R3, which is the latest edition of the Intelligencetest, was reviewed in 2006 by Nicholson, Hibpshman andLarson in order to meet the growing cultural adjustment tothe definition of intelligence. The instrument was usedmainly to determine the standard scores of participants. TheSIT- R3 used a standard score and which had a mean of 100and a standard deviation of 16 at all age levels. The TotalStandard Score (TSS) of the scale indicated the ability levelof the subject in relation to others in the standardizationsample. The scale further classified intelligence accordingly-High (TSS 120-131), Above (TSS 110-119), Average (TSS

90-109), Below Average (TSS 80-89), Borderline MentalHealth (TSS 69-79), Mild Mental Health (TSS 52-58),Moderate Mental Health (TSS 36-51), Severely Profound(TSS 35 and below) The reliability estimate of the SIT-R3was .97 using the Split-half with Spearman-Brown Correc-tion method, .97 using the Rulon method, and .96 using theKuder-Richardson 20 technique.

Test of Pupils' Reading Abilities (TPRA) scale consistedof a comprehension passage and 20 item questions. Thepurpose was to test all aspects of mastery of English,namely comprehension, vocabulary, grammar, spelling andthe ability of the pupil to relate sounds with the words theyrepresent. Each subsection had five related questions,while each correct answer corresponded to one mark togive a total of 20 marks. Any participant with a scorebetween zero and ten on the TPRA was considered to havedyslexia, while participants with a score between 10.5 andabove were considered to be proficient in reading ability.The basis for this decision can be linked to the fact thatquestions in the Test of Pupils' Reading Abilities (TPRA)were taken from primary 3 reading text to take care ofacademic deficits of participants which have been earlierdetected. The TPRA was a self developed scale which wasthe adapted comprehension passage from the officialEnglish Language textbooks of pupils in public schoolsin Oyo State- The Macmillan New Primary English course.Using Guttmann Split- half technique, the reliabilitycoefficient of the Test of Pupils' Reading Abilities was .71.

The Mathematical Abilities Test (MAT) scale similarlywas a self developed scale which was the adaptedmathematics exercises from the official mathematicstextbooks for pupils in public schools in Oyo State- theEvans Modular Mathematics for primary schools. Theselected texts were chosen from textbooks of basics threeand four. It consisted of 15 items that was used to test foran individual's understanding of basic mathematicalconcepts such as time, space, number sense, mathematicalrules, subitizing, and mathematical signs. Any participantwith a score between zero and ten on the MAT wasconsidered to have dyscalculia. The basis for the decisionwas clue to the fact that persons with dyscalculia "Nillusually perform often two years or more below their peers(Desoete, Rovers &: DeClerq, 2004). Using GuttmannSplit- half technique, the reliability coefficient of theMathematical Abilities Test was. 74.

Procedure

Personal visits were made to the selected schools withpermission sought from the school authorities for the studyto be carried out in the schools. The essence of the researchas well as the problems of Learning Disabilities: Dyslexiaand Dyscalculia if not identified early for appropriateintervention were given to solicit their permission.Afterwards, class teachers of primaries 4 and 5 of theselected schools helped to identify the participants. The

45

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY


participants were both school-identified and researcher-identified. Pupils with academic deficits were initiallyidentified by the classroom teachers, followed by theresearchers ascertaining the deficits by looking at theschool records of the last two terms of the teacher-identified pupils. This was to ensure that the pupilsidentified by the teachers were those with academic deficitsin English Language and Mathematics. Using thesemethods, any pupil who had academic deficits, with ascore below the average of 50 percent in the academicrecords of the last two terms in English Language andMathematics were automatically considered for the re-search; as the first condition. The second condition ofconsideration however required participants to be withinthe age range of eight and 12 years.

After identifying the pupils who qualified for thestudy, we went to the schools to explain to the classteachers how to carry out a step by step assessment of thepupils, using the Pupil Rating Scale. This was done in theform of a pilot study. We tested some non-participatingstudents with the MPRS, while using that as a form oftraining for the teachers, we explained to the teachers howto test using the MPRS and how to appropriately rate thestudents. We then asked the teachers to use the MPRS onsome students to ascertain their mastery. Hence, we askedthe teachers to use the Pupil Rating Scale on theparticipants, in order to screen for learning disabilities.Any pupil who has met the first two conditions and scoredbelow an average of 72 overall on the MPRS wasconsidered as having a learning disability and qualified tobe a participant for the study. The purpose of the MPRSwas to determine if the academic deficit of the pupils wasdue to learning disabilities, poor instruction or some otherfactors. Using these methods, the study was controlled, asextraneous variables such as pupils with academic deficitswho had scores above 72, or pupils with academic deficitswith a score below 72, but who were above 12 years wereleft out of the study, as they were not considered forfurther screening. A total of 177 pupils were identified bythe teachers as having learning disabilities, using theMPRS. Therefore, the total participants for the studybecame 477, using MPRS as a first instrument.

Next, we used the SIT- R3 to determine the standardscore of the participants. This was done to have a measureof what each participant was capable of learning, viz-a-vizhis! her intellectual capacity. We employed several researchassistants in the administration of SIT-R3. Thereafter; weadministered the Test for Pupils Reading Abilities onparticipants, with the help of the classroom teachers, toconfirm if the participants had a Specific LearningDisabilities (SLD) that affects reading (Dyslexia); afterbeing exposed to the Pupil Rating Scale. We thereafter usedthe Mathematical Abilities Test on participants. The MATconfirmed participants with dyscalculia - a Specific

Learning Disabilities (SLD) that affects mathematics, afterbeing exposed to the Pupil Rating Scale.

The MPRS and SIT-R3 were administered individuallyon participants, while the TPRA and the MAT wereadministered as a joint test on the participants. Participantsin each sample school were assembled for the TPRA andthe MATas an achievement test. There was a week intervalin the administration of the TPRA and the MAT, and boththe TPRA and the ivlAT lapsed for 45 minutes.

Data AnalysiS

SPSS 20.0 was used to analyze the data. We useddescriptive statistical analyses to get some basic under-standings of the variables of interest. We used simplepercentage to determine if dyslexia and dyscalculia as typesof learning disabilities was common among participants,and also if dyslexia and dyscalculia could co-occur. Also,we used student t-test to examine the difference in learningdisabilities, dyslexia and dyscalculia based on gender.

RESULTS

The major research questions of this study were meant todetermine if (1) two major types of learning disabilities(dyslexia and dyscalculia) were common among the pupilswith academic deficits in English language and mathemat-ics; (2) dyslexia and dyscalculia occur together (co-morbid)in pupils with learning disabilities; while the hypothesesfocused on (1) gender difference in participants (2) genderdifference participants with dyslexia (3) gender differencein participants with dyscalculia. The data analysis resultsare organized below in correspondence with these researchquestions and hypotheses.

Prevalence of Dyslexia and Dyscalculia amongPupilswith Academic Deficits in EnglishLanguageand Mathematics

The TPRA and the MAT were administered on theparticipants to test the participants for dyslexia anddyscalculia. As earlier stated, a score of zero to ten (teninclusive) indicated the presence of a learning disability.Using simple percentage, it was discovered that 3330f the477 participants (69.8%) and 343(71.9%) scored betweenzero and ten in the dyslexia and dyscalculia testsrespectively (see table 2).

Comorbidity of Dyslexia and Dyscalculia

Descriptive statistics showed that a total of 247,representing 51.8% of the participants tested to bothdyslexia and dyscalculia (see table 3).

Gender Difference and Learning Disabilities

The student t-test analysis showed that of the 219 maleparticipants and 258 female participants, there was a meanscore of 68.19 and 66.02 respectively for the genders. The

46

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY


Table 2Participants' performances in reading and mathematics showingpupils' areas of learning disabilities. Table 2 reveals that 477pupils were involved in this study out of which 333 (69.8%) and343 (71.9%) scored between 0 and 10 in Dyslexia andDyscalculia tests respectively. This indicates the percentage ofpupils with learning disabilities in these two areas.

Table 3Summary of scores of participants with dyslexia anddyscalculia, using simple percentage. Table 3 shows that theco morbid group represents. 51.8% of the participants tested toboth dyslexia and dyscalculia. It is therefore common arilOngparticipants with a larger percentage.

Scores Frequency Dyslexia Dyscalculia BothScores Frequency Dyslexia Dyscalculia

0-10 F 333 343 2470-10 F 333 343 % 69.8 71.9 51.8

% 69.8 71.9 11-20 F 144 134 23011-20 F 144 134 % 30.2 28.1 48.2

% 30.2 28.1 Total F 477 477 477Total F 477 477

standard deviation for the male participants was 13.51,while the standard deviation for the female participantswas 12.13. Using t-test as a statistical tool, we found outthat there was no significant difference between maleparticipants and female participants (t= 1.848, df= 475,p> 005). This hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level ofsignificance (see table 4).

Gender Difference and Dyslexia

With the student t-test as a statistical tool, we foundthat 148 male participants with dyslexia had a mean scoreof 1.0.94, and a standard deviation of 4.09, while the 185female participants with dyslexia had a mean of 11..05 anda standard deviation of 4.24. With the hypothesis tested at0.05 level of significance, we found no significantdifference between male participants with dyslexia andfemale participants with dyslexia (t= -3.05, df= 331, p>005) (see table 4)

Gender Difference and Dyscalculia

The statistical tool employed here was the student t-test. We saw that the 165 male participants withdyscalculia had a mean score of 10.47 and a standarddeviation of 3.55. The 178 female participants withdyscalculia had a mean score of 10.91 and a standarddeviation of 3.87. When the data was analyzed with thehypothesis tested at 0.05 level of significance, we found nosignificant difference between male participants withdyscalculia and female participants with dyscalculia (t=-2.81, df= 341, p>0.05) (see table 4).

DISCUSSION

Prevolence of Dyslexia and Oyscalculia

The results of this study showed that dyslexia anddyscalculia were prevalent primary school pupils withacademic deficits in Ibadan Metropolis. This is inaccordance with what we predicted earlier that dyslexia

and dyscalculia is prevalent among primary school pupilswith academic deficits in Ibadan metropolis With respectto dyslexia, the higher prevalence rate may be due to thefact that the participants speak basically two opposinglanguages in relation to language transparency- Yorubalanguage and English language. A language is transparent ifthere is considerable letter-sound relationship, and if aletter has 'one' and only 'one' connotation and phonologicalsound. For example in Yoruba language, there is perfectletter-sound relationship, as 'a' is pronounced the sameway at every time that it appears in a word, irrespective ofthe position such as 'aso', 'ala' and 'eia. This however is notthe case in English language, as 'a' as a letter can bepronounced in different ways, depending on how suchoccurs in a word. For example, the 'a' in 'apple' ispronounced differently from the way it appears in 'bag','start' or 'Abraham'. Since the problem most persons withdyslexia face is associating words with the letter-soundthey represent, they are more likely to be confused and test

Table 4Summary of t-test analysis showing differences betweenmale and female participants in their learning disabilitiesscores, dyslexia test and dyscalculia test.

Variable N Mean SD

Sigdf (p) Remark

LDMale 219 68.19 13.51

Female 257 6602 12.13

1.85 474 .07 ns

Dyslexia

Male 148 10.94

Female 185 1l.05

4.09 -0.20 331 .84

4.24

Dyscalculia

Male 165 10.47

Female 178

3.55 -129 341 .20 ns

47

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY


for dyslexia in a non transparent language such as English.The dyslexia may however not be obvious, or probably sayhidden in the transparent Yoruba language. However, atschool, the official language of instruction for theparticipants is English, and the participants should beaccustomed to the demands of the language. Accordingly,the study was in agreement with the findings ofIntemational Dyslexia Association (2010) that, of peoplewith poor reading skills, 70- 80% were likely to havedyslexia and also that one in every five students of theUnited States (US) population had language-based learningdisabilities. Based on the findings of this study, theprevalence might be much higher in Nigeria than one inevery five student population.

Comorbidity of Dyslexia and Dyscalculia

This study has shown that dyslexia and dyscalculiaoccur together among the participants, as a total of 51.8%had both and dyslexia and dyscalculia. This finding hasearlier been predicted that dyslexia co-occurs withdyscalculia, as an impaired reading ability can easilyimpact on performances in other subjects. In addition,mathematics is a subject dreaded by most students; animpaired reading ability can therefore easily affect an un-nurtured mathematical ability, resulting in a combinationof two learning disorders or cognitive deficits. The findingsof this study therefore, concurred with Barbaresi, Katusic,Colligan, Weaver, and Jacobsen, (2005) and van Aster,Schweiter, and Weinhold Zulauf, (2007) that the percent-age of persons with dyslexia who also have dyscalculiacould be as high as 64 percent.

Gender and Learning Disabilities

Our study has clearly revealed that male pupils do notdiffer from female pupils in the level of learning disabilitiesexhibited. This is in line with what we predicted earlierthat no significant difference existed between the gendersin relation to learning disabilities, as we believe bothgenders have equal chances of having learning disabilities,in as much as the assessment measures are unbiased, andother conditions such as Attention Deficit HyperactivityDisorder (ADHD) was not considered in the definition andassessment of learning disabilities. To this end, boys arenot prone to learning disabilities than girls; they both haveequal chances of having learning disabilities, the same wayboth sexes have equal chances of being born- in such a ,vayit cannot be predetermined by their parents. Even thoughmore males may eventually test to a learning disability thanfemales; same way females outnumber males worldwide inpopulation distribution. In this light, the findings of thestudy substantiated earlier findings that the higherprevalence of leaming disabilities among males may bedue to a referral bias, academic difficulties were no moreprevalent among boys, but that boys were more likely to bereferred for special education when they do have academic

problems because of other behavior such as hyperactivityand emotional disturbances (Pierangelo ESt Giulliani,2006)

Gender and Dyslexia

This study has shown that male participants do notdiffer from female participants on the administered test fordyslexia. Boys naturally are kinesthetic learners- they learnthrough doing, while girls are auditory learners- they talkthrough activities (Perles, 2010) This explains why boysperform well in non- language related subjects such asmathematics and physics; while girls do well in language-related subjects such as English language and Literature-in-English. It is also the reason Science classes are male-dominated, while Arts and Humanities classes are female-dominated. Since boys are not auditory leamers, they caneasily be observed with academic deficits in languagesubjects, and consequently referred for diagnosis ofdyslexia, while girls with academic deficits in language-subjects can easily be put up with- since girls naturallyexcel in language-subjects. Therefore, since more boyswould be referred to assessment centers for eventualdiagnosis of dyslexia, it follows that more boys will bediagnosed with dyslexia, the differences attributable to areferral bias problem. In this regard, the study substanti-ated the findings of Hurst (2010) that gender bias indyslexia is potentially based on essentialized gendernormative behavioral differences. We further agree withWilliam (2010) who concluded that the gender-relatedissue of dyslexia may be a 'referral bias' type problem, whilethe boys' to girls' ratio of dyslexia should be 1: 1, ratherthan 4:1, and with Hawke, Wadsworth, Olson and Defries(2007) that no differential etiology of reading difficultiesexist as a function of gender, but that the same genetic andenvironmental influences contribute to reading difficultiesin males and females, irrespective of severity.

Gender and Dyscalculia

Our study has clearly shown that male participantswith dyscalculia have no Significant difference from femaleparticipants with dyscalculia. Mathematics- the primarysubject in which dyscalculia can be easily identified is amale-dominated subject, meaning that girls are expected tohave a higher prevalence rate of dyscalculia; but, our studyhas discovered something contrary. We found no signif-icant difference on dyscalculia between the genders. Thiswe believe would be because the definition of dyscalculiacuts across mathematical underperforrnance to mathemat-ical disability The individual with dyscalculia is not only a'mathematics underperjormer', but is also unable to make useof simple mathematical rules for functional living. Thismeans that such persons will not be able to understandsimple relationships and associations, and may run intoproblems carrying out basic financial tasks that require nospecial mathematical ability. With this understanding, it is

48

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY


clear that dyscalculia may not be nature-inclined, as; ifmales and females are both put on the same yardstick,males may not differ demonstrably from females. The studytherefore corroborated with the findings of Koumoula,Tsironi, Stamouli, Bardini, Siapati and Graham - Pavlov's2004 study that found no Significant difference betweenthe numbers of boys and girls who tested to dyscalculia.We further agree with the submissions of Hyde and Mertz(2009) which says that males and females do not differdemonstrably in overall mathematical performance.

Study limitations

Our study was not without limitation. The participantswere restricted to only grades four and five; whereas thosein other classes could have been captured if not for thelimited resources. Also, the study was limited to only 25public primary schools in a metropolis of one of the statesof the Nigerian Federation (Oyo State. In addition, thestudy could have been better conducted across the states ofthe federation in order to get a national prevalence rate oflearning disabilities, dyslexia and dyscalculia for thecountry. Another limitation of the study was that it was alittle bit difficult getting the participants involved, whilesome school administrators delayed in giving their consentfor the study to be carried out. The participants were alsoof the Yoruba ethnicity, and could have made the samplebiased. Administration of the SIT-R3 was especiallystrenuous, as a great deal of time was spent on it. Ourstudy also made use of two standardized instruments- theSIT-R3 and the MPRS, and two self-developed tests- theTPRA and the MAT. The two sets of tests are empiricallynot balanced, as the combination of standardized and non-standardized instruments may not generate a 'valid' result.This is because the external validity of the study could havebeen undermined. In future researches, we would like tomake use of standardized instruments that are culturallyrelevant all through. More so, our study of 477 pupils whoscored below 72 on the MPRS was not only pupils withlearning disabilities, but also included persons withintellectual disabilities. Since it is an established fact thatlearning disabilities is not correlated with intelligence, weought to screen out persons with intellectual disabilitieswho would have below average intelligence on the SIT-R3.

Future Research

It is therefore suggested that further researches shouldexplore other areas that were not included in this study inorder to determine other factors that could impedesuccessful educational pursuit. Other grades apart fromthe ones used in the study could also be sampled in orderto determine if there will be changes in findings. Moreimportantly, learning disabilities could be assessed at thecollege level in order to identify those qualified foraccommodation programs.

Contributions to Knowledge

This study has contributed to the existing knowledgein many ways. The study has indicated that learningdisabilities, dyslexia and dyscalculia is prevalent amongpupils with academic deficit, and that learning disabilities,dyslexia and dyscalculia is not gender-peculiar. Our studyhas also revealed that a fair majority of persons withdyslexia also have dyscalculia, while noting that themajority of persons with learning disabilities, dyslexiaand dyscalculia are of average intelligence that could makethem perform well in schools. Based on our findingstherefore, we would like to set the prevalence rate ofdyslexia at 6% of the Nigerian school population of Yorubaethnicity, and that of dyscalculia at 8% of the Nigerianschool population of Yoruba ethnicity. The prevalence oflearning disabilities Nigerian school population of Yorubaethnicity we would like to set at 13%.

Study Implication

The study has shown the significant contribution ofvariables. The study therefore has some implications forthe school administrators, teachers, school psychologistparents, educational curriculum planners and the govern-ment. The school administrator should ensure that eachchild is taught according to an Individualized EducationPlan (I.E.P), which should be carefully developed to suitthe needs of each pupil, while teachers should be equipedwith new techniques and methods of teaching personsidentified with learning disabilities, dyslexia and dyscal-culia. Educational planners should put in mind personswith dyslexia, dyscalculia as well as other forms of learningdisabilities while developing curriculum in order to caterfor their educational and psychosocial needs, while schoolpsychologists should have an understanding of the impactsof learning disabilities and appropriately counsel personswith academic deficits. Parents should realize thatacademic deficits or low scores could be as a result oflearning disabilities, and that children with such manifes-tations would require a kind of home environment that iswelcoming so as not to delve into some unwarranted actssuch as juvenile delinquency. Moreover, the NigerianGovernment should put in place policies that wouldaccommodate the learning disabilities that pupils have. Thegovernment should also ensure that schools are providedwith adequate facilities and equipment, such as resourcerooms that would adequately compensate for any form oflearning disabilities.

REFERENCES

Africa map (2012, March 23). Retrieved from httpl/www.hmnet.com/Africa/Africa.html!!

Barbaresi, W. ]., Katusic, S. K., Colligan, n.c., Weaver,A. L., &1: Jacobsen, S. J. (2005). Math learning disorder:Incidence in a population-based birth cohort, 1976-

49

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY

r Journal of International Special Needs Education

1982, Rochester, Minnesota. AmbulatolY Pediatrics,S,281- 289.

Boon, R (2010). Learning disabilities. Retrieved from hup//[email protected]// Cure research (2010,May 19). Retrieved from http//www.cureresearch.corn/L'learning disa bilities/stats-country. html! /

Czepita, D. 6;[ lodygowska, E. (2006). Role of the organ ofvision in the cause of development dyslexia. KlinikaOczna, 108, 110-113.

Desoete, A., Roeyers, H., 6;[ DeClercq, A. (2004). Childrenwith mathematics learning disabilities in Belgium.Journal of Leaming Disabilities, 37, 50-61

Geary, D.C, Bailey, D.H., Littlefield, A., Wood, P., Hoard,M.K., 6;[ Nugent, l. (2009). First- n grade predictors ofmathemati.callearning disability: A latent class trajectoryanalysis. Cognitive Development 24, 4- 195.

Hawke, ]. l., Wadsworth, S. ]., Olson, R K., 6;[ DeFries,].C (2007). Etiology of reading difficulties as a functionof gender and severity. reading and writing: AnInterdisciplinary [ourna', 20 (1-2), 13-25

Hurst, E.B. (2010). Passing as literate: gender, dyslexia,and the shaping of identities. Middle secondaryeducation and instructional technology dissertations.Paper 71. Retrieved from http://digitalarchive.gsu.edulmist jdiss/Z]

Hyde, ].S., 6;[ Mertz, ].E. (2009) Gender, culture, andmathematics performance. Proceedings oj the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106,8801-8807.

lkediashi, N. (2012). Dyslexia: causes, management andimplications for the Nigerian primary school child.African Research Review. DOl: http://dx.doi.orgll0.4314/afrrev.v6i2.23

Kanu , S.A. (2004). Autistic Manifestation among pupils withLearning Disabilities in selected primary schools in Oyostate, Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan

Koumoula, A., Tsironi, v., Stamouli v., Bardani, 1., Siapati,S., 6;[ Graham-Pavlou, A. (2004) An epidemiologicalstudy of number processing and mental calculation inGreek schoolchildren. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37,377-388.

Mba, P.O. (1991). Elements of Special Education, Ibadan:Codat Publications

Mercer, C.D. (1997). Students with Learning Disabilities.(5th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: MerillJ Prentice Hall

Myklebust, H R. (1981) The Pupil Rating Scale. Grune 6;[Stratton Inc National Institute of Neurological Disordersand Stroke, (2010, May 7). Dyslexia Information Page

Retrieved from: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia. h tm.

Nicholson, C1., Hibpshman, T.l. 6;[ Larson, S (2006) The510ssol1 Intelligence Scale Revised (3,<1 edition) Merill-Prentice Hall

Onwuchekwa, ].N (2005) History of special education.Ibadan: Agbo Areo Publishers

Perles, K. (2010, June 8) Retrieved from: http//www.brighthub.com//

Pierangelo, R 6;[ Giuliani, G. (2006) Exccrpt fmm LcarningDisabilities: A Practical. Appmach t.o Foundati.ons, Assess-ment, Diagnosis, and Teaching, Merrill, an imprint ofPearson Education Inc.

Rourke, B. P (1993). Arithmetic disabilities, specific andotherwise: A neuropsychological perspective. journal ofLearning Disabilities. 26(4),214- 226.

Shaywitz, S. (2009, December 17). on dyslexia andintelligence. Retrieved from http//www.machineslikeus.coml/

The International Dyslexia Association, (2010, September17). Retrieved from: http/zwww.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Dyslexia_Association//

The Queensland Studies Authority. (2010, May 17).Retrieved from: http// www.bigpond.net.au//

The National Literacy Survey (2010, June 23) Report ofthe national bureau of statistics. Retrived from: http//www.nigerianstat.gov.ng//

The National Policy on Education (2004). 4th Edition,publication of the federal republic of Nigeria

Trading Economies (2012, August 27) Retrieved from:h ttp/ /www.tradingeconomies.com/N igeria/school jen-rollmentl/

Tressoldi, PE., Rosati, M. 6;[ lucangeli, D. (2005) Patternsof devel.opmental dyscalculia with or withoLLt dyslo'i.a.Retrieved from: http//www.academic.research.microsoft.cornlpaper/5821921/ /

Tressoldi, PE., Rosati, M. 6;[ Lucangeli, D. (200n Patternsof developmental dyscalculia with or without dyslexia.Neurocase, 13(4), 2f7-225 .

van Aster, M. G., Schweiter, M., 6;[ Weinhold Zulauf, M.(2007). Rechenstorungen bei Kindern. Vorlaufcr , Pra-valenz und psychische Symptome. [Developmentaldyscalculia: Precursors, prevalence and comorbidity.] ZEntwickl Pddagogis, 39, 85-96.

Wendle, W.F., Faro, M.D., Barker, IN, Barsky, D., 6;[

Gutierrez, S (1971). Developmental behaviors delayedappearance in monkeys asphyxiated at birth. Science,171 (3976), 1173-5,

50

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY


Werts, M.G., Culatta, R.A., &: Tompkins, ].R. (200?).Fundamentals oj Special Education: What every TeacherNeeds to know. Merill Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River.

Williams, H. (2010, June 19). Retrieved from: http//www.hileryjane.wordpress.com.//

CORRESPONDENCE

Ayo OsisanyaDepartment of Special EducationUniversity of IbadanJbadan Nigeria. PMBl (001), U.IE-mail: [email protected]

Initial Date Submitted: May 18, 2012Date Revision Submitted: Nov 02, 2012Final Decision Date: Nov 05, 2012

51

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY


Facts and Figures about

as % of total government expenditure% of Literate youth% of Literate adultsHuman Development IndexEducation IndexGini IndexAnnual population growth rate (%)

Life Expectancy at birth (years)Infant mortality rate (0100)

, '''' .!K',,"; , Date of Signature of UNConvention on the~--..,;. 100 ~);t~ Rights of Persons with Disabilities

Date of ratification of UN Convention on theRights of Persons with Disabilities

ReferencesNation Master Index. Retrieved December 21, 2012, from http://www.nationmaster.com/index.php. UNESCO

Institute for Statistics. (2012). UIS Statistics in Brief. Retrieved December 21. 2012, fromhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unescorrable Viewer/document.aspx?Reportl d= 121&JF Language=eng&BRCountry=2880&BR Region=40540

United Nations. Convention and Optional Protocol Signatures and Ratifications. Retrieved December 21. 20 J 2.from http://www.un.org/disabilities/countries.asp?navid= 12&pid= I66#Z

)GER

ZariA."<iJ(1;;"",.

·SCl-..¢~a/" -"'~a~-r"·t<~no

.•..APUJAIlC""'l.

<09 " eo• ·C" 'bo!)aja"l J,'"

i\ Of; .CI~Y

~'1"b1~ I •Pon

Hat<::O' it

CAMEROO...,."""

NigeriaPopulation 155,215,573

40.9

619

36

3

86

3.1

71.8

60.8

.46

.44

42.93

2.5

51

90

3-2007

9-2010

Government TypeCapitalPopulation 0-14 years (%)% Children enrolled in primary educationSchool life expectancy (years)Primary to secondary transition rate (%)

Pupil I teacher ratio (primary)Percentage of repealers, primary (%)Survival Rate to Grade 5 (%)Public expenditure on education:

as % ofGDP

Federal republic

Abuja

52

UNIVERSITY

OF I

BADAN LIBRARY