Holland Type Theory

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II Juhn Holland's view that career choice and .I ~ J o I I I U I l uf:l person's personal P I career adjustment represent an

\ .1111'\ l h r o l l ~ h their work ,ho' Ity. deope e ~ p r e s s thcmselves, their interests and

I

ICes an expcflcnee In h' h H [[ ,t < Ill'opk's impressions 'n d g [ . IS t eory, 0 and assumcs

cnera Izatlons about k h' h I f I / / f . ~ , : Il t' J;t'nerally ace r t II d . wo r , w Ie he refer s to as

11 ll.llld ;lssil-\l1s omh people, d' kY st.u ymg and refining these stereotype'n wor env ironments [ r ,

11 lbtlll (I 6,1973, 1985a 1 99 2 1 99 7 h 0 Specl IC categories.I t l ~ I\'pttll'gi :;ll rlll'ory Each book' , ) as authored five books that explain. represents an updatcd d f h r ed

I',I.ltI'l wllrk in th\' lkvdopmem of h' h Th an ur t er re m version of

\ , ,11;011<11 Ikhd lioT ..:ont.. ,' , 12 s

t ~ I y , h u g u ~ t 1999 issue of The Journal

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. l'ory. wo 'ychol .I

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5HAPTER

HOLLAND'S THEORY

OF TYPES

I II.\I'Il lt HIGHLIGHTS

fiNO 81. Types

11 f1lb1Nttlons of Types

••1 -10fY Constructs

_ch on HoIand's Constructs

100 RcH of Occupational Information

fiNO RIM of Assessment ~ t y t n g he Theory to Women

A1,,1tyIng he Theory to CutttnIy Df¥erse PoptAations

O I.-.Ior IHUeS

CHArTER-4

yons. H. Z .• Brenner. B. I... rassingcr. R. E. t ~ n I H . I.nmhkllltllflll I tIl< Ilwmy fwork adjustment: Investigating the role uf oc'teroscxislIl amI fit l.-n·rl>lt U' Ih\' i hsatisfaction of lesbian, gay, and biSC xual employees. Journal uf CWIIISI IIllJ.: 1'.'v.-l ,I I(1,

52(4),537-5-48 .yons, H. Z., .O'Brien, K. M. (2006). The role of penon-<llvironmmt fit in the job utis·

faction and tcrlure intentions of African Amet ican employees. Journal of Cou1\UfinR

Psydrology. 53(4), 387-396..1.ekhiori. L G .• .Church, A. T. (19971. Vocational needs and satisfaction of supported

employees: The applKabiliry of the theory of work adiustment. Journal of VoutioMI

Behavior. SO 401-417. 1yol 5, B. (1996). Utility analysis based on tenure (Doctoral dissertation. University of New

South Wales. 1996). DiuertatiOIl Abstracts 11ltematioM/ Seaion B: The Sciences tJnd

Enginurillg 5716·8. 4071.ounds, J B. (1990). The comparative and combined utility of work value and interest data

in career counSC ling with adults. Journal of VoutiOMI BehtJvior, 37, 32-45.

ounds, J. B., Armstrong, P. I. (2005). Assessment of nttds and values. In S. D. Brown .R. W. Lent (Eds.l, Career development alld colmseling: Puttillg theory tJnJ resctJrw to

work (pp. 305-329). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.ounds, J. B., Dawis, R. V., Lofquist. L. H. (19791. Life histOry correlates of vocational

needs for a female adult sample. Joumal of Cou/lseling / sychology 26, 487-496.

Rounds,j. B., Henly, G. A., Dawis, R. V., Lofquist. L. H., Weiss. D. j. (1981}. Manual for

the Mi/ltlcsottJ lmporttlnce Questionnaire. Minneapolis. MN: University of Minnesota,

Psychology Department, Work Adjustment Project.Rounds, j. B., Hesketh, B. (1994). Emerging directions of penon-environment fit. In

M. L Savickas . R. W. Lent (Eds.), Convergence ill career development theories

(pp. 177-186). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.Schmidt, D. B., Lubinski, D., . Benbow, C. P. (1998). Validity of assessing educational

vocalion:d preference dimensions among intellectually lalented 13-year olds. Journal of

Counseling Psychology 45, 436-453.Thompson, J. M., .Blain, M. D. (1992). presenting feedback on the Minnesota lmporunce

Questionnaire and the ~ i n n e s o t Satisfaction Quesrionnaitl'. The arnrDevdopmerrt

Qwrurry 4J , 62-66.U.S. Department of Labor. (1982). MtJllwl for the USES General A.ptitude Test Battery:

Section ll OCCJlPtJtioMI tJptitudc PtJuern stnfcture. Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Of fee.

Webb, R. M., Lubinski, D., Benbow. C. P. (2002)- Mathematically facile adolescenawith madvscience aspirations: New perspectives on their educational and vocational

developmmt. Journal of Educational Psychology 94, 785-794.



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I rn l'>I..hc, 191 4 . I uht rmnell ', 111 thfh:n:1I1 \\.1 \ Ill\ ~ t l I \ ,I I I 1\ I II nt \Hili ,'''·

tenclCS and IlUcrCSI.s., which are an a s s e s . ~ l l l e l l 1 of .Ill ll,d'\'HI'I.II'.. P III.II'll I lull,ll,d

(1997) recognized that his theory could ;lCl,;ounl for only ,I IltlrllUIl nllhe \,.lrlahle<

that underlie career selection. H e w as clear in Slating Ihal hiS IIH. orellc;llmodd l,;()uld

be affected h)' age, gender, social dass, intelligence, and educallon. Wilh th:lI under·

stood, he specified how the individual and the environment interact with each Olher

through the development of six types: Realistic, Investig:nive, Artistic, Social,

Enterprising, and Conventional. BOth individuals and environmentsconsist of a COlll

bin:uioll of types.

TH E SIX TYPES

The following sections describe each of the six work environments (Gonfrcdson Richards, 1999) . fol lowed by a descr iption of the personali ty type of the person

who lllalChes thai environment (Low Rounds, 2006; Spokane Cruza-Guet,

2OOS Next , behavior that can be expected from each type in Ihe conlext of

counseling is discussed. Othcr important concepts, such as congrucnce and differen

t iation, which arc discussed later . descr ibe the intcraction betwccn the person and

the cnvironmcnt. When descr ibing real peoplc a nd w or k environments, which arc

nevcr purely of one type, Holland uses a combination of three types, also discussed

later. Th e relationships among the six types arc illustrated in Figure 5.1. The place

mcnt of the types on the hexagon is purposeful. Th e arrangemcIU is explained laterin this chaprer when the concept of consistency is described.

REALISTIC

Till Rl AUsnc ENVIRONMENT The RealiStic I t environment makes physical de

mands on the individual. Such work senings havc tools , machines. or animals that

the individual manipulatcs. In such a sening, individuals are required to havc tech

nical competencies Ihal will allow them to do such things as fix machines, rcpair

e1ecrronic equipmenl. drive cars or trucks, herd animals. or deal with other physical

aspects of their environment. The abi li ty to work wilh things is more important

than the ability to interact with other people. Construction sites , factories , and

auto garages are examples of cnvironlllcnts that provide machinery or other things

for Realistic people 10 mastcr. Some Realistic environments requirc a great dcal of

physical agility or s trength, such as roofing, outdoor painting, and pipe fitting.

These cnvironments may be hazardous and lllay produce more physical illness or

accidents than other work environment.' i.

THE REALISTIC PERSONAl,lTY TYPE Realistic people are likely to enjoy using tools

or machines in their hobbies or wo rk . T he y tend 10 seek 10 develop competcncies

in such areas as plumbing, roofing, electrical an d automotive repair. farming. and

other tL'Chnical disciplines. They ar e ..pt to like courses that ar c practical an d

t each thc use of mechanical or pbysical skills. Realistic people ar e likely to have

littlc tolcrance o f a bs t ra ct a n d theoretical descriptions. Ohel1, they approach p r o ~blems, whether mechanical or personal, in a pract ical or problem-solving manner.

ConventlOnal < f : - - - - - j - - - - - * - - - - - j l - - ~ : l > Artislie

Degree of Consi slency Pe rsona lity Patte rn s H;gh R1, RC, IR, lA, AI, AS,SA, SE, ES, EC, CE Medium RA, RE, IS, IC, AR, AE,51, se, £A, ER, CS,

Low RS, IE. AC, SR, EI, CA

II(,URE 5.1

ITilE RELATIONSI- I(>S AMONG HOLLAND TYI'ES.

\lJLlrcC: Adapted fTOIII HoIlotUts hexagoll ACT reSt ilrdl report 10 2Y y L Hoiland I) II Wh·N,\ Cole, d M R· IIney,

• a n . . Ie ards,Jr. Copynght Q 1969. TIll: All1cric: 1I1 Colk;ge Testing l rogmm. R rinrcdII)' pcnmSSlon.

Ihey ar e l i k ~ l y to. value money, power, and s tarus, whilc placing a lesser value onhuman relatlonshlps.

III HAVIOR OF R E A L I ~ T I C CLIENTS In thc counseling situation, Realistic clients arc

likely. to ~ SpecifIC s ~ g g e s t i o n s and advicc to solve their career problems-a

rraalcal s o l u t ~ o n . Such d ~ n t s may be somewhat resist;lnt to expressing their fccl

lUgs about t h ~ l t career chOICe and prefer to move directly 10 an answer to the prob

kill of choosmg a c a r ~ ~ ..When d i s c ~ l s s i n g t ~ e i r activities, Ihey are likely to enjoy

t.dkmg alJ:out such actiVities as huntmg, fishmg, and f ixing cars. Thcy are apr to

dl'>cuss thmgs they .h:l\lc done. that show an expertise in using tools. They may

J I ~ ~ talk a b ~ u t S p c ~ c f l posseSSions, such as cars, radios, or other machinery, withwhich they like to tlllker.

.Women may encounter more resistance an d harassment from men in a Realistic

C l l \ l ~ ~ n m e n t ~ h a n in any of Ihe other five types. Because many of the activities and

J l J r t l C I ~ a n t s m the Realistic cnv ir onment t cnd 10 be traditionally masculine,

R e J I I S ~ I C . women n ~ 3 Y cncounter a considcrable amount of sexism in trying 1'0 enter

.. R e a l , s t l ~ occupation such as auto mechanics. coal mining, or roofing. \X'omen wh o

ha\'e. re:eelved cncou:agement from their fathers and brothers in the development of

~ e d s t l C competencies may become hurt a n d a n gr y when they encounter resistance



1:\1 1:IlAIV l'Illl.t

from men in a Realistic w o r k i n ~ l · l I v i m n m l · n r . I k a l i l l ~ with sud, lh.\m·... 1'I'llllin's thM

the counselor be sensitive women and support thuse willi I{l'ali i( IIlh·n..,ts ;llld

competencies. Still, nm all Realistic occupations present such pwhll·IIl.... MallY 1) 1.:1I-

pations have significant Realistic components, yet are not traditiunally maSl.:uline.Examplt:s include silversmith, dressmaker, floral designer, and inventory derk.

INVESTIGA.TlVE

THE l,..vESTIGA.llVE ENVIRONMENT The Investigative I) environrm:nt is one in

which people search for solutions to problems through mathematical and sciemificinterestS and compcrencies. In such a situation, people are encouraged to use com

plex and abstract thinking to solve problems creatively. Examples of occupations

that offer the opportunity to usc analytKal thinking skills arecomputer programmer,

physician, mathematician, biologist, science teacher, veterinarian, and research anddevelopment manager. In each of these environments, cautious and critical thinking

is valued. Individuals are likely to need to use logic and precise methodical thinking

to find solutions to problems in these fields. These jobs require that people use their

intellect ro work independently to solve problems. They are not required or encour

aged to use human relations skills to solve problems; they also are nor likely to need

t use machines. For example, a computer programmer uses logic to figure out solu

tions to problems (an Investigative environment), whereas the computer technician

works with machinery and may assemble or fix it (a Realistic environment).

TH E INVESTIGATIVE PERSONALITY TYPE The Investigative person is likely to enjoy

puzzles and challenges that require the use of intellect. Such a person is apt to enjoylearning and to feel confident about his or her ability to solve mathematical and

scientific problems. Such p e o p l ~ often enjoy teading about science and discussingscientifIC issues. They seek to work independently to solve problems such as math

ematical or scientific questions. They are likely to enjoy courses in math, physics,

chemistry, biology, geology, and other physical or biological sciences. They arenOt likely to enjoy supervising other people or dealing dirtttly with personal pro

blems, but they may enjoy analyzing Ot searching for solutions to psychological

problems.

BEHAVIOR OF INVESTIGATIVE CLIENTS ClientS who are primatily Investigative in

their personality tend to ~ n j o y the challenge of an unanswered question. They are

often excited by a problem and want to work hard to find a solurion, even though

there may be relatively litde financial or other reward. When it comes to solving acareer problem, they may wish to solve i t themselves and to approach it from

a rat iona l rathe r than emotional point of view. When the caree r problem itself

is seen as a challenge, they may feel better if they view the counselor as a fellow

investigator rather than as an expert who is telling them what to do.

ARTISTIC

THE ARTISTIC ENVIRONMENT The Artistic (A) envirunmt'nt is Ulll' Ihal is frl'\.' and

uJ'lt·n. e n c C l u r a ~ i n ~ acativity :md pcrsunal l·xprt·S iiUIl. SlIdl :111 1' yirflIH1l1'111 IIffl'rs

I t l l l . I . M « l I . ~ 1 1111011 1 III' 't''I'l't(S 13.1

I ~ ~ fn'('dOln ill d ( v ( r H p i . I ~ P f l l d l l l · l . ~ :11111 ; 1 1 1 . ~ W l · r s . ES:lllll,fl'S If ,lIlxuparions in

1Y11l\. .I ....·UI:lt- \ ;111.11. 1 \ fI';lllYI' allll 1l1l1'WlVl'l1liClll;ll ways til l'spress themselves are1 1 l l 1 ~ \ · I : I l 1 . ~ 1 ( :lrll... and I f l d : ~ n n writl·r. Stll:h settings allow people to dress the

w . , ~ Ihl'y Wish. kl'l.·p fl'w ; l p p l l m t r n e m ~ . and structure their own time. These work

l I Y l r ~ l l n l n t s l·nl.:uUr,lg\· personal and emotional expression rather than logical ex

I n slIll. l. If tunIs are used, they are used to express oneself (for example, a clarinet

nf.a l':llnthrush) rather than as a means to complete a task (for example, an electric.Iflllllr a wrench).

1 111 A ~ I U T I C P E R S O N A ~ I T Y TYPE The Artistic person likes the opportunity to exI fl ;.\ .hlmself or herself m a free and unsystematic way, creating music, art, or wtit

I t l ~ . S.t1l.:h people y use instruments to do this, such as a violin, their voice,

.... U pWlg tools, or a word procesSOt. They are likely to want to improve their abil

11) .111 l a ~ g u a g e , music, or w r i t i ~ g . Originality and creativity are particularly im.

I t : l n ~ I ~ e x p r ~ s s l o n . To use a palllt-by-numbers kit would be deeply offensive to

.111 . ~ r t l s t l c type, who needs and desires the opportunity to express herself or him

,d l III a frce and open manner. A pure Artistic type would dislike technical writing.llId would prefer writing fiction or poetry.

IllllAVIOR OF A ~ T I S T I C CLIENTS In a counseling session, Artistic clients oftenlll.lkl· dear how Important art, music, or writing is in their lives. They may prefer

.1 1 ~ l l l l s t r u c r u r ~ counseling approach as opposed to one that uses worksheets andw n ~ r e . 1 l matenals. They may enjoy discussing the expression and development of an

thll.\ul.: product. h ey may also like to comment on or criticize the products of

..dll'rs. W h ~ n talkmg to Artistic people, it becomes dear that their excitement cen

h''', 011. their creative activity. They may enjoy using humor or other methods of

'prt'sslon ro show that thcy.are unique and nOt like other clients. Their expression

I1l,1y.he unclear or appear disordered. Often, they discuss their own thinking and

• a l ~ v e p : o c ~ . ~ o r e t.han any other type, Artistic people arf:' likely to rely on

I ~ t I l I / l S m thelT drscusslon of career issues and to see the choice process as an af11 l IIVl rather than a logical one.

UII:

1 111 SO{;IAL ENVI.RONMENT The Social 5) environment is one that encourages1'1'''pll' to fleXible understanding of each other , where people can work

\\111.1 others t h r o ~ g . h helping with personal or career problems, teaching others, a

I n l l 1 ~ .others spmtually, and being socially responsible. The Social environment, · l t I p h a ~ l z t . S human values such as idealism, kindness, friendliness, and generosity.

111l M Idcals r.nost commonly exist in the education, social service, and mental

1 1 l . r 1 ~ h profess.lOlls. Examples of these occupations arc elementary school teacher

'l'IYI:II.l·lllll.:atlon teacher, high school teacher, marriage counselor, counseling s

, 1 d l l ~ I s t . spct'l.:h therapist, school superintendent, and psychiatrist. P y

1111 ....OCIIII. I'I;IIs0NAl.rrV TVI'E The Social person is interested in helping peo I

du.ouJ.:h 1 t · ; l l : ~ i n ~ . ~ l l l ~ i n ~ with ['I.· sonal or vIl(.':uinnal problems, or providrn=1 '1 '1I11al Sl·rVl\·t·s. 'lul'l:ll ['I.·Upll' l'III y s o l v i l 1 ~ prohlt'ms t h m t l ~ h discussion and



1.1. C:'IAP1'I It,

teamwork rather thall t h r u u ~ h r . c 1 l ~ ; H i u n . I'rdcrrillJ.: til tnlk AIIII rr_ulvc' l'lIl1lplrx

problems that may be e t h i t . ~ l or ir. calistic in ll:uurl', rlwy 11111'11 dU1\I \ I 1tI avuid

working with machines. They seck out environments wherl' 1I11. y ~ ; l l 11M' v e r h ~ l land social skills, such as in education, welfare, and mental heahh.

BEHAVIOR OF SOCIAL CLIENTS In a counselingsituation, Social peopleexpresstheir

idealism, waming [Q help mhers through religion, politics, or social service. Often al

truistic, Ihey are more concerned with contributing to a bet ter world than with eco

nomic achievement for themselves. They are likely to value informal activities that

they have done, such as teaching young children and helping friends with personal

problems. When talking with a counselor. they may be interested in the counselor's

profession (a Socialenvironmenr) and appreciative of the counselor's help. Because it

is in thdr nature to ehelpful, they maywish to cooperate with theircounselor's plans

to assist them. Also, their Social nature may make them good candidates for career

group counseling, where they may enjoy the opportunity to help others. However,

they may e too verbal, because they value talking, making it difficult for the coun

selor to assist them and other career group members in dealing with questions of

career planning.

ENTERPRISING

THE ENTERPRISING ENVIRONMENT The Enterprising (E) environment is one wherepeople manage and persuade others [Q attain organizational or personal goals.

These are situations where finance and economic issues are of prime importance

and risks may be taken to achieve rewards. n such an environment, people tend

to e self-confident, sociable, and assertive. It is an environment where promotion

and power 3re important , and persuasion 3nd sell ing take place. Examples of

Enterprising environments are sales work, buying, business management, restaurant

management, politics, real estate, stock market, insurance, and lobbying. All of

these environments provide the opportunity for power, status, and wealth.

THE ENTIiRPRISING PERSONALITY TYPE The acquisition of wealth is particularly

important for Enterpris ing people. They enjoy being with others and like to use

verbal skills to sell, persuade, or lead. They tend to be assertive and popular, trying

to take on leadership positions. They enjoy working with people but prefer to per

suade and manage rather than to help.

BEHAVIOR Of ENTERPRISING CLIENTS Enterprising people may present themselves

in a self-assured manner, They may appear to be more self-confident than they feel.

Some Enterprising people may be quite open about their goal to accomplish wealth,

whereas others may ereluctant to admit to a goal that they see as socially inappro

priate. LikeSocial types, they may be very verbal with a counselor and willing to talk

about past accomplishments. Unlike Social types, they value convincingand persuad

ing o ther s rathe r than he lping o ther s. In par t, because of their ~ c l f - c o n f i d e n c e ,Enterprising types may have difflCulty seeing their c o m p e t e r n : i ~ S ,ll'I,:ur:ndy, and thus

overestimate their abilities. Enterprising types may be impatil.'lIl with t t l t r y - I ~ v d pc>si-

tinns ur Ix:cuparions tha tdu nut lear. quickly to rhl.' :ll'l'lllllulutillll of wl'ahh. pclwcr,

lit hmh, Thry l lrt nl .•11 Iikrly tu C'lIpc'rjrlln' l'llnOin I r.u r 1'lIltlp ',ill (lIr hlllh I W .••• I Wit I CIt · . l I t l r p n s m ~ rYIX's who

, , IIlum'y,

( :CINVI'.NTl()NAI.

1111 ( ; t INVI N nUNAI ENV ON ENT 0 . .. .., rganlZatlOn d I . L

1 IlYI'ntional (C) environment Mo., Co . , an . p annmg uc:st describe the• j nvennona enVlronm' n,· ff' .

IUC'IIl.S, whl.'re one needs to keep records file .. , , ~ r e 0 ICe envlron- p rrs. In addit ion to wri tten . , h papers, copy matenals, and organi7..e

I matena t e Convent iona l .lll.llll'm;uil.'al materials such as ookk '. environment mcludes, eepmg and accounting d W d~ I I l J ~ , ~ : l l ~ u l a r i n g and copy machines are the of . recor S. , or pro:ces

I tlllVt'lltllJnal environmenr Co . h type equipment that IS found m a. . mpetenclcs t 3t arc needed t o w k 1/ Co

ITUlIulla envIronment are clerical sk'U bT ' or we tn a n- 111 ,lhility to follow directions. I s, an a I Ity to orgalllzt, dependability, and

I ... · CONVENTIONAL PERSONALITY TYPE The Conv . .ri l l s money being d,pend.hl d h h' . ennonal person IS one who va-

. ' e, an te Illty to f I dI llvl'nlJonal people prefer being in I . 0 ow ru es an orders. I ,II0US requests They , oy .n offi

contro. 0 Situations and not dealing with am-

. Ice environment whe h I f1 I 1 1 1 ~ y and following rules r....ul. ,, ·on d d ,. re t elr va ues 0 earning, • , -/:0 s, an gUI C mes can e Th .

•111' I wlr clerical and numerical .h· · h' h h met. elr strengths

II

. I Ity, W IC t ey use to sol 1 1 I l ~ II I their environment Th I h' . ve Steal uorward pro-. elT re attons Ips with pe I d L _

1 \V.lrt accomplishing tasks and e br h . op e ten to IJ t dttectedsra IS 109 an organized appro3ch to problems.

III ItIiVIOH OF CONVENTIONAL CLIENTS In a

I,,'oplt· are likely t o present th' I c.ounselmg situati on. Conventional

I . ...rose ves as orgaOlzcd yet de d h• 1tt'1:lIoII. They may have d,'fficultv L pen ent on ot ers for

IJ't mg open to examin' .I. W paths on their own init iat ive H mg new oceupanons or ca11 1.11 ability in high hool.. ..... ?w,ever, t. arc often proud of their organi7.a-

..x aeurncu ar acnvltles and b1M v,' h;ld work expericntt thoy, k I h h m usmess actiVIties. If they

, .. re I eyto ave adthe . lilt· · and enjoyed that experien If h h opponuOlty to work in an t ey worked in en . h

II C ( .u llwn ttooal they a re like'y r h Lh_ f VlTonments t at were, ' 0 l} ICOI rustrated by rh , k f

II I I ~ . i t . environments and probably tried to brin e ac 0 ~ n t z a n o nw l l r k U l ~ world Wh 'n , h y I . g some type of order lOtO their

.

.. ..xp ore oceupanonal bT . h1< I,,· t'ltcited and interes-.J· . L . ~ fi pasSI lines, t ey are mos t likely, CU 10 lOv:; 10 manclal mstituf h b .

•1Il' ,lIl ns for which th ' .n . k' Ions, soc as anks, or m oc-- , . . use cOUntUlg s Ills such .

•• lIlIr.,lIl'r, and data pn, , - - , Th k , ' as tax exper t, IOVentory. ' '. eyareaso I ey tobe ~ . . . I fi . l l l l l l l l l ~ analysis I I...L_, pe I . tnteres... . m maoclal and

• \.JUK: csonauty types are likel t L_

11 1 u t ~ . Conventional types appreci h . y 0 see t esc lOu:; as routine orate t e OpportuOlty to organize and regulate.

,. ( IMI\INATIONS OF TYPES

I 1 ,II'ly, no rl'al wurk environment is purel f~ l I u , l I i I l , ~ involve it c.:umbinarion of ..th

0Rather, ~ O S t working

1 l I I I ~ ill 11 (kcufJatirms Finder ( ~ ~ . d 2C;OOescnhmg . ~ c u p a t t ~ n a l environ

Ih,' : /fI'c/film,,1 0/JIJfjT UlIit;(.s Find;r , ~ n d ~ r a m m g enVironments in

will II a l ~ c I I I I I , n i l ~ h i _ ~ Sf lf-/)irl f . . / ~ n m eg, Holland, 1994),I II • IIITf J TII,('ss/fmal User's Guide (Holland,



I'llwdl, Frit /_'lChl:, I ~ ~ 4 . Iloltl1ld IISl'S :\ rhrl:l'-ll:ttt'r code to dnlMlllllc· rnl'll.uf

these l:lwirOIlIlll:nts. Holhl11d's The' {kc /if/<lliOl/s hll r I L ~ I . ~ .\ Il'llr ' , 'mlt's lor

1,156 oc.:cupations, and The EducatiUllal O/J/JOrtllllili /- illlil l i ~ I 1l11IlT Ih.w 750programs of study. For example, a bookkeeping environment is IIIH lIlW ,h,lt is

strictly Conventional. It is primarily Conventional, secondarily h l V l s t i ~ , l t i v e , andthirdly Social; it is summarized as CIS. Environments differ in terms of how m u ~they are dominated by one or twO types. For example, the bookkeeper may work II I

a primarily Conventional environment, but a detective may work in an environment

that is Social, Realistic, and Enterprising. It would be Social because of the nttd to

help other people; Realistic because of the importance of driving cars, using g ~ n sand fingerprint material, and so forth; and Enterprising because of the persU:lSlve

ness and assertiveness that are required. Another book, the Dictionary Ho kmd

Occupational odes (Gonfredson Holland, 1996), listS more than 12,000 occu

pations that have bttn coded by translating the U_S. Oepanment of Labor system of

Dictionary Occupational Titles (DOT) codes intO HoUand codes. Thus, it is pos-

sible to look up any occupation and determine its three-letter code.

Just as no single environment can be described by one code, it is rare for a per

son to fit only one Holland psychological type. Through their experiences in school,

with hobbies, and with parents, people are exposed to a large number of situations

that hdp them become familiar with certain types of environments. For example,

repairing a car x ~ one to a Realisric environment, being involved in dubs a t

school is likely to involve one in a Social environmem, and drawing and p ~ i ~ ~ n gare examples of an Artistic environmem. As people are exposed to these a c t J V I t ~ e s ,they become more interested in certain environments and develop many Spec:1fie

abilities. They become better able be successful in some environments than in

others. As they do this, certain of the Holland types become stronger than others,

and their personality type becomes more definite.

These types can be measured by instruments Holland has developed, such asthe Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) or the Self-Directed Search (50S). In ad

dition, other inventories, such as the Strong Interest Inventory (SII), use Holland'stypes and can be used to code the interests of individuals according to a three

letter Holland code.When listening to a client describe his or hercareer history, it is helpful to think

in terms of Holland's six types of people and environments. As a dient describes a

particular experience, a fit between personality type and imerest and experience islikely to become apparent. As the diem moves on to another topic, another type is

likely to emerge. In this way, the counselor can keep a rough count or impression of

the dominant personality types. For example, as a c1icnt describes her interest in

military activities and parachuting, the counselor conceptualizes these activities in

terms of Holland's Realistic type. When she talks about her interest in biology class

in high school and her desire to take an advanced course in biology, the notion of

interests and abilities in Investigative activities arises. As counselors become more

familiar with Holland's theory, it is possible that the mention of activities will

ring a bell, and they will recall the appropriate type that desctibes the person at

the moment. For the beginning counselor, it is often necessary to consciously mem

orize the Holland types and bring them into active memory to C U l l l p ; l r ~ the rype

with the activity being discussed by the cliem. Somctiml's, it Iwlp(ul III l·xpl.,ill

................ ,,,,,n, . . I 1.1'

IluJll\tlll's s y ~ t t l 1 I tn dirlUs. providilll-: I ll with ;ltl llpportllnity UfI-:'llIi .c tlll'irl h l l t l l - \ h l . ~ ;Chlllll I h l · l l l ~ I · l v l · ;llld till world 01 wllrk. .

I .XI I.i\NATORY CONSTRUCTS

h llr impurtanr ('1l11strur.:ts for conceptualizing and using Holland's types in counsel

1111: ; lCl congruence, differentiation, consistency, and identity. These refer to the rela

l l l l ~ h i r hctween the . p e ~ o n a l i t y and the environment (congruence), the relationship

11\'lwl t'n ;uK . the relative Importance of typeS (differentiation), and the relarionship of

II,,·1 ~ p t S

w.'th~ a c h o ~ e r

(consiStency). In addition, knowledge of the concept' ofhlt'l1l1ty, whICh IS less directly tied to types, is imporraOl for counselors to have.

( :IIN(;RUENCE

Hit n'rm c o n g r u ~ ~ refers to the relationship of the personality to the environ1I1t·l1t. Th.e s l m l l ~ r the ~ r s o n a l i t y is to the environment, the more congruent rdanonshlp. SocIal types tend to enjoy working in a Social environment .

h l V l ~ t i g a t i v e prefer the Investigative environment. Thus, a Social type work:

III : II I 3 ~ I e s .envlronment (Enterprising) might find the environment incongruent.

Au Investigative type working in an Artistic env ironment might also find that

Illl lmgruent and would be frustrated by the ambigui ty and flexibility that are

n llIirl-d in the production of artistic or musical products. Using Holland's three

It'Il r cude, an SRA personality would be most congruent with an SRA environment

.lIltl slightly less congruent with an SRC environment. likewise, an SIC environ

1l1t 11I w o ~ J d be more incongruent, and an ICR environment would be quite incon

I:nll'nt With an SRA type of person. Thus, congruence decreases as the similarityI'('lwl ('n the three-letter code of the person and the environment decreases.

C ·OlJNS.ELlNG I M P ~ C A . T l o . N s The concept of congruence is essential in counseling,wllt'rl' t can prOVide an Imporrant goal. A dient wishing to make a career choice

\\ want to find an environment that is congruent with his or her personality. It is

l'ounselor:s job to the client's personality and assist in finding environ

11l,'lIIs that Will fit the client according to the Holland type. Working toward the

. I H · I I V C ~ Y of ~ o n g r u e n t occupat ions becomes the major purpose of career

~ 1 . ~ d l ~ g sessions. The counselor thinks about the diem and possible career,lll1ll'l'S t terms of the six Holland t y ~ s and the degree to which they match.

hAMI'I.f. OF CONGRUENCE Jane, a white high school sophomore, has a counsel

: . ~ l · s s i ) n with h.er guidance counselor that includes the following dialogue:

CL J { ~ · u · l 1 t 1 y • 1was w o ~ k i n g with a friC'nd who was making a project for her high school lI'l1ee f,ur..It hnd of m e ~ s y w e s'pcnt a lot of time sorting ants into differenr piles: 1<1 dl'vclnpmg d l f ~ e r e n t lerralns-but t was a lot of fun. I was surprised how the timeIUM w nr hy so qUICkly. In (acr, 1gOI in trouble for gerting home late. We worked on it

· r l: y l i ~ h t and then most of las' SaturdflY.

co: S I I I ~ t 1 S like y u Wl're really inrrigul'd by :lll of rhe differtnt things rhal you couldd . \ lul ·I r '·n ur'II-\I·.S rhl' diem ro keep talking anoul her imtrest in the sci-I· ..... • flwi''L'r til

,.if hl'T illfl·T\'.st in Invl'.srif,:;crive ;lL tiviril'S will slIsl':lin irsdf.1



I.lH t:1' r T ~ I t ~

CL: It was a lot IIf flln. I IICVl'r klil'w thM ohM'rvinJ.: ants CIlUIII ht' AU Inlt'rr.lIuJ.\, II ft'nlly

got me thinking about what I might dn. I wish fhat I ha,l tlullIy,hl 'lh U1 ,l inj.:, st.'i-

ence proje't. But it's tOO late now.co : If you were to do a sden'e project now, what do you think it might hd ITh\: nplora

tion of Investigative activities wminues.]CL: I'm not sure, really. But I think it might have something to do with mice and how they

act. I'm taking biology now, and I really like it. I wish that I had room in my Khwule

next year for another biology course.co : You seem surprised that you have so much inlerest in biology. [TIte counselor tries to

understand how importam Investigative activities are to the dient and if this is a re<:ent

awareness for the client.]CL: I m surprised. , never thought I would like science so much, I've known all along that

I enjoy art. My art teachers really like my work, and I enjoy painting. Last summer,

I won first place in a wntest Wilh one of my paintings.co : That sounds cxdting. It's great to have things that seem different from each other but

arc so enjoyable, IWhile reinfordng the client's enjoyment, the counselor acknowledges

the existence of both Investigative and Artistic interests.]CL: I've thought that it would be neat to do something with Kience and an aher college.

I've thought of doing something with biology, becoming a biologist or geneticist orsomething like that. But I'm not sure what I'd do with art. Sometimes I think that

I might l ike to be an artist or an architect.co: These are occupations worth looking into. They certainly fit with the things that you've

been telling me so far about yourself. [Without knowing the exact Holland codes for the

occupations that the student mentions, the wunsclor can still tell that the occupationsthat have been described are wngruent with the clicm's emerging personality type. Thecounselor is then in a position to find other occupations that may be wngrucnt with theAI type. Furthermore, the counselor wil l have the opportunity to see if there are otherHolland types that reflect the individual's personality. If so, this may help the counselorin finding other occupations to suggest that will be congruent with the client's type.J

DIFFERENTIATION

Both people and environments may differ in terms of how clearly they belong to one

or two types. Some people may predominantly resemble one Holland type, whereas

others may be quite undifferentiated and have interests and competencies across all

six types. Most people are likely to haveone, twO, or three dominanttypes. For example, some people enjoy painting, writing, helping others, leading youth groups, and

doing volunteer work in a hospital. They may dislike working with machinery, office

work, scienl;C, and business. Such people would be readily identified as differentiated,

because their interests (Social and Artistic) are clearly different from their dislikes

(Investigative, Realistic, Conventional, and Enterprising). However, some people

enjoy doing all kinds of activities and they do them well. These people are undifferen

tiated a,cording to Holland's system. Holland determines ifferenti tion by subtract

ing the lowest score of any type from the highest score of any type on the SDS or VPI.

Any inventory that measures his six types can be used. A high result indicates a differ

entiated profile, and a low result indicates an undifferentiated profile.

Just as people vary in terms of differentiation, so do environment >, Some envir

onments allow for more freedom of movement to varium Hnllnnd ~ l l V i r o n m e n t >th,m dn otht·rs. For example. assemhly line work mually l l l l l l w ~ Illl iudividu:ll only

IIUU.ANU S TIIlIUMY t l l TVI HS Y

Ill oPI, rllllliry ti l dn 1(1',lli'lil' wnrk-:l diffl'n'IHiatnl cilvirnlllllt·nt.. ln l:OIltr:tst. 11',Il Ill'f workilll-\ ill Lllliv('rsily rn:1Y have the upportunity to do research in his or

Ill'f I.·il'ld (InwSlil-\:lliw). tl' ,h:h students and help them select courses (Social), and

IHI Ihly eOllsult with inJustry n t e r p r i s i n g ~ a n undifferentiated environment. o ll(·liml·s. cnviroHllll'llts are varied (undifferentiated) enough so that people who

.I l first find that their personali ty and environment are not congruent can find a

w,Iy to work within the environment that provides eventual congruence.

For examp le , a physi ian who is predominantly Enterprising rather than

I l I v ~ , . , t i g a t i v e (the predominant rypc of physician) may find enough diversity in a

hospital environment to work as a hospital administrator or fundraiser, thus meetIIlh his or her Enterprising needs. To use another example, a secretary working in

.111 office that requires ryping, filing, and reception work will find an opportunity 10

11I< l·t hoth Conventional and Social needs, whereas a secretary in a ryping pool will

1>\· ahle to meet only Conventional needs. Thus, environments differ in the degree 10

wltil:h rhey are differentiated.

CUUNSELING IMPLICATIONS Undifferentiated people are likely to have difficulty in

lIlaking cateer decisions and may seek career counseling, One goal of counseling is

hdp clients to differentiate and broaden their knowledge of their interests, abili

Ill'S. , lnd values within each of the six types, Some clients who are trying to find a

111'W . :areer goal will find that they have interests and abili ties in many different

.In·as (undifferentiated). It is then the counselor's role to discuss more deeply their1 I 1 1 ~ r c s t s , values, and experiences, and to make explicit for the client the differing

\ .IllIl's of each of the six rypes. Other clients may find that they have few interests

.Hld Inw self-estimates of their abili ties across all types. Such clients may need to

...Idress issues of depression or low self-esteem. The typology serves as a frame of

l·fl·rence for exploring areas of interest of which the client may not be aware . A

t I i . ~ l : l I s s i o n of a client's experiences with hobbies, part-time work, volunteer work,

lilli-time work, extracurricular activities, and leisure time is apt t o give the coun

~ t l o r an opportunity 10 conceptualize the client according 10 all six of Holland's

I't l sonaliry types. Sometimes, it is not possible to provide further differentiarion

1 1 diem wirhout more work experience-whether part time, volunteer, or full

11I1II . The pursuit of differentiation can be a means of finding a congruent occupa

lUll for a client.

I·XAMI LF. OF DiFfERENTIATION The client, Chester, is a young Chinese American

111.111 who dropped out o f high school at the end of t he 11th grade. For the last

I YI·:ItS. he has been employed on an automobile assembly line. He has taken the

dl I>irCl.:ted Search (SDS) at a guidance program offered in the evening at his local

III ,h sdlOul. His highest score on the SDS was E, and i t was considerably higher

Iklll R and the next highest scores. The following dialogue illustrates how his

' '' Ims(·lor uses this information, together with Chester 's description of career

1t·l.lll·d npcriences, to help Chester in career selection:

Cl: Wh t\ I W<lS in M:hool, there just wasn't very much that interested me. Now I have

:I joh that ~ l f S m o r ~ :tnd more noring. When firsr worked in auto-body assembly,t dido't mind it. ThiuJ.:s W ~ r l kind of fun rh\:n. Now I've done most o f th e io hs on thelillt', .llltl r1lt r( s 11l r : l rh l t'n ..... lr s rill sanll' thin .. : ova <lh:1in.



140 t:ltAl rl .1I. S

co : Th..: assemhly work Tl·;,l1y sounds if il is I M l l h \ r i l l ~ yUII :1II.1 IIlllkhlM y n l h i l l ~ .

what you want to do. [11crhaps Rcalblio.: t:r;vitil'S \T\ Il<lt (ur Ih ,'111'111. t 11,,· dk'l1l s

R interests m,lIch his 50S scores?1CL: Yes, there are a lor of things thai I (nioy doing mllch m o r e . . .

Can you teU me about lhnn? (More information about the chems p . ~ l n : I I . I Y .CO: according 10 the six Holland personalitY rypn, is needed to compare with hiS scom on

the 50S.1 fu d ' ' dCL: Well, on .....ccktflds. my friend and I work on cars to resell. Irs n an l n t e ~ n g an

I 'm making a I()( of extra cash.

co : Sounds good; I'd like to hearmorc.

eL: Well, weget o ld car s f rom peopl e who are. about rc:ady 10 i ~ n k them. We fill the me-

ha I problems touch them up with pamt, and list them n newspaper. .~ h ~ ~ aspect of this work do you do roOSI? IRealiSlic inleresl (10 terms. of w o r ~ , ~ ~CO: on cars) and Emerprising interests (for example, s e l l ~ g .the sound ILke ~ s l b l l L -

ties. The counselor revises the original view that ReahsbC aawllles are not of mterest

to this c1iem.j . I k A I k dCL: My friend really knows l;3rs, I help him in some of the slm.p e wor. S ve wor,e

with him, I 'e been able to help him when he rakes an,engme apart. But I c?uldn t dothat myself, When it comes to people buying the ,at, I m the one who sells 11. It really

is a 'hal1enge for me to take something that we've worked on and get S O I ~ e o n e to buy

' t [feel as if we ve gOt a good product, and [ want them to know about II.

co : seiling something new fo r you? [The counselor is differentiating between the

Realistic and Enterprising imerests of the dient, choosing to follow up and get more

detail on the Enterprising aspect, Chester's highest score on the ~ D S . .N I, td ---fore When I was in high school I used to work 1IJ a me store. I sold

CL: 0 veso oc . d d ewtruc:k and auto tires, and then put them on. Almough I I n t ~ l I J punlng on ntires, it was more interesting to me to help the r u ~ t o m e r select ~ r e s buy a real goodset. I d get a commission on what I sold, nOt: a btg one, but I liked It.

sounds as if there were a lot of things that you .could t a ~ e d v ~ n ~ g e ofon that, .CO: job. {The counselor continues to diffCfeJJti.ate dK . m.terests 1IJ Reahsoc E n t ~ r p ? 5 l 1 J g

activities from each other, exploring the dlfferennauon suggested by the d'sp,anty m the

client's E and R scores on the SDS. This content reflection asks for further

differentiation.)

CONSISTENCY

Consistency rde rs to the similarity or dissimilarity of types. Certain types, w h ~ e renvironment or persona li ty , have more in common with types ~ h ~ n With

others. For example. as shown in Figure 5.1 (page 131), Socla.l Arttstlc tyP:'sare similar (close together), In contrast, Social types and R e a l t s ~ t C ?pes are qUIte

dif fe rent f rom each other , as are Enterprising types and I n ~ e s t l g a n v ~ types, Thecloser the types are to each other Oil the chan, .the more conSistent their character

istics are, fo r example, Social people tend to l ~ k ~ to help others, work as a t e a ~ ,and value their inreractions with people; ReaiLstic types prefer .not to work with

people but to work with machines and technical challenges. SOCial people of

ten h a ~ e an aversion to machincs; that is, Social people t e ~ d to h a ~ e ,ml.lre com-, h A d E t-,p,',,',ng ty s than they do WIth Rcahsnc lIuhvlduals,mon WIt nlsnc an n I

Likewise, Realistic people are a pt t o have more in Cllmlllnll WIth I1IVI SlIl-t:ltlVl alll

(;lInvl'minllal illlHvidlials than with Sudal p,:nplc.

1Illl,I,ANU'S l lll\UIIV tW I VI Y.S

(:llllsistl'IlI'y 11l l(l Itpplil's 1111'llvinllltlll·llts. Sllllll' l llVirllll1l11 lIts Tl'quire skills ,Iud

mlt'n'sls Ill,.. ,\fl J.:1 II\·mlly illl llllsistl.'nt. One I. x;lI11ple is an ;uhletit: trainer (SitE).

I'hl' SiKi;ll ;lllJ R ;lliMi l l 'llviwnrnents are inconsistenr, yet athletic trainers must

11I lp injlln. athk:tl'S whu r1l:ly be under emotional and physical stress. Furthermore,dll 'y usc a variety uf suphistkated medical equipment to remedy injuries. In general,

t1k Tl are few occupations that have codes that are inconsistent. For example, mere

.In: nn occupations that could e labeled CA. When applied to a working environIm'nt, the term in onsistent means that the environment requires types of interestS

.Iltll abilities that rarely are required in the same job. Creative and artistic produc

IA) is seldom seen in conjunction with demands for numerical skill (C) in any' ......:lIpation. However, individuals with inconsistent types may be able to identify a'1 >I:'1:i31 niche for themselves. For example, an individual with a CA personality may

l'lljny organizing a music library for a symphony orchestra.

Consistency is not a goa l of counseling. whereas differentiation and congruence, 'an both e goals. Consistency is a more subtle concept than the others. Lack of

ol1sistency docs not mean that a choice is poor. For example, a person who hasIlIl'Onsistent type (SIC) has not made a poo re r ca ree r choice t han a pe rson who

I m , ~ a more consistent type (SAl). Perhaps the notion of consistency can best be

IN'd in counseling by making the counselor aware that it may be difficul t ro find.111 environment [hat will fit twO or three inconsistent Holland codes, Often, the c1i

,'nl may have to choose an occupat ion that fits one of the two inconsistent types,

hilt nOt both. For example, a client with strong Artistic and Conventional interests,1I1d skills may choose to do account ing dur ing the day and then moonl ight as aIItlisician. It would not be possible to find occupations that would easily incorpo

,Ill' both of these personality types.Holland (1997) describes a second fonn of consistency: onsisten y spir -

1/' '' ' , Some clientS may have a variety of aspirations or future dreams that vary in

tlll'ir degree of consistency. Some codes may be within one type or twO adjoiningII IX S. Other codes may be found in types inconsistent with each other. A measure

I cllnsistency of aspirations can eobtained by examining the Daydreams section I the SOS. Aspirations or daydreams have always been an important concept to

Ilulland (Spokane Cruza·GuCl1 2(05). Knowing what clientS daydream about.

,Il·,irc. or aspire to provides useful information ro the career counselor in both

.1, 'Ssing Holland type and the counseling process itself.

1III .N l ITY

Id l1tity refers to the clarity and stability of a person's current and future goals. It

.11,o refcrs ro the stability of the working environment. If an organization has idenIl ly, lhe tasks and goals of an occupation or employer do not vary widely. Identity

,Iifft'rcnr from any of the other conceptS relevant to Holland's system because it

.h ·s l10t relate directly to his typology. It is measured nO t by the VPI or the SOS,hill h r o u ~ h a thi rd ins trument t ided My Vocational Situation (MVSj Holland,

1 I , l i ~ I r . Power, 1980).

l t h l l u ~ h the inventory My Vocational Situation will measure the concept of

,,11'lllily, thl' cmlllsdllr'S : I ~ S I . . s s r t K n r Ilf identity in a counseling interview can also

pl Vt· II I I'll,' hdpful. A Illtl'Stillll fllr tilt cnunselur til cnnsidl'r is: Now that we are



1 1;1'1\' '-1111

cumpleting ..:arcer ~ · n l l T l s d i l 1 ~ . dOl'S this dil1lt haw :1 dt'llr ldt'll of mTrt'r plans amI

contingency plans, as well as k n o w l ~ uf how til il1lpll'nK'uI Iii ,' pI-1m? FlIr l'X

ample, a man who decides to pursue :JCting should not unly I · aW;lr,' f hi illll'rl'ST

in this profession but also be able to assess feedback he rlXcivC,.'S frum diTl'Cwrs alldacting teachers. This man should aware of the risks in obtaining work, alterna

tive careers when unemployed, contacts for employment, and so on. To start look

ing for work without planning would be to have a diffuse sense of identity. To useanother example, a young woman who wants to be a lawyer because lawyers make

good salaries and work on excit ing cases has not yet formed a sense of identity.

Only when she has information about how to become a lawyer and whether shewould like the duties of a lawyer will her sense of identity become clearer.

Identity can be an important goal of career counseling. Achievement of identitymay occur when the goal of congruence has been accomplished. If a woman decides

on the occupation of roofer, believing mat laying new roofs would be something

that she is able to do and would enjoy (congruence between persan and environment), a sense of identity will develop. As she moves from one job site to another,

her goals may stabilize, and she may grow more cer tain of her interests and

abilities.

RESEARCH ON HOLLAND'S CONSTRUCTS

Holland's theory has produced more than 600 studies, which is more research than,my other career development theory. Holland himself has been very influential in

the production of research and the compilation of it. His five books (1966, 1973,1985a, 1992, 1997) are indKations of his continuing work to refine existing and de·

velop additional theoretical constructs. R e s e a r ~ h on career development is reviewed

periodically in the Journal Vocational Behavior the reer DevelopmentQuarterly and the Journal Career Assessment These reviews devote a section to

discussions of current research on Holland's theory.Congruence is the most important of Holland's concepts and the one that is

most widely researched. What seems like a straightforward concept is actually quitecomplex. For example, Brown and Gore (1994) evaluated 10 different methods of

measuring congruence between personality type and employment, and Camp and

Chartrand (1992) examined 13 merhods. Many studies have relaled congruence toorner important variables such as stress, job satisfaction, and personality variables.

Using nine female and seven m:tle samples to assess measures of complexity,Hoeglund and Hansen (1999) found small relationships between congruence and

satisfaction across Holland types. In reviewing r«ent studies, the relationship be

tween congruence measures and job satisfaction appears to differ widely dependingon the way that congruence is measured and on the design of the study (Spokane,

Luchetta, Richwine, 2002). Recently, Eggerth Andrew (2006) have proposedthe C index to determine congruence when using Holland codes of unequal length.

Some recent studies on congruence illustrate a variety of ways in which congruence

can be studied. Examining 80,574 students attending 87 colleges, grade point aver

age was pred)aed by the degree of congruence of imerests :md dlUSl'T1 major

(fracey Robbins, 1006). In a smaller study at nne c o l l ~ l thl'rt W;l i a > i ~ n i f i : : 1 n rrel:uionship hctwcen conAruence of interest :1nJ majur {lIr IlIV( l;li t.l1iv,·, Su,,:ial.

l I t l l . I . A N I ) · . ~ TIll'.UMV ,,}II TVI 'I I.' 1 4. 1

,Ill. CUlIVI'lIfiol1ll1 fl\'r' t1ldily ly .... 'S. hili not for th(.· utl1l'r tyfll· (UruWIl, 2(06).

' l l I . 1 ) ' i n ~ ,,·mployl·,,1 YIIHII}.\ : ,Iults, CUll,.;rm·IlCl· uf intl'Tl'St invcmury scores and cur.

1I'1ll jlllt w,'Tl' rdall'll III s:uisfaction (Vik, 20(6). However, congruence was morc

, I ~ ' I ) ' r d a t ~ x 1 t joh s.1tisfaction for individuals who placed less importance on,I,t·,r jlllts than fur individuals who placed more importance on their jobs. In

'\II'tr:l1i:l, adult career changers' Holland type as measured by the Self-Directed ·.lrdl W:IS more congruent with preliminary new career choices rhan with their

, I I rn nl 'arcer choice (Donohue, 2006). Because of the different ways that congru

11\ 1' ::111 be measured and the different variables, such as personality and achieveIIlt'Uf, tha t it can be related to, congruence is likely to be an important focus of

1'·....:1r,h for some time.

Anulher area of research involves studying the relationship of Holland's per·

'nll.llity types to various personality characteristics. The personality inventory that most frequently paired with Holland's typology is the NEO Five-Factor Model

(ITM). This inventory measures five broad factors known as the big five:

h:m1Vcrsion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to

h l ....·ricnce. Two recent meta-analyses find relationships between the twO instru

1 I I · n l ~ Both Barrick, Mount, and Gupta (2003) and Larson, Rott inghaus, andI \ r ~ c t l (2002) find that Holland's Artistic type is related to an open style of person

,lin)', ;lnd Enterprising is related to Extraversion. In addition, Larson, Roninghaus,.lIul nurgen find that Holland's Social type is related to Extraversion and a g r ~ a b l elIt· 'S. and the Investigative type is related to openness. Staggs, Larson, and BorgenI.'UIU) note that when more specific measures of interest and personality are used,

.111I,,·rcnt relationships between personality and interest arc found. IkFruyt (2002)

'P TtS that congruence across RIASEC type pred)aed job satisfaction. This predicl'Ull was enhanced when FFM traitS were added. In comparing the Five-Factor

'Iudd of personality with Holland's typology, Hogan and Blake (1999) conclude IT l Iiolland's inventories measure identity, whereas the FFM personality inventory

1 I H ' . I ~ l I r c s reputation-that is, an observer's view of an individual's personality.WIII'11 the FFM was studied from the perspective of how it could be used as a sup

I'lml llt to the Self-Directed Search in assisting undecided students choose majors,till' rMadded only m:trginal help, and the Self-Directed Search itself was only par

Il.1l1y helpful (Crohan, 2006)_ Comparisons between Holland's typology and the

I'FM :lre a significant area of current research. In a study of individual differencesU\nj in career counseling, Armstrong, Day. McVay, and Rounds (2008) find that

II tbnd's theory of six types is nOt sufficient to describe individual differences,low thaI personality factors as well as abilities should also be considered.

Alrhough some studies have focused on redefining and developing consistencyIN.Hlla Kahn, 2007; Sanchez, 2002) and differentiation (Robert i, Fox,

IllUil k, 20U]). vocational identity has received the most rccenr ancntion. Leung,I ulIll·y. Sl hecl, and Sonnenberg (1992) report no relationship between scores on

lIlt' V ':lliol1alldentity Scale (VIS) of My Vocational Situation and consistency and.111Il'rt·'lfbrioll. Analyzing the structure of the Vocational Identity Scale, Toporek

.m' POI....·-llavis (2001) show that identity is dearly measured by the VIS for both

,\11,,';111 Allk:ril :l1l and white c o l l ~ e students. Conneran and Hamnan (1993) re

1 '1 1 Ih:lI dlfllllk::ll1y l ~ 1 n ' t ' r - l l l l d l ' C i d , x 1 hi}.\h sl hool students showed lower levels of

I ' I ~ n t l . · ... ;11ll VIIGUi n:11 id lllily Ihall ,lulSI,.· stud,'IUS whu W,'(l' nUl chnmically



(:IlAl 1'l1K.,

unclc(iucu. Nauta ;lnu Kahn (2007) f(lund th:lt hil-\ht'r idcntity stlHlI1I w n . ~ ; I . ~ s ~ ~ i ; l t c dwith higher self-efficacy about one's career J e c i s i t l n - m a k i n ~ ;lIId ;1 tJ.1Taln \ h t l ~ · r \ · l l -tiation of interests. For male substance abusers, success in treatment .W;1S ; I l , . ~ I l ; I ; \ ~ e dwith a greater degree of identity, as measured by the My Vocatlunal S l ~ u . a ~ l o n(MVS) Hankinson (1998). On a theorc.ticallevel? V o ~ d r a c e k (2007) has CritICiZed

Holland's definition of identity as bemg oversimplified and less complex than

identity as originally described by Erik Erikson.Holland's theory has attracted researchers for several reasons. HolI.and defines

his terms dcarly and simply. His theory is directly related to the p ~ c t l c e v ~ a tional counseling. Mosr studies on Holland's concepts do nO[ reqUire l o n ~ l [ u d m a lresearch or extensive follow·up studies. Also, John Holland has been very mvolvedin research on his theory and helpful to those who wish to engage in research re

lated to his work. In general, the research on Holland's theory offers counsel?rs

confidence that Holland's concepts have merit and can be used for counselmg

conceptualization.

THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION

Holland's rypological system is particularly useful to clients b e c a ~ ~ i t helps to integrate occupational information into the c o u n s e l i n ~ process..By dlVldmg all occupa·

lions (or environments) into six types, Holland gIVes the cbent an easy f r a ~ e w o r kto use for conceptualizing all occupations. With this s y s t ~ c 1 i e ~ t s likely toask, Are there some occupations that I have never conSidered? Usmg thiS. system,

counselors have a clear approach to explaining the world of w ~ r k . cbent and

counselor can use The Occupations Finder (Holland, 2000) to Identify .30. t h o u ~ n dof the more common occupations and The Educational Opportund es m er

(Rosen, Holmberg, Holland, 1994) ro identify more than 750 p r o g r a ~ s of srudy.

If more derail is wanted, Holland's Dictionary Holland OccupatIOnal odes(Gottfredson Holland, 1996) lists 1 2 , ~ 9 9 o c c u p a ~ o n s sorted by Holland code.

For the: counselor, Holland's typologIcal system IS a helpful way t.o g,roup c:> u·

pational information. Not only can Holland's system be used to c 1 a s s ~ f y Itemsoccupational library, but it can also be used by a counselor to claSSIfy the client s

experiences with environments. For example, as a counselor talks to e m ~ l o y e r sabout their needs for employees, the environment that the emp oyers

d ~ f 1 b ecanbe classified mentally by the counselor. In a similar way, as a client descnbes work

experience that he or she has enjoyed or disliked, the environment can also be clas

sified according to Holland type. The knowledge gained f r ~ m experiences such as

visiting factories, reading occupational information, and ,talking to o ~ h e r counselorsabout work can be used ro help in identifying occupations according to Hollandrype. By practicing with the Holland system, whether formally or informally, the

counselor becomes increasingly familiar with it.

THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS

Inventories have had twO purposes in Holland's system. The first llSt· is in thc d ~ v e ~ - n of the theory. For example, the Vocational Preferclln· InV\'nlory was Inltl-

opm.. I I f l;Hed hefore Holland's theury nnd was partly n::spunslhlt, nr I It I t l1l1l1on l) liS

IIIll.tANH'S T I I ~ . I l I t Y OI I'Yl'I(S 1 4 . ~

l y p \ . ~ IIf 11< 01 11. lll1d l I I V i f O l l l l l l · I 1 f . ~ , Tht, VI'I ;lnd tilt' SIlS rl1l'n hl. l:;llm' reM::ar(h

1lI,tnll1ll·IltS to vI'rily ,mt v a l , d ; l I ~ · I lullaud\ theory, The SI.'t,:OllJ usc of inventories is

I r illdividuals ill 111·I·tI 01 ,·;lreer :lssisrnnce. By using the 50S, the VPI, or another

1 I 1 ~ I · n 1 u r y that y.il.'lds Ilnll;1nJ types, the counselor can establish an objectively deter1 1 l 1 I I ~ · d personality tylX' for the client. By comparing the counselor's assessment of

tilt ~ · l i t I U s Holland type with that of an objective inventory, rhe counselor can get

.uutirm:uion or try ro determine why there is a discrepancy, if one exists. By doing II, Ihe coun§(:lor is likely ro gain funher insight into the client's interests abilities, I lid values. Assessment is an important part of the development of Holland's the

.. ry. Making use of validated and reliable information can be a great help to coun

..... llIrs in working with clients.

Several inventories related to Holland's typology have developed. Sinee the

r i ~ i n a l version of the Self-Directed Search-R (regular), several other versions haveI..,·n published, including an Internet version. There are Canadian and Spanish forms

f the 50S, and a Chinese version has been tested (Yu AJvi, 1996). Additionally,

W O I l ~ S Career Interest Inventory is different than the Self-Directed Search and was,I(·vclopcd for citizens of Hong Kong and other Chinese societies (Wong Wong.

.lIM)6). Also, an easier form of the 50S, 50S-Form E has designed for adoles, nus and adults with limited (sixth-grade level) reading skills. The SOS.Career

I'bnninghas been developed for adults who aspire to greater levelsof professional re

'l lIlsibility. It does not include Daydream or Self-Estimate sections. The 50S-Career

F-.:plnrer focuses on helping middle school students with educational and vocationalI 'bnning. Although the 50S was designed to be self-scoring, scan sheers and'OIl1lruter-based interpretive reportS are available.

In addit ion to the 50S, Holland and colleagues have developed several otheru...·flll inventories. The Career Att itudes and Strategies Inventory (CASl) was

b i ~ n e d to assess the views of adults toward work. Scales include Job Satisfaction

Wurk Involvement, Skill Development, Dominant Style, Career Worries, Interpersonai husc. FamilyConunitment,Risk-TakingStyle, and Geographical Barriers (Holland t;nufredson, 1994). The Position Classification Inventory (Gotrfredson Hol.land,r N I) was developed to classify positions according to Holland type. This 84-item in-

ITlltllry. which takes only 10 minutes to complete, can be given large numbers of

1 ~ l l l e who do the same typeof work to determine the Holland code for a speciftc job.1111·

Environmental Identity Scale (EIS; Gottfredson Holland, unpublished data,1'1'1(,) assesses workers' views about the explicimess and consistency of employers'1 , o . l l . ~ , work rules, and rewards. Thc RIASEC Activities List groups life activities of

l \ h d t ~ into the six Holland categories and was designed [0 dearly categorize activitiesItl.ll mayoffer cognitive benefits for adults (parslow,Jorm, Christensen, Mackinnon.'110(,). The§(: instruments show that Holland and his colleagues havc been active in th ;

,II'vd'lprncnr of measures to assess individuals, as wcllas their environments,

APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN

I I n , l l I . ~ I Ilolland's system has dearly defined types supplemented by explana

lllry \'ortstru\·ts . ~ t r d l ;U 1 . · ( l I l ~ r U t · n t . . l (onsistency, : Irld differentiation, it has neentlU' s l l h i l ~ · l of;l Wl'al d(·;d of rl'wart'll. Milt'll of t h ~ rt's\'afl·h has l1s\,d hoth l1l rc



14f t t :l lAI n IM.,

:l1Id fl.'lIl: ll.'s, thus prn ... i d i n ~ llar:l till rhl' :IPIUtll,rllltt'llt'u lit' lnl l \ tlll'ory forwomen. Holland (1997) has shown that mCl Ml' moj'(' Iihly til ~ . · n · I l l ~ h 011 till'

Realistic, Investigati...e, or Enterprising sl:alcs, wh,:rl.'as Wlllllt'lI Il l .l) lIn· h i ~ l u rOn the Social Anisric and Con ...entional scales, Hulland\ l l I d L l , ~ i l l l 1 ahmll,summary codes is somewhat similar to that of Re::trdon, I\ullol.'k, and Meyer

(2007). who analyzed 2000 census data that reflected the occupational choices of

120 million people in the United States. Men were employed predominately in the

Realistic categories (44% ...s, 15% for women) and Enterprising categories (31%

'Is. 28% for women), whereas women more often had Social careers (24% ...s. 8%

for men) and Con ...entional careen; (26% 'Is. 6% for men). Murray and Hall(2001) and Robeni, Fox. and Tunick (2003) repon somewhat similar findings.Some critics of Holland's theory have taken these differential preferences to

mean that Hol land 's theory is biased against women. Holland points out thathis system is a reflection of society and cultural expectations; it does nOt deter

mine them.Regarding Holland's concept of congruence, his review (1997) shows that the

SOS or the VPI can predict occupational choice or entry about equally well for

men and women. In general, Holland, Powell, and Fritzsche (1994) conclude that

the predicted validities of aspirations and assessment rend to be grearer for women

than for men_ Although there is less r ~ r h on consistency and differentiation,

there seems to be little difference in these twO concepts when the gender variable is

examined.In

concluding their discussion of sex differences, Holland, Powell, andFritzsche (1994) state that women are most likely to have low scores on Rand

high scores on S (p. 37). Thus, Hol land points our those types that have been

most influenced by cultural stereotyping.Research on Holland's typology and theoretical constructs usually contains in-

formation that addresses the issue of male-female differences on rele...ant ...ariables.

Lent, Tracey, Brown, Soresi and Nota (2006) cepon that Holland's hexagon gener

ally represented the interests of male and female Americans and Italian middle and

high school students, but this adherence was more pronounced for Italian female

than male students, In a sample of 69,987 eighth-, temh-, and twelfth-grade

American students, Darcy and Tracey (2007) found that Holland's model fit well

across gender depending on the method used to analyze the suucture of interests.

Relating Millon's personality styles to Holland 's typology, Rees (1999) reports

that women's orientation to relationships was related to high scores on Social and,to a lesser extent, on Artistic. Women's orientation toward independence, separa

tion, and autonomy was related to higher scores on Enterprising and Con ...entional

scales. When studying self-efficacy, rhere were minimal differences between genders

on rhe six Holland types (Ben, Borgen, Kaplan, Harmon, 1998; Bett, Harmon, Borgen, 1996), Borh self-efficacy and the influence of role models had an effect oncareer choices for all six Holland types excepr for Investigative for college women

(Quimby DeSantis, 2006). For middle school students, panicipatioll in computer'

assisred career inter...entions and exploration acti ...ities in small groups helped students

to increase their interests in Holland types that are typically nor :lssociared with

their gender, such as Realistic occupations for girls (Turner 1 ~ I r : l l 1 , 20(5). Studk'll

such as these help to demonstrate how Holland's theory applil's diffl'f\'llrly rn 1111.11

tmd women.

1l1l1.l.ANIl·S 'l'IIHClM'l' 01' 't''l't'I'.S 14 7

API LYING THE THEORY TO CULTURALLYIlIVERSE POPULATIONS

111I1I;IIlII's thl'ory and instrulllC HS h:l'Ie been used internationally and with Cultur',Illy d i l · r , ~ I . · ropulariuns in the United States. Research (Spokane Cruza-Guet

.'om) ill countries such as China, Israel, France, Nigeria , New Zealand , and

I\u'tralia gi ...es some suppo rt to the use of Holland's six categories and the con

~ I l m l s of congruence, consistency, and differentiation (although there has beenI,· work on the latter two concepts).

.Klwnt studies have examined how well Holland's hexagon fits people from avMI,'ly of backgrounds and cultures. Comparing the interests of African Americansl\ln:il.·an Americans, Asian Americans, Latino/as, Native Americans, and Anglo in:

.I1\'llhl:lls, Tracey and Robbins (2005) reponed that Holland's circular structure of

1I1t1'T(-sts adequately represented the interest structUre of these groups and d id not

....lty hy gender or ethnicity. Swanson (1992) reported that, in general, Holland's

h l l l l l l ~ y fit African American female college students somewhat bener than

Alriean American males. Kaufman, Ford-Richards, and Mclean (1998) report that

I\h'h.·;1n ~ e r i c n adolescents and adults scored higher on Social, Enterprising, and

t 'lventlOnal scaleson the Strong Interest lnventory, and white participants scored

11I.;lll'r .on Realistic and lnvestigative themes in their sample. Comparing poor inner.

• II) lluddle school students with more affluent middle sehool adolescents, Turner

11111 I.apan (2003) repon that the two groups saw relationships between occupal I m. in Enterprising and Social themes differently. In examining facton; influencing

•.m ...·r choices of Asian Americans, Tang, Fouad, and Smith (1999) reponed that

I IW('f acculturated Asian Americans scored higher on Realistic and Investigative :-

' ll; ltiuns than did more acculturated college students. In a s tudy of Mexican

I\IIK·rio.n high school students, the RIASEC order was supported for female stu.

,1 IllS hut not male students (Flores, Spanierman, Armstrong, Velez, 2006).

IllIwl' ...er, information about the appropriateness of Holland's typological system

I If ~ r l t . , , : i f l c cuhura groups is neither sufficient nor consistent enough to allow gen,·,.lh'A1t ons about Its usefulness for specific groups.

Iiolland's typological system has also been studied in cultures outside of North

A,m·rica. Studies in China have typically nOt supponed Holland's model of the

,Iflll'fure of interests. Long and Tracey (2006) found rhat Holland's model did not

III (:hincse individuals as well as it fit indi...iduals in the United States. In Hong

I l l l l l ~ and mainland China, Holland's model of the structure of interests was stud.

11 11 with indivi.duals aged 18 to 50, yielding a misshapen RIASEC hexagon (Yang,

\ 1 k I , ~ , HUl, 2?05). In a study of Chinese high school students, Holland typeslI'udeli to duster mto groups: Realistic and In ...estigative, Artistic, and Entcrprising

,,,,II (:un ...cnrional, with Social interests found in the last two groupings (Leung 11 111 2005). Using the Personal Globe Inventory rather than the Self.Directed

\ .U'dl, l .ong, Watanabe, and Tracey (2006), unlike the studies abo ...e, did find

tll.11 1llIlbnd's typological model fit the students well. Howe...er, most studies inI 'Ilill;l 1 :I ... l· not supported Holland's model.

Till' structure of Holl3nd's model has also been studied in many other areas of

,III' wurld, Support for Holland's typological model has heen found among Nati ...e

1 I , W : l i i ; l l l . ~ (Oliver WOlI.'hll'T, 20(5). Suppllrr fur thl' mudd W;\S also found in a



S;ltllplt· of Irish hil-\h sr.:hool sflldl'nts (D:m·y. 2 ( l ( J . ~ ) , Jlur h411.111 Hlitldlt, alld hifolh

school students, those who e n l - \ a l - \ e ~ 1 ill l ; \ r ~ ~ r ~ l ( p l r : l I i l l l 1 Wl't'l' ItUllT lik(·ly In fil

the RIASEC model the following year than those who ~ I i d lU l l , Tlli, W,I, ('slwcial1y

true for middle school students (Tracey, Lent, Brown, S o f t · . ~ i . : N l:l, . 006). [n

Croatia, Holland's RIASEC model was supported in a study of 1,}1M, ;ulolesct·l\ts

(Sverko Babarovic, 2006). However, in a study using the 16 I'F Adolescent

Personality Quest ionnaire tha t was transla ted into the Basque language, theRIASEC model was not supported, although a RASIEC model was found for ado

lescents living in the Basque Country region of Spain (Elosua, 2007). In South

Africa, du Toit and de Bruin (2002) and Watson, Stead, and Schonegevel (1998)report that Holland's typology did not provide a good fit with the interests of disadvantaged black South African youths. For Chamorros and Filipino high school

students living in Guam, interests were described better by a three-, four-, or five

type model than by Holland's typology (Sanchez, 2002). Studying university students in Iceland, Einarsdottir, Rounds, Aegisdonir, and Gerstein (2002) reported

that Holland's RIASEC structure was a good fit for both men and women. These

studies are typical of some of the more recent cross-cultural research that has testedHolland's theory,

Information about rhe distriburion of the Holland rypes of different culturalgroups working in the United States provides a useful perspective on the employ

ment of culturally diverse populations, In her study of the distribution of workersby ethnic group, Arbona (1989) reports that more Hispanic (71 ) and African

American men (68%) than white men (54%) were employed in Realistic types of

work. Furthermore, fewer African American (10 ) and Hispanic men (6%) than

white men (23%) were in Enterprising occupations. With regard to women, more

African American (37%) and Hispanic women (41 %) than white women (24%)were employed in Realistic jobs. More white women (15%) than African

American (7%) and Hispanic women (] 0 ) were employed in Enterprising occupations. In a further analysis of these data, Arbona reports that African American and

Hispanic men were more often employed in low-level Realistic jobs. Arbona (1989)

suggests that African American and Hispanic students may be exposed to role models working in relatively low-level jobs. Such data are not a critique of Holland'stheory but rather show its u se in identifying social inequities,

COUNSELOR ISSUES

Research on providing appropriate counseling techniques and approaches for dif

ferent Holland types yields insights into how best to meet the career counselingneeds of individuals who are predominantly of one Holland type. Boyd and

Cramer (1995) report that Social and Enterprising college students preferredcounseling with unlimited sessions, little structure in the sessions, a focus on self

awareness, and the opportunity for follow-up counseling, They preferred a less

concrete focus than did Realistic or Conventional college students, Using a de

scription of six counseling approaches that corresponded to each of Holland's

six environments, Niles l993) reports that students identified as a srt 'dficHolland type tended (but nOt strongly) to select a counseling approad, . ~ i l l 1 i 1 ; l f to

their type, This was particularly true of Realistic and EnterprisinJ.: 111;111'. ~ r U d t I 1 I , ~

,11111 W;\S Il'ss fill Ilf I I 1 V t S T i ~ a t i v ~ , I I . r l i . ~ l i l , ;lnJ ( : I ) l l V ~ l l r i c U H l l l l l : l l l s t l l ~ k n t s ;Ind el (

Inll,Ih'., ill gt·n('r;ll. Iloll:lud's t1wory widl (lit'IUs u( difft,ft'llt Iloll;md types arc.II ' , ' u,,('d IlI·XI.

A h h o l l ~ h lIll'rl' ; l f l ;1 1lI1111hcr of l'ounsclor aids built into rhe Holland system,

~ I l \ ,IS l111'thods for ..:onr.:.cptualizing client problems, classifying occupational in(ormilum, :Ind illt'orpor,ltlng inventories, there are some problems that counselors are

1,I..dy III ~ I u : t l l l l l t e r . A few potential problem issues can be described by using the

l' of congruence and differentiation.lu I h i . ~ harter, the discussion has focused on the congruence between the cli

c·tlI\I t · r . ~ o l l a l i t y

and his or her working environment. Often, the client's and the'' 'IIIN·lor's personality types are incongruent. For counselors, the most common

1\'1'1 :lfl SE, SI, or SA, Most counselors arc predominantly Social; many are sec1Il1ll.lrily Enterprising, Investigat ive, or Artistic, When counselors with these

11 ll.lnd codes encounter clients who arc primarily Realistic and/or Conventional,.lin .lfl dealing with a type quite opposite to and incongruent with theit own, A

l1I,ll11 l Ililcern is that the values of the counselor, in terms of valuing personal inter

,10 11 11 :1Ilt helping, are likely to be different from those of the client. Being aware of

til divergence of values can help counselors be more open toward and understandIIII', I interests, abilities, and values that are different from their own. Many coun

_..I , , nmy not respect hunting, fishing, being outdoors, fixing cars, and so on, but1111 11 Ik;llistic clients will. Appreciating the differences among incongruent types

I ll Ill' ht'lrful in providing good counseling.

Allotll('r problem concerns Holland's concept of differentiation. Counselors areItl..,'lr II I be differentiated according to their preference for types of environments.

Ih , l iN they have made a career choice, they arc likely to have preferences (or1\\' I three types and lack interest in three or four types. For clients of any age

\I'll ,m' h<lving difficulty with career selection, there may be little differentiation,11110 Ilig (our, five, or all six types. For example, a client may enjoy and have abilities

hi ', ...ill, Realistic, Enterprising, Conventional, and Artistic activities, It then be

l l l l l l l Ihe counselor's role to help further differentiate the client's experiences andIlr',lIn, pt'rhaps ascertaining that Realistic and Conventional activities are most sat

I _ h , l t l l ~ , Counselors may become frustrated with the client's difficulty in differenti:lt

1111: wlll'll the counselor is not having that difficulty, Being aware of this divergence11111'11 Iwlps the counselor become more patient.

l'lll'n' are times when Holland's personality theory will not suffice. For example,1111 ;11'1' 5.1 RIE, 30 REI, and 17 SEA occupations listed in The ccupations inder

111,,11.11111, 2(00). Holland's theory does not provide enough information for [he,lin .. to I:hoose within a specific three-letter category, such as RTE. Other factors

_II, ,I.' ~ l l l ~ r : p h k a l l o c a t i o n or non-Holland personality factors may also need to

I'l' , , , ~ i d ~ r t d . Arriving at a code for a client is an important step in counseling,11 1 1111 ('nd o( the counseling process. For some clients, Holland's theory provides

,I ,1,11 1 or differentiating interests and talents or for developing a sense of idenIII\ . (111In factors such as education, ability, location, and/or personal responsibili

III , 10 lalllily Illay he equally imponant, if not mote so, than personali ty types,11,,11,11111\ dll'ory is a useful way of conceptualizing client concerns, bur it does not

1 I,,,te- l C J I 1 \ ~ P l l l ; l l i z , l t i O l 1 s y s t ~ 1 1 1 That will work with all diems, all problems, all

I IIII' 1ill1t',



SUMMARY

John Holland s typological theory has bc.'t:1l : U : : ~ P I \ I wilkly II)' .. ltlllsdurs ; 1 I ~ t lpsychologists for several reasons. Conceptually, it is l a s y II I U ~ I hn ,luS/.: ,hi' SIX

personality types-Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Sudal. Enll'rprising, a ~ H tConvenrional--<an be matched with a corresponding environment. Usually, an n

dividual and an environment are described by the most important, the second in

importance, and the third in importance of the six categories. When the t h r ~ let

rers of the code describing the person and the environment match or approximate

a march. then congruence results. Congruence, the most important of Holland s

constructs is sought by assessing the type of the dient and trying to march the

type with ~ p p r o p r i a t e occupations. Other constructs, such as consistency, c o n ~ i s -tency of aspirations, differentiation, and identity are also valuable in uSing

Holland s theory conceptually. Because Holland s theoretical constructs are

clearly defined, they have generated much research relevant to the applicability

of his theory to all individuals, including women and culturally diverse popula

t ions. The occupational classif ication system that has been developed using the

three-letter code is another practical aid for counselors. Several inventories besidel

Holland s Self-Directed Search and Vocational Preference Inventory are useful in

identifying the client's type. Because of its wide acceptance by counselors and the

abundance of supportive research, Holland s theory is likely to be used widely in

the future.

REfERENCES

Arbona, C. (1989). Hispanic ttnploymem and the Holland rypology of work. < A r ~ r rD e w l o p m ~ n t Quarterly, 37, 257-268.

Armstrong, P. I. , Day , S. X., McVay, J. P., .Rounds., J. (200S). Holland s RIASEC model

as an i n t ~ t i v e fram('WOrk for individual differences, joumal of C o u ~ l mPsychology, 35(tl, I-IS.

Sarrkk, M. R., Moum, M. K_, Gupta, R. (2003). Meta-analysis of the relationship bet·

ween tilt Five-Factor Model of p(:rsonalitY and Holland's occupational tYpes. PerstmAl

Psychology, 56, 45-74.

Bctz. F_, Borgen, F. H., Kaplan, A., Harmon, L. W. (199S). Gender and Holland type . .

moderalOcs of Ihe validity and imerpreri\'e utilitY of the Skills Confidence Inventory,

Journal of VOCiJtiorwl Behavior, 53, 281-299.

Ben, N., Harmon, L., Borgen, F. H. (1996). The relationships of self-efficacy for thtHolland themes 10 gender, occupational group membership, and vocational i n t e r e ~ t ..journal of Counselillg Psychology, 43, 90-98. .

Boyd, C. V. Cramer, S. H. (1995). Relationship betwcenHolland high-point code and (lient

preference for selected vocational counseling strategies. journal of <Areer D e v ~ I I I ( J ( ; ,21,213-221.

Brown, M. P. (2006). The effect of person/environmenl congruence on academic al'hicvr,

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Asus sment 4, 245-252.MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE

TJIEORY

I IAI II M IIlI.IIll<;j, ...S

I I_ I ryp. ComblnatIont

M lind A u ~ Proee . Typology in eoc. l ing

,.. e of o e e ~ lnfonTlltlon

, ftnMo of A ement InWur MntI

_ the TMofy to Women ,n d c u t u ~ 1 I y D M r ~ •

11 1_.

CHAI T

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Holland Type Theory