Hobbs and Gallup Jr. - Songs as a Medium for Embedded Reproductive Messages

7/29/2019 Hobbs and Gallup Jr. - Songs as a Medium for Embedded Reproductive Messages

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Evolutionary Psychology

www.epjournal.net 2011. 9(3): 390-416

Original Article

Songs as a Medium for Embedded Reproductive Messages

Dawn R. Hobbs, Department of Psychology, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany,

NY, USA.

Gordon G. Gallup, Jr., Department of Psychology, University at Albany, State University of New York,

Albany, NY, USA. Email: [email protected] (Corresponding author).

Abstract: Research shows that sensational news stories as well as popular romance novels

often feature themes related to important topics in evolutionary psychology. In the first of

four studies described in this paper we examined the song lyrics from three Billboardcharts: Country, Pop, and R&B. A content analysis of the lyrics revealed 18 reproductive

themes that read like an outline for a course in evolutionary psychology. Approximately92% of the 174 songs that made it into the Top Ten in 2009 contained one or more

reproductive messages, with an average of 10.49 reproductive phrases per song. Althoughdifferences in the frequency of different themes between charts were found, further

analyses showed that the most popular/bestselling songs contained significantly more

reproductive messages. An analysis of the lyrics of opera arias and art songs also revealedevidence for many of the same embedded reproductive messages extending back more than400 years.

Keywords: song lyrics, reproductive messages, sales

Every breath you take, every move you make, every bond you break, every step you take,

Ill be watching you (from Every Breath You Take, by Sting and Andy Summers,copyright 1983).

Introduction

Sensational news stories and popular romance novels often feature themes related

to important topics in evolutionary psychology. Davis and McLeod (2003) analyzed front-page news stories from a cross section of different countries over a period of 300 years.

Prominent news items tended to feature stories about crime (stealing, murder, and physicalassault), injury, death, altruism, abandonment, reputation, harm to children, and rape.

Rankings of the content of sensational news stories showed substantial consistency across


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Songs as reproductive messages

Evolutionary Psychology ISSN 1474-7049 Volume 9(3). 2011. -391-

different time periods. Davis and McLeod concluded that the appeal of sensational news isa byproduct of human predispositions to attend to information that has

reproductive/adaptive value.More recently, Cox and Fisher (2009) analyzed the titles of contemporary romance

novels to determine if their popularity might be related to evolutionary themes that would

be expected to have widespread appeal when it comes to some of the unique and recurrentreproductive issues that women confront. The five most common words featured inromance novel titles were love, bride, baby, man, and marriage, in that order. Common

themes extracted from these titles included commitment, reproduction, masculine/highranking suitors, and resources. Because the costs of reproduction are so much higher for

women than men, because women have a strong vested interest in the other 50 percent ofthe genes being carried by their children, and because of their need for protection and

provisioning, these themes have high reproductive relevance for females. Cox and Fisherconclude that because women who read romance novels are voting with their money,

these results have real world relevance.In the present series of studies, we analyzed the lyrics in popular songs in an

attempt to identify the existence of embedded reproductive/evolutionary messages. Beingthe first of their kind, these were largely descriptive studies.

The adaptive value of music eluded scientists for a long time. While Pinker (1997)has been quick to dismiss music as auditory cheesecake, Darwin (1871) suggested that

music may have evolved as a form of courtship display by means of sexual selection.Following Darwins lead, there is now growing interest in the origins of music (e.g.,

Mithen, 2006; Wallin, Merker, and Brown, 2000). Research conducted by musicpsychologists has identified connections between music and social behavior, and shows

that music preferences are related to an array of interesting personality dimensions(Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003). But rather than addressing music per se, our research

focused on the written lyrics that comprise popular songs.

Study 1

The initial study consisted of a content analysis of the lyrics contained in the topranked 2009 songs in three popular music genres: Country, Pop, and R&B (Rhythm and

Blues).

Materials and Methods

Table 1 contains a list of the reproductive categories that we extracted from a

content analysis of the written lyrics in the initial sample of 174 songs that made it into theBillboard Top Ten for Country, Pop, and R&B charts during 2009. These genres were

chosen so as to capture a wide cross section representing mainstream American music.Billboardtracks the popularity of songs through a number of different charts which

are published weekly on their website: www.billboard.com. Using the individual charts forCountry Songs, Pop Songs, and R&B/Hip Hop Songs, we examined the charts published in

the first week of every month for the year 2009 and analyzed the Top Ten songs from each


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of these individual charts.For purposes of deriving/identifying categories, references having to do with

courtship, sex, pair-bonding, parenting, fidelity, mate guarding, and provisioning wereinitially targeted, along with themes related to long-term as well as short-term mating

strategies. In the process of attempting to code the lyrics it became apparent that emotional

expressions could be partitioned into different action references. For instance, love couldeither convey commitment, fidelity assurance, or a non-specific state. Love representscommitment when sung as I love you. It represents fidelity assurance when coined as

Do you love me? And it is rendered non-specific when used in phrases like I would loveto go to the park with you. In this way, our coding system transformed subjective

emotions into objective actions. As shown in Table 1, we were able to distill most of thereproductive messages into 18 specific categories, along with one additional default

category for those that were reproductively relevant but did not fit the other categories(e.g., incest).

Table1.Codingcategorieswithlyricexemplars

Coding Category Description Lyric ExemplarGenitalia Any explicit, implicit, implied

or slang reference to genitalia.

My anaconda dont want

none unless you got buns,

honfrom Baby Got Back

by Sir Mix-A-Lot 1992

Her body [is]built just like a

coke bottlefrom That Girl

by Frankie J. 2006

Other Body Parts References to any other body

part other than genitalia,

including waist to hip ratios and

shoulder to hip ratios.Put your pretty little arms

around mefrom Big Green

Tractor by Jason Aldean

2009Dance with me/ I want my

arm about you/That charm

about you will carry me

through to heavenI seem

to find that happiness I

seek/When were out

together/Dancing cheek to

cheekfrom Cheek to

Cheek by Irving Berlin 1935

Courtship/Long Term Mating

Strategies

References to dating, hand-

holding, and other sincere

courtship displays and

overtures.

Oh please, say to me/You'll

let me be your man/And

please, say to me/You'll let

me hold your handfrom I

Wanna Hold Your Hand by

the Beatles 1963


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Hook Up/Short Term Mating

Strategies

References to short-term mating

strategies such as hooking up

and overt solicitations for short

term relationships.

Lets have some fun/ This

beat is sick/ I want to take a

ride on your disco stick

from Love Game by Lady

Gaga, 2009

Foreplay/Arousal/Sex ActPrecursors

Any reference to kissing,fondling or undressing, as well

as physiological precursors to

intercourse.

Sugar, sugar/ Ah honey,honey/ You are my candy

girl/ And you've got me

wanting you/

When I kissed you, girl, I

knew how sweet a kiss could

befrom Sugar, Sugar by

The Archies 1969

Seeing your black dress hit

the floor/Honey there sure

aint nothing like you loving

me all night longfrom

Getting You Home byChris Young 2009

Sex Act Any explicit, implicit, implied

or slang reference to sexual

intercourse.

I laid a divorcee in New

York City/ I had to put up

some kind of a fight/ The

lady then she covered me

with roses/ She blew my

nose and then she blew my

mindfrom Honky Tonk

Women, The Rolling Stones

1969

Sexual Prowess References to stamina, sex driveor other sexually related skills

and/or bragging of such.

They call me "Lovin' Dan"/I rock 'em, roll 'em all night

long/I'm a sixty-minute man

from Sixty Minute Man by

Billy Ward and the

Dominoes 1951

Roxanne, you dont have to

put on the red light/Walk the

streets for money/ You dont

have to sell your body to the

nightfrom Roxanne by the

Police 1978

Promiscuity/Reputation/

Derogation

Includes references to

promiscuity, as well as negative

reputational references, attempts

to defame another persons

reputation or make negative

social comparisons.

They say she low down/ Its

just a rumor and I dont

believe em/They say she

needs to slow down/ Baddest

thing around townfrom

Sexy Chick by Akon 2009


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I enchain youfrom Pur ti

Miro, Pur ti Godo by

Monteverdi 1642

Sequestering/Mate Guarding Keeping tabs on a mate,

watching, guarding, tracking

and/or isolating a mate. Also

includes references to privacy,

secrecy, and isolation for the

purpose of intercourse.

Every breath you take/

Every move you make/

Every bond you break/ Everystep you take/Ill be

watching you from Every

Breath You Take by the

Police 1983

Im gonna love you

forever/Forever and ever

Amenfrom Forever and

Ever Amen by Randy Travis

1987

Fidelity Assurance/

Abandonment Prevention

Questions or statements to

assess the fidelity of a mate.

Seeking information to ascertain

the commitment of a mate and

prevent

abandonment/cuckoldry. Do I have your love/ Am I

still enough/ Tell me dontI/or tell me do I, babyfrom

Do I by Luke Bryan, 2009

He knelt down and pulled

out a ring/And said Marry

Me Juliettefrom Love

Story by Taylor Swift 2009

Commitment and Fidelity References to dedication,

sincerity and long term

commitments to a relationship

such as marriage, boyfriend,

girlfriend, wife, and husband or

committed other. Also includes

honest courtship signals such as

diamond rings which indicate a

committed relationship.

Theres just something

about the woman that makes

my heart go haywire/And

shes gonna be my wife

from Whatever It Is by the

Zac Brown Band 2009

Resources Any reference to luxury items,

cars, money, or things that

denote resources.

Money, Money, Money/

Talk about cash money-

dollar billsfrom For the

Love of Money by the

OJays 1973

Status References to a persons high

standing in society; VIP status,

being referred to as the boss

or a rockstar or other high

ranking person.

An army of brave men, with

me as their leader/To return

crowned with laurels/To tell

you, for you have I fought!

For you have I conquered

from Celeste Aida by Verdi1871


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Mate Provisioning Use of status or resources

specifically to protect/retain a

mate.

My chick could have what

she want/ I know she aint

never had a man like that/to

buy her anything she desires

from Whatever You Like by

T.I. 2009

Shopkeeper, give me

colour/To make my cheeks

red/So that I can make the

young men love [me] against

their willfrom Carmina

Burana by Carl Orff, 1935

Appearance Enhancement/

Sex Appeal

Grooming, physical appearance,

general attractiveness, fitness

displays and/or signals, or

references to any visual

/physical aspect of a potential

mate.

Hot to trot/ Make any mans

eyes popthe chick was a

hit because her body was

boominfrom Lets Talk

About Sex by Salt N Pepa

1991

Rejection References to divorce, break-

ups, broken hearts, or discord

within the context of a pair-

bond relationship.

She just looked me in the

eye/Said it's overfrom Red

Light by David Nail 2009

I know somebody paying

child support for one of his

kids And on her 18th

birthday he found out it

wasn't hisfrom Gold

Digger by Kanye West 2005

Infidelity/Cheater Detection/

Mate Poaching

References to cheating, extra-

pair copulations, suspicions of

infidelity, stealing another

persons mate, or paternal

uncertainty.

I bet you're wondering howI knew/About your plans to

make me blue/

With some other guy that

you knew beforefrom I

Heard It Through the

Grapevine by Marvin Gaye

1969

Parenting Includes any reference to

parenting, child-rearing, or

desire for children. Also

includes references to

grandparents and grandchildren.

Hed been up all

night/Lying there in bed and

listening to his newborn baby

cry

From It Wont Be Like This

For Long by Darius Rucker,

2009


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Other Any reproductive message not

captured above, such as the

menstrual cycle or incest.

To his own sister he makes

his way, for Love entices the

Spring/Enamored, the

brother courts his own sister

from Winterstrme Wichen

dem Wonnemond by

Wagner 1870

Results

To determine the reliability of applying these categories to specific song lyrics, two

observers independently classified the reproductive themes present in written versions ofthe reproductively relevant phrases extracted from a representative sample of the Pop,

Country, and R&B songs. The number of phrases containing reproductive messages rangedfrom 2 (White Horse and Second Chance) to 29 (Baby By Me) for a total of 219

reproductive phrases, with an average of 8.76 different reproductive references per song.

Most songs included a few phrases that were judged to contain several (2-3) reproductivemessages for a total of 269 reproductive references summed across all songs. There wascomplete agreement between the two observers in classifying 237 of the 269 reproductive

phrases, resulting in a respectable inter-rater agreement of over 88%.The initial sample contained 174 Top Ten songs taken from the 2009 Country, Pop,

and R&B charts compiled by Billboardmagazine and published on their website. Printedcopies of the lyrics for each of these songs were downloaded for analysis. Figure 1

represents a distribution of the different reproductive categories found in the lyrics of thesesongs. A one-way ANOVA applied to the number of reproductive categories was

significant, F(2, 173) = 17.21, p < .0001. Bonferroni's Multiple Comparison Test showedthat there were significantly more reproductive categories in R&B songs in comparison to

Country (p < .0001) and Pop (p < .001). However, the differences between Country andPop were not significant.


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Figure 1. Distribution of reproductive themes for 2009 songs as a function of song type

The number of reproductive references/phrases for the songs in this sample ranged

from 0 to 48, with 160 of these songs, or 92% containing one or more reproductivereferences. Reproductive phrases that were repeated within a song (such as a chorus) were

only counted once. For the 57 Country songs there were a total of 340 reproductivereferences, for an average of 5.96 different reproductive references per song. For the 59

Pop songs a total of 513 reproductive references were identified, with an average of 8.69references per song. For the 58 R&B songs there were 973 reproductive references,

resulting in a mean of 16.77 reproductive references per song. A one-way ANOVA of thenumber of reproductive references was significant, F(2, 173) = 33.60, p < .0001.

Bonferronis Test showed that there were significantly more reproductive references inR&B songs in comparison to both Country (p < .0001) and Pop (p < .0001). And again, the

differences between Country and Pop were not significant. See Appendix 1 for a list of thesongs used in Study 1.

As shown in Figure 1, there were differences between charts in reproductivethemes, and the frequency with which the reproductive categories were mentioned differed

between charts as well. The four most frequent reproductive categories contained in thelyrics of Country songs were commitment, parenting, rejection, and fidelity assurance, inthat order. For Pop songs the most frequent reproductive categories were sex appeal,

reputation, short-term strategies, and fidelity assurance. For R&B songs, sex appeal,resources, sex act, and status constituted the most frequent themes. Whereas 46 out of the

58 parenting themes came from Country songs, only four appeared in R&B songs. Incontrast, references to resources were featured 106 times in R&B songs, but appeared only

six times in Country songs. It is also interesting to note that while there is some overlapbetween the top four reproductive themes across the charts (fidelity is one of the top four


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for both Country and Pop, and sex appealis featured in the top four for Pop and R&B), notheme was common to the top four in all three charts.

Study 2

In the second study an attempt was made to determine whether there might be arelationship between reproductive messages and the popularity/sales of recordedcontemporary songs. This was accomplished by measuring the number of reproductive

messages in 30 randomly selected songs from each of the three charts that made it into theTop Ten in 2009 and also appeared in albums. As a control condition, we measured the

number of reproductive messages in randomly selected songs from the same album by thesame vocalists that did not make it into the Top 10. As a result, each of the 30 songs we

chose that appeared in the Top Ten was matched with another control song by the samesinger and released on the same album, but did not make it into the Top 10. See Appendix 2

for a list of the songs we used in these different categories.

Results

Country Songs

Figure 2 depicts the average number of different reproductive messages for theCountry songs we selected that made it into the Top Ten and those that did not. For the

songs selected from the top rankings in 2009 there were more reproductive messages persong (M= 7.2, SD = 4.74) than for those by the same vocalist (in the same album) that did

not appear in the top ten (M= 4.3, SD = 3.08). A paired t-test showed that this differencewas significant, t(29) = 2.879,p = .0074.

Pop Songs

Figure 2 shows comparable results for Pop songs. For those selected from the topsongs in 2009 there were more reproductive messages per song (M = 10.73, SD = 6.47)

than for songs by the same vocalists that did not make it into the Top Ten (M= 5.8, SD =4.50), and this was significant, t(29) = 4.449,p


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Figure 2. Average number of reproductive messages for 2009 Country, Pop, and R&Bsongs that made it into the Top Ten and control songs that did not

Study 3

To examine the stability of reproductive messages and themes over time, the thirdstudy featured a content analysis of the lyrics contained in the annual list of the Top Ten

songs for the years 1959, 1969, 1979, 1989, 1999, and 2009 for Country, Pop, and R&Bcharts. The list of Top 10 Country songs for the years 1959, 1969, 1979, 1989, and 1999

were taken from Hot Country Songs (Whitburn, 2008). The list of Pop songs for thesesame years was taken from A Century of Pop Music (Whitburn, 1999), and the list of

R&B songs for these years was taken from Top R&B/Hip Hop Singles (Whitburn, 2004).

The 2009 Top 10 songs of the year for all genres were taken from the Billboardmagazinewebsite: www.billboard.com.

Results

As shown in Figure 3, the number of reproductive messages in top ranked popular

songs has remained relatively stable over the past six decades. The one exception is therecent increase in reproductive messages contained in songs that rise to high ranking

positions on the R&B charts. A 3 (charts) x 6 (decades) ANOVA revealed a significantmain effect of song type,F(2, 162) = 10.852,p < .0001, a significant main effect of decade,

F(5, 162) = 10.743, p < .0001, and as illustrated in Figure 3, a significant interaction

between charts and decade,F(10, 162) = 4.478,p < .0001. Using the Bonferroni correction,pairwise comparisons between decades showed that songs in 1999 and 2009 hadsignificantly more reproductive references (p < .05). Corrected pairwise comparisons based

on song type also showed that R&B songs contained significantly more reproductivemessages (p < .001) than Country and Pop, while differences between Country and Pop

were not significant.


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Figure 3. Mean number of different reproductive messages per song for the Top Ten songsat the end of each decade for all three charts over the past sixty years

Study 4

To determine if the presence of reproductive messages is a long term, enduringfeature of song lyrics, the fourth study was based on a content analysis of the lyrics

contained in a sample of representative art songs and opera aria dating back as far as 1597.Arias are usually a melodic segment set within the context of a larger composition called an

opera. Though arias are often performed independent of the full opera, they derive much oftheir meaning from the framework of the surrounding composition. In contrast, Art songs

are smaller scale compositions that are meant to be performed by themselves. NotableArias and Art songs were chosen for analysis because they are analogous to popular current

songs. Art songs have the advantage of bridging a time gap when composers no longerwrote operas but other genres of popular music had not yet emerged.

Method

To identify a representative sample of art songs we used a combination of books,websites and sheet music anthologies (Walter, 2009) and tried to find matches for those

songs in other art song anthologies. If a song appeared in more than one book it wasincluded on the list. The list of art songs chosen for analysis contains songs that date back

as far as 1597. See Appendix 3 for a compilation of these songs.The arias were taken from the Metropolitan Opera Archives, which lists the


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frequency of aria performances. To identify noted arias we also consulted Wikipedia andan opera anthology (Batta, 1999). In addition, we searched for operas in standard opera

song literature books for singers. The final list included opera arias that date back to 1642.See Appendix 4 for a list of the opera arias.

To take into account changes in the meaning of different words/phrases over time,

assistance with the content analysis of the opera arias and the art songs was provided byMelanie L. Shank, an opera singer who studies and performs songs from these eras.

Results

There was complete agreement among two independent raters in classifying 327reproductive messages out of a total of 362 references taken from a representative sample

of the opera and art songs, which represents an inter-rater agreement of over 90%.Figure 4 depicts the results. A t-test failed to demonstrate a significant difference in

the number of reproductive categories between the opera and art songs, t(104) = .6098,p =.5433. While the frequency of some of the themes differ, these findings clearly show that

the same reproductive categories derived from the content analysis of our initial sample of2009 contemporary songs map surprisingly well onto the lyrics from opera and arts songs

dating back hundreds of years.

Figure 4. Distribution of reproductive themes for opera aria and art songs sampled overthe past 414 years along with those in Study 1

Discussion

Whereas short-term sexual relationships are rarely featured in female romance

novels (Cox and Fisher, 2009), promiscuity and brief sexual liaisons are common, recurring


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themes in many popular songs - particularly R&B and Pop (see Figure 1). Although thetypical romance novel contains several hundred pages, contemporary songs in the charts we

sampled last for only a few minutes and contain a relatively small number of oftenrepetitive verses. Yet despite their limited scope, most popular songs contain a high

incidence of reproductive messages.

Since the position of songs on the Billboardcharts is driven in part by sales, ourstudy represents a significant advantage over the Cox and Fisher (2009) analysis ofromance novels where sales figures were not available. The same market factors that

appear to affect the title of romance novels also impact the lyrics of songs on differentcharts (see Figure 1). For example, Country and Western listeners are thought to represent a

higher proportion of women than is true for the other charts we surveyed. The top fourthemes for high ranking Country songs were commitment, parenting, rejection, and fidelity

assurance, whereas for Pop it was sex appeal, reputation, short-term strategies, and fidelityassurance, for R&B/Hip Hop it was sex appeal, resources, sex act, and status. While Cox

and Fisher (2009) found that short-term relationships were all together ignored byromance novels (p. 398), that is clearly not the case for song lyrics.

Approximately 92% of the 174 songs that made it into the Top 10 in 2009 containedreproductive messages. A content analysis of these messages revealed 18 reproductive

themes that read like topics taken from an outline for a course in evolutionary psychology.Although differences in the frequency of different themes between charts were found,

further analyses showed that the bestselling songs in all three charts featured significantlymore reproductive messages than those that failed to make it into the Top Ten (see Figure

2). The stability of these reproductive messages over time was confirmed by a contentanalysis of the lyrics contained in a list of the Top Ten songs for the years 1959, 1969,

1979, 1989, 1999, and 2009 (see Figure 3). An analysis of the lyrics of opera arias and artsongs also revealed compelling evidence for the same reproductive categories extending

back as far as 1597. As shown in Figure 5, the six most common themes to emerge fromthe combined sample of song lyrics (past and present) were fidelity assurance,

commitment, rejection, arousal, sex appeal, and other body parts.


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Figure 5. Frequency distribution of the presence of one or more reproductive categories inthe songs contained in Study 1, 3, and 4 (N= 432)

We suspect songs that rise to high ranking positions on the charts do so for a myriadof reasons. The fact that some popular recordings are only instrumental with no lyrics (e.g.,

Chariots of Fire), while others are sung by artists in a foreign language (e.g., Volare)strongly suggests that the instrumentation, melody, tempo, sex of the artist, and sound of

the singers voice (see Hughes, Dispenza, and Gallup, 2004), along with subtle nonverbalcues of sincerity and emotional commitment conveyed by intonation of the artist are all

important components. As such, raw, disembodied lyrics as they appear in print are clearlyonly one relatively small factor that may influence a songs popularity. Nonetheless, our

results show that the number of reproductive messages contributes significantly tosales/popularity, and this implies that listeners are in fact processing at some level

(wittingly or not) the evolutionarily relevant portions of the lyrics contained in manypopular songs.

Marketing by record companies undoubtedly plays a role in public exposure tosongs, and by extension may influence chart position and sales. But whether marketing per

se can account for the preponderance of reproductive messages in the songs we sampled isunlikely. For example, the presence as well as the incidence of reproductive themes among

the opera aria and art songs in our historical sample is comparable in most instances tocontemporary songs (see Figure 4). Moreover, if the position of songs on the charts is a

simple reflection of promotion and marketing then it ought to be independent of the lyrics,and our data clearly show that is not the case. In our view, the ubiquitous presence of these

reproductive themes is a reflection of evolved properties of the human psyche, where


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people are voting with their pocket books and listener preferences are driving the lyrics.Our findings concerning embedded reproductive messages in song lyrics, combined

with those of Davis and McLeod (2003) on front-page news stories and Cox and Fisher(2009) on the titles of romance novels, strongly suggest that many of the topics of central

importance to evolutionary psychology are a pervasive, almost ubiquitous feature of day-

to-day human existence.

Acknowledgements: We thank Melanie Shank, Jeremy Atkinson, and Marlene Wong for

assistance with this project, and Andrew Gallup for help with the statistical analyses.

Received 12th May 2011; Revision submitted 19th August 2011; Accepted 22nd

August 2011

References

Batta, A., and Neef, S. (Eds.) (1999). Opera: Composers, works, performers. Cologne,

Germany: Konemann Books.Cox, A., and Fisher, M. (2009). The Texas billionaires pregnant bride: An evolutionaryinterpretation of romance fiction titles. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and

Cultural Psychology, 3, 386-401.Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man. London: John Murray.

Davis, H., and McLeod, S. L. (2003). Why humans value sensational news: Anevolutionary perspective.Evolution and Human Behavior, 24,208-216.

Hughes, S. M., Dispenza, F., and Gallup, G. G., Jr. (2004). Ratings of voice attractivenesspredict sexual behavior and body configuration. Evolution and Human Behavior,

25, 295-304.Mithen, S. (2006). The singing Neanderthals. Cambridge, MA: First Harvard

University Press.Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. New York: Norton

Rentfrow, P. J., and Gosling, S. D. (2003). The do re mis of everyday life: The structureand personality correlates of music preferences. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 84,1236-1256.Wallin, N. L., Merker, B., and Brown, S. (2000). The origins of music. Cambridge, MA:

MIT Press.Walters, R. (2009). The art song anthology. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corporation

Whitburn, J. (1999). A century of music. Menomomee Falls, WI: RecordResearch.

Whitburn, J. (2004). Top R&B/Hip Hop singles 1942-2004. Menomomee Falls, WI: RecordResearch.

Whitburn, J. (2008). Hot country songs: Billboard 1944-2008. Menomomee Falls, WI:Record Research.


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Appendix 1. 2009BillboardTop Ten songs

Song Title Artist Recording Label

Country

Already Gone Sugarland Mercury Nashville

Alright Darius Rucker Capitol NashvilleAmerican Ride Toby Keith Show Dog Nashville

Big Green Tractor Jason Aldean Broken Bow

Bonfire Craig Morgan BNA

Boots On Randy Houser Universal South

Chicken Fried Zac Brown Band Live Nation/Home Grown/Atlantic

Consider Me Gone Reba McEntire Starstruck Records/Valory Music

Country Boy Jason Aldean Broken Bow

Cowboy Cassanova Carrie Underwood Arista NashvilleCowgirls Dont Cry Brooks and Dunn w/

Reba McEntire

Arista Nashville

Do I Luke Bryan Capitol Nashville

Dont Billy Currington Mercury Nashville

Dont Think I Cant

Love You

Jake Owen RCA Nashville

Down The Road Kenny Chesney Blue Chair/BNA

Feel That Fire Dierks Bentley Capitol

Fifteen Taylor Swift Big Machine

Getting You Home Chris Young RCA Nashville

God Love Her Toby Keith Show Dog Nashville

Here Rascal Flatts Lyric Street

Here Comes Goodbye Rascal Flatts Lyric StreetI Run To You Lady Antebellum Capitol Nashville/Parlophone

I Told You So Carrie Underwood w/

Randy Travis

19/Arista Nashville/Arista

I Wanna Make You

Close Your Eyes

Dierks Bentley Capitol Nashville

Ill Just Hold On Blake Shelton Warner Bros.

Im Alive Kenny Chesney Blue Chair/BNA

In Color Jamey Johnson Mercury Nashville

It Happens Sugarland Mercury Nashville

It Wont Be Like This

For Long

Darius Rucker Capitol Nashville

Its America Rodney Atkins Curb

Kiss A Girl Keith Urban Capitol Nashville

Living For The Night George Strait MCA Nashville

Lost You Anyway Toby Keith Show Dog Nashville


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Love Your Love TheMost

Eric Church Capitol Records Nashville/EMINashville

Need You Now Lady Antebellum Capitol Nashville/Parlophone

Nothin To Die For Tim McGraw Curb

One In Every Crowd Montgomery Gentry Columbia Nashville

Only You Can LoveMe This Way

Keith Urban Capitol Nashville

Out Last Night Kenny Chesney Blue Chair/BNA

People Are Crazy Billy Currington Mercury Nashville

Red Light David Nail MCA Nashville

River Of Love George Strait MCA Nashville

Roll With Me Montgomery Gentry Columbia Nashville

She Wouldnt Be

Gone

Blake Shelton Warner Bros.

Shes Country Jason Aldean Capitol Nashville/Broken Bow

Sideways Dierks Bentley Dangling Rope/Capitol RecordsNashville

Sissys Song Alan Jackson Arista Nashville/EMI Nashville

Small Town U.S.A. Justin Moore Valory Music Group

Start A Band Brad Paisley Arista Nashville

Summer Nights Rascal Flatts Lyric Street

Sweet Thing Keith Urban Capitol Nashville

Then Brad Paisley Arista Nashville

Toes Zac Brown Band Live Nation/Home Grown/Atlantic

Welcome To The

Future

Brad Paisley Arista Nashville

Whatever It Is Zac Brown Band Live Nation/Home Grown/AtlanticWhite Horse Taylor Swift Big Machine

You Belong With Me Taylor Swift Big Machine

Pop

Already Gone Kelly Clarkson RCA

Bad Romance Lady Gaga Streamline/KonLive/Cherrytree/Interscrope

Battlefield Jordin Sparks 19/Jive

Best I Ever Had Drake Young Money/Cash Money/

Universal Motown

Blame It Jamie Foxx w/ T-Pain JBoom Boom Pow Black Eyed Peas Interscope

Circus Britney Spears Jive

Dead And Gone T.I. w/ JustinTimberlake

Grand Hustle/Atlantic

Dont Trust Me 3OH!3 Photo Finish Records


18/27



Down Jay Sean w/Lil Wayne Jeyded/2Point9/CashMoney/Universal Republic

Fire Burning Sean Kingston Epic/Geffen/Koch

Fireflies Owl City Universal Republic

Gives You Hell The All American

Rejects

DGC/Interscope

Good Girls Go Bad Cobra Starship w/

Leighton Meester

Fueled by

Ramen/Decaydance/Columbia UKHalo Beyonce Columbia

Heartless Kanye West Roc-a-fella/Def Jam

Hot N Cold Katy Perry Capitol

How Do You Sleep Jesse McCartney Hollywood

I Do Not Hook Up Kelly Clarkson RCA

I Gotta Feeling Black Eyed Peas Interscope

I Know You Want Me Pitbull The Orchard/Ultra/J/Polo Grounds/

Mr. 305If I Were A Boy Beyonce Capitol

If You Seek Amy Britney Spears Jive

Im Yours Jason Mraz Atlantic

Just Dance Lady Gaga Streamline/KonLive/Cherrytree/Interscrope

Kiss Me Through thePhone

Soulja Boy Stacks on Deck Entertainment/Collipark Music/HHH/Interscope

Knock You Down Keri Hilson w/KanyeWest and Ne-Yo

Mosely/Zone 4

Let It Rock Kevin Rudolf Cash Money/Universal Republic

Live Your Life T.I. w/ Rihanna Grand Hustle/AtlanticLove Drunk Boys Like Girls Sony Music

Love Game Lady Gaga Streamline/KonLive/Cherrytree/

InterscropeLove Lockdown Kanye West Roc-a-fella/Def Jam

Love Story Taylor Swift Big Machine

Meet Me Halfway Black Eyed Peas Interscope

My Life Would SuckWithout You

Kelly Clarkson RCA

New Divide Linkin Park Reprise

No Surprise Daughtry RCA

Paparazzi Lady Gaga Streamline/KonLive/Cherrytree/Interscrope

Party In the U.S.A. Miley Cyrus Hollywood/ Fascination/Avex

Please Dont Leave

Me

Pink LaFace/Jive


19/27



Poker Face Lady Gaga Streamline/KonLive/Cherrytree/Interscrope

Replay Iyaz T.I.M.E./Beluga Heights/Reprise

RecordsRight Round Flo Rida Poe Boy/Atlantic

Run This Town Jay-Z, Rihanna andKanye West

Roc Nation/Atlantic

Second Chance Shinedown Atlantic

Sexy Chick David Guetta w/ Akon Virgin/EMI

Single Ladies Beyonce Capitol

So What Pink LaFace/Jive

Sober Pink LaFace/Jive

Sweet Dreams Beyonce Capitol

The Climb Miley Cyrus Hollywood/ Fascination/Avex

Three (3) Britney Spears Jive

Use Somebody Kings Of Leon Sony/RCA/Columbia

Waking Up in Vegas Katy Perry Columbia/Capitol

Whatcha Say Jason Derulo Warner Bros./BelugaHeights/Konvict Music

Whatever You Like T.I. Grand Hustle/Atlantic

Womanizer Britney Spears Jive

You Belong With Me Taylor Swift Big Machine

You Found Me The Fray Epic

R&B

Aint I Yung L.A. Grand Hustle/Atlantic

Baby By Me 50 Cent Aftermath/Interscope/Shady

Bad Habits Maxwell Columbia

Beep Bobby Valentino EMI/Blu Kolla Dreams

Best I Ever Had Drake Young Money/Cash

Money/Universal MotownBirthday Sex Jeremih Def Jam

Blame It Jamie Foxx w/ T-Pain J

Boyfriend #2 Pleasure P Atlantic

Break Up Mario J

Chopped N Skrewed T-Pain Nappy Boy/Konvict/Jive

Day N Nite Kid Cudi GOOD Music/Fools Gold

Records/Universal MotownDead And Gone T.I. w/ Justin

TimberlakeGrand Hustle/Atlantic

Diva Beyonce Columbia

Ego Beyonce Columbia


20/27



Empire State of Mind Jay Z+Alicia Keys Roc Nation/Atlantic

Every Girl Young Money Young Money/CashMoney/Universal Motown

Forever Drake Zone 4/Interscope/Shady/Aftermath

God In Me Mary Mary Columbia

Green Light John Legend w/ Andre3000

Sony Music

Heartless Kanye West Roc-a-fella/Def Jam

I Invented Sex Trey Songz Atlantic Songbook

I Need a Girl Trey Songz Atlantic Songbook

Ice Cream Paint Job Dorrough Ngenius Ent/E1 Music

If This Isnt Love Jennifer Hudson Arista

If U Leave Musiq Soulchild w/

Mary J.Blige

Def Soul/Atlantic

Just Like Me Jamie Foxx J

Kiss Me Through thePhone

Soulja Boy Stacks on Deck Entertainment/Collipark Music/HHH/Interscope

Knock You Down Keri Hilson w/KanyeWest and Ne-Yo

Mosely/Zone 4

Last Chance Ginuwine Notifi Records/Warner Bros.

Lions, Tigers and

Bears

Jazmine Sullivan J Records/Arista/Puppy Love

Live Your Life T.I. w/ Rihanna Grand Hustle/Atlantic

Mad Ne-Yo Def Jam

Magnificent Rick Ross Maybach/Slip-N-Slide/Def Jam

Miss Independent Ne-Yo Def Jam

Money To Blow Birdman w/ Lil Wayneand Drake

Cash Money/Universal Motown

Mrs. Officer Lil Wayne Cash Money/Universal Motown

Number One R. Kelly Jive

Papers Usher LaFace

Playa Cardz Right Keyshia Cole w/ 2Pac Geffen Records

Pop Champagne Jim Jones Columbia/Universal Motown/

Koch/Ether BoyPretty Wings Maxwell Columbia

Put It On Ya Plies Big Gate/Slip-N-Slide/Atlantic

Regret LeToya w/ Ludacris Capitol Music Group

Rockin That Thang The Dream Radio Killa/Def Jam

Run This Town Jay-Z, Rihanna and

Kanye West

Roc Nation/Atlantic

She Got Her Own Ne-Yo Def Jam

Single Ladies Beyonce Capitol


21/27



Sobeautiful Musiq Soulchild Def Soul/Atlantic

Successful Drake Young Money/Cash Money/Universal Motown

Throw It In The Bag Fabolous w/ TheDream

Desert Storm/Def Jam

Trading Places Usher LaFaceTrust Keyshia Cole AandM/Geffen

Turn My Swag On Soulja Boy Stacks on DeckEntertainment/Collipark

Music/HHH/InterscopeTurnin Me On Ker Hilson w/ Lil

Wayne

Zone 4/ Mosely Music/Interscope

Under Pleasure P Atlantic/Bluestar Records/Swagga

EntertainmentWasted Gucci Mane Asylum/Warner Bros.

Wetter Twista Get Money Gang

Entertainment/Capitol/EMIYou Complete Me Keyshia Cole A&M/Geffen

Appendix 2. 2009 charting and non-charting controls

Charting Song Title Non-Charting Song Title Artist

Country

Already Gone Steve Earle Sugarland

Alright Learn to Live Darius Rucker

American Ride Ballad of Balad Toby Keith

Big Green Tractor The Best of Me Jason AldeanBonfire Ordinary Angels Craig Morgan

Boots On Strange Randy Houser

Cowboy Cassanova Quitter Carrie Underwood

Cowgirls Dont Cry American Dreamer Brooks and Dunn w/Reba McEntire

Do I Chuggin Along Luke Bryan

Dont Think I Cant Love

You

Green Bananas Jake Owen

Down The Road Ten With a Two Kenny Chesney

Fifteen The Best Day Taylor SwiftGod Love Her Time That It Would Take Toby Keith

Here Help Me Remember Rascal Flatts

I Wanna Make You Close

Your Eyes

Last Call Dierks Bentley

Ill Just Hold On Never Lovin You Blake Shelton


22/27



It Wont Be Like This ForLong

I Hope They Get to Me inTime

Darius Rucker

Kiss A Girl Whys It Feel So Long Keith Urban

Love Your Love The Most Longer Gone Eric Church

Need You Now If I Knew Then Lady Antebellum

Nothin To Die For Shotgun Rider Tim McGrawOnly You Can Love Me This

Way

My Heart is Open Keith Urban

Red Light Missouri David Nail

River Of Love West Texas Town George Strait

Roll With Me God Knows Who I Am Montgomery Gentry

Shes Country This I Gotta See Jason Aldean

Start A Band Departure Brad Paisley

Then No Brad Paisley

Toes Different Kind of Fine Zac Brown Band

Welcome To The Future Back to the Future Brad PaisleyYou Belong With Me Tell Me Why Taylor Swift

Pop

Bad Romance So Happy I Could Die Lady Gaga

Battlefield Walking on Frankie Snow Jordin Sparks

Best I Ever Had Houstatlantavegas Drake

Blame It Overdose Jamie Foxx w/ T-Pain

Boom Boom Pow Now Generation Black Eyed Peas

Circus Mannequin Britney Spears

Dead And Gone Im Illy T.I. w/ Justin Timberlake

Down If I Aint Got You Jay Sean w/Lil WayneFire Burning Welcome to Tomorrow Sean Kingston

Gives You Hell Mona Lisa The All AmericanRejects

Good Girls Go Bad The World Will Never Do Cobra Starship w/Leighton Meester

How Do You Sleep Not Your Enemy Jesse McCartney

I Do Not Hook Up Cry Kelly Clarkson

I Know You Want Me Girls Pitbull

Im Yours Live High Jason Mraz

Just Dance Again Again Lady Gaga

Knock You Down How Does it Feel Keri Hilson w/Kanye

West and Ne-YoLet It Rock Coffee and Donuts Kevin Rudolf

Love Lockdown Robocop Kanye West


23/27



My Life Would Suck WithoutYou

Long Shot Kelly Clarkson

No Surprise Open Up Your Eyes Daughtry

Please Dont Leave Me One Foot Wrong Pink

Replay Look At Me Now Iyaz

Right Round Touch Me Flo RidaRun This Town A Star is Born Jay-Z, Rihanna and

Kanye WestSweet Dreams Satellites Beyonce

Use Somebody Be Somebody Kings Of Leon

Waking Up in Vegas Mannequin Katy Perry

Whatever You Like On Top of the World T.I.

You Belong With Me Tell Me Why Taylor Swift

You Found Me Never Say Never The Fray

R&B

Baby By Me Death to My Enemies 50 CentBad Habits Playing Possum Maxwell

Beep Make You the Only One Bobby Valentino

Best I Ever Had Houstatlantavegas Drake

Birthday Sex My Sunshine Jeremih

Blame It Covergirl Jamie Foxx w/ T-Pain

Boyfriend #2 Birthday Suit Pleasure P

Chopped N Skrewed Change T-Pain

Day N Nite CuDi Zone Kid Cudi

Dead And Gone Im Illy T.I. w/ Justin Timberlake

Empire State of Mind Hate Jay Z+Alicia KeysEvery Girl Play in My Band Young Money

Green Light Cross the Line John Legend w/ Andre3000

I Invented Sex Holla if You Need Me Trey Songz

Ice Cream Paint Job Feel This Way Dorrough

If This Isnt Love My Heart Jennifer Hudson

Just Like Me Love Brings Change Jamie Foxx

Knock You Down Get Your Money Up Keri Hilson w/KanyeWest and Ne-Yo

Last Chance Orchestra Ginuwine

Lions, Tigers and Bears Switch Jazmine Sullivan

Money To Blow Money Machine Birdman w/ Lil Wayneand Drake

Papers Makin Love into the Night Usher

Pop Champagne How to be a Boss Jim Jones


24/27



Pretty Wings Cold Maxwell

Rockin That Thang Right Side of my Brain The Dream

Run This Town A Star is Born Jay-Z, Rihanna and

Kanye WestSuccessful Ignorant Shit Drake

Throw It In The Bag No Fabolous w/ The DreamTrading Places Something Special Usher

Turnin Me On Change Me Ker Hilson w/ LilWayne

Wasted Volume Gucci Mane

Wetter Block Music Twista

Appendix 3. Art Song sample

Song Composer Year Premiered/Published

Abendempfindung Mozart 1787Allerseelen Strauss 1885

An die Musik Schubert 1817

Apres un reve Faure 1877

Asturiana Falla 1914

Ave Maria Caccini 1615

Beau Soir Debussy 1891

Bist du bei mir Bach 1722

Blow, blow thou winter wind Arne 1740

Bois pais Lully 1684

Caldi sospiri Rotani 1609

Caro mio ben Giordani 1780

Chanson triste DuParc 1868

Come Again Sweet Love Dowland 1597

Das Veilchen Mozart 1785

Del cabello ms sutil Obradors 1914

Der Doppelgnger Schubert 1828

Der Ehre Gottes aus der Natur Beethoven 1800

Der Nussbaum Schumann 1840

Der Tod und das Mdchen Schubert 1817

Die Beiden Grenadiere Schumann 1840

Die Mainacht Brahms 1866

Du bist die ruh Schubert 1823

Du bist wie eine Blume Schumann 1840

Gretchen am spinnrade Schubert 1814

Heidenrslein Schubert 1815


25/27



I attempt from Loves sickness Purcell 1695

Ich grolle nicht Schumann 1840

Ill sail upon the Dog-Star Purcell 1688

Immer Leiser Wird MeinSchlummer

Brahms 1886

It was a lover and his lass Quilter 1940Lied der Braut Schumann 1840

Lied der Suleika Schumann 1840

Mandoline Debussy 1883

Mattinata Leoncavallo 1904

My Mother bids me Bind my hair Haydn 1794

Nebbie Respighi 1921

Now sleeps the Crimson Petal Quilter 1897

Nymphs and Shepherds Purcell 1692

O del mio amato ben Donaudy 1918

O del mio dolce ardor Gluck 1870Oh Mistress Mine Quilter 1905

Ouvre ton Coeur Bizet 1870

Ridente La Calma Mozart 1775

Se Tu Mami, Se Sospiri Pergolesi 1725

Silent Noon Vaughan Williams 1903

Sonntag Brahms 1878

Vergebliches Stndchen Brahms 1882

Von ewiger Liebe Brahms 1864

What if I never speed Dowland 1600

When daisies pied Arne 1740Where the bee sucks Arne 1740

Widmung Schumann 1840

Wie Melodien zieht es mir Brahms 1886

Wiegenlied Brahms 1868

Zueignung Strauss 1885

Appendix 4. Opera Aria sample

Song Title Composer Year Premiered/Published

Abendsegen Humperdinck 1893

Ach ich fuhls Mozart 1791

Adieu, notre petite table Massenet 1884

Ah! Je veux vivre Gounod 1867

Amore o grillo Puccini 1904

Bella Sicome un angelo Donizetti 1843


26/27



Cara Sposa Handel 1711

Caro Nome Verdi 1851

Casta Diva Bellini 1831

Celeste Aida Verdi 1871

Che faro senza Euridice Gluck 1762

Das ssse Lied verhallt Wagner 1850

Das war sehr gut Strauss 1933

Der Holle Rache Mozart 1791

Di Provenza il mar, il suol Verdi 1853

Didos Lament Purcell 1698

Dome epais le jasmin Delibes 1883

Donna non vidi mai Puccini 1893

Dove sei, amato bene Handel 1719

Fair Robin I love Mechem 1980

Gia Nella notte densa Verdi 1887

Habanera Bizet 1875Hav mirs gelobt Strauss 1911

Heil dir, Sonne Wagner 1876

La ci darem la mano Mozart 1787

Lauries Song Copland 1954

Les oiseaux Offenbach 1881

Liebestod Wagner 1865

Mon coeur souvre a ta voix Saint-Saens 1877

O Mio Babbino Puccini 1918

O! du mein holder Abendstern Wagner 1845

Oh war ich schon mit dir vereint Beethoven 1805Pace, pace mio dio Verdi 1862

Piangero Handel 1724

Pur ti miro, pur ti godo Monteverdi 1642

Quando men Vo Puccini 1896

Salut! Demeure chaste et pure Gounod 1859

Saper vorreste Verdi 1859

Signore, ascolta Puccini 1926

Spargi damaro Donizetti 1835

Stride la vampa! Verdi 1853

Stridono lassu Leoncavallo 1892Una donna a quindici anni Mozart 1790

Una furtiva lagrima Donizetti 1832

Una voce poco fa Rossini 1816

Vissi darte Puccini 1900

Voce di donna o dangelo Ponchielli 1876


27/27



Voi lo sapete Mascagni 1890

Voi, che sapete Mozart 1786Winterstrme wichen dem

Wonnemond

Wagner 1870

Documents

Hobbs and Gallup Jr. - Songs as a Medium for Embedded Reproductive Messages