DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY- DASMARINASDasmarinas City, Cavite

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGYARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT

ARCH500- Architecture Comprehensive Course

READING PREPS 2History of Architecture – Part 1

(Lifted from History of Architecture, 18th Edition by Sir Bannister Fletcher)

PART 1. The Beginnings of Architecture1. Introduction

- History of Architecture- a record of man’s effort to build beautifully. It traces the origin, growth and decline of architectural styles which have prevailed lands and ages

- Influencing Factorso Geographicalo Geologicalo Climatico Religiono Historicalo Social and Political (Sociopolitical)

- Examples of Pre-historic Architectureo Huto Caveso Sceilingso Tentso Beehive hut

2. Megalithic Architecture- Most common megalithic structures

o Dolmen- consist of several large stones set on one end with a large-covering slabo Passage grave (tumuli)o Menhirs (monoliths)

3. Primitive Dwellings- Mudhif- American Cabin- Indian House- Kickapoo- Sumatran House- Igloo- Nigerian House- Cornish Cottage - Annamese wooden house- Brazilian Indian Hut

PART 2. Egyptian Architecture1. Influences

- Geographical – consist of narrow strip of fertile alluvial soil along banks of Nile, flanked by shelves of barren land and rugged cliffs, beyond which lie arid desert plateau.

- Geological – stone such as granite, sandstone, limestone and alabaster are abundant; source of metal is poor; little source of timber but rich in indigenous palms; mud or clay which is used in making bricks is abundant

- Climatic – has two seasons (spring and summer); climate is warn and snow is unknown; rain is rare

- Historical and Social- social and industrial conditions in Egypt were largely determined by the inflexible rule of an omnipotent government; craftsmanship was highly developed especially in pottery, weaving, glass blowing, metal working, musical instruments making, jewelry and furniture; kings in Egypt are known as pharaohs which are silhouetted against the mysterious desert background, sometimes they appear as gods and demi-gods, often as mystery priests, generally as builders, but rarely as fathers of their people

2. Architectural Characters (please be familiar with the following)- Egyptian Gorge - Batter- Hieroglyphics- Egyptian columns- Columnar and trabeated- Egyptian Temples- Egyptian Ornaments

3. Examples- Tomb Architecture (take note of parts and various examples)

o Mastaba – rectangular, flat-topped funerary mound with battered sides covering a burial chamber below ground

Mastaba of Thi Mastaba at Beit Khallaf

o Royal Pyramids Step pyramid of Zoser Great Pyramid of Cheops Pyramid of Chephren Pyramid of Mykerinos

o Rock Hewn Tombs Tomb Of Beni Hasan Tomb of King Thebes Tomb of Rameses IX

- Temples (take notes of different types, examples and parts)o Mortuary Templeso Cult Temples

Temple of Ammon, Karnak, Thebes Great Temple of Abu-Simbel Temple of Khons

- Obelisks (take note of parts and examples)- Dwellings (take note of character of plan and forms)- Fortresses (take note of examples)

PART 3. Architecture in the Ancient Near East1. Influences

- Geographical (three broad zones- deserted to grasslands)o The greater part of Arabian Peninsula Desert extending to Syria

o Great arc extending from the Mediterranean coastal plain of Palestine, through North Syria to the head of the Persian Gulf stretches the zones of grasslands, steppes, piedmont country and alluvial river plains (the fertile crescent)

o Chain of mountains and plateau- Geological

o Clay is abundant (universal material)o Timber (imported) and stone are limited on lowlandso Stone, alabaster and limestone are transported from the uplands

- Climatic o Except for the humid Black Sea and Caspian Littorals, most of the Near East is

subject to extreme temperature between winter and summer. o On highlands, winter is longer than summer

- Historical, Social and Religious (take a glimpse and be familiar with the areas)o Mesopotamia – Sumerians (Asianic) o Anatolia (the Levant and Iran) o The Persian Empire

2. Architectural Characters (please take note of the character of each three broad geographical zones)- Arcuated- Universally made of bricks; there are instance of doubled mud bricks- Flat Roof

3. Different “times” of the Architecture in Ancient Near East (take note of the character of each overlapping period)- Early Mesopotamian (5th to 2nd millennium BC)- Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian (1859-539 BC)- Early Anatolian and Hittite (3250 – 1170 BC)- Canaanite, Phoenician and Israelite (3250 -587 BC)- Syro-Hittite (1170 – 745 BC)- Utaitian (850 – 600 BC)- Phrygian (750 – 650 BC)- Median and Persian (750 – 350 BC)- Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanian (312 BC – 641 AD)

4. Examples- Megaron and portico (take note of parts and character)- Ziggurats

o Ziggurat at Warkao Ziggurat of Urnammu, Uro Ziggurat and Precinct of UR

- Palace of Persepolis (take note of characters, parts and ornaments)- Palace of Sargon (take note of the characters and ornaments)

PART 4. Pre-Columbian Architecture in America1. Central America

- Influenceso Geographical and Climatic

Central Mexico including parts of the Gulf Mexico, Oaxaca Region, Yucatan Peninsula, Southern Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala

These areas have little in common, the dry high plains of the northern portion and the tropical impenetrable rain forests of the south.

o Geological Almost all parts have excellent building stones In Yucatan, limestone could be easily worked or burnt for lime In Mexico, volcanic rock is abundant (including “tezentli”, a porous stone

ranging in color from black to crimson) which is much favored by Aztec builders

Throughout central/ middle America, adobe brick made of sun dried clay was widely used

The forest of the southeast provided hardwoodo Historical, Social and Religious (being familiar with the following is “enough” for this

subtopic) Olmec (the earliest civilization) – origin of great Mayan Culture of the

Yucatan region (early 600 BC) Pre-classic Maya (until 100 AD); Classic Maya (100-900 AD) and

Post-classic Maya (900-1525 AD) Teotihuacan Civilization (100 BC) came into being in Mexican Plateau; its

peak was in 150 – 350 AD Toltec founded Tula and extended through Central Mexico and into Maya

territory Tula was overthrown in 1170 and was subjected to a series of invasions until

the arrival of Aztec people in the 14th Century and founded the twin capitals of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco (present day Mexico City)

Throughout the region the most important God were those representing natural phenomena, the sun, moon, rain and corn.

The Toltecs worshipped Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent; Toltecs likewise introduced human sacrificed which later characterized the Aztec religion

The structure of Middle American societies were based on powerful ruling of priesthood, supported by a large peasant slave or population, and in essentials similar to that of Ancient Egypt.

Aztec Society was relatively complex and organized in number of distinct and separate classes- priests, warriors, merchants’ craftsmen and serfs; Aztecs are ruled by priest-King with absolute power, elected from the royal family by a council of priests and warriors.

- Architectural Characterso Most important building is the Temple Pyramid (please be familiar with character and

parts)o For all buildings, stone was employed either finely dressed or carved as laid through

dressed rubble. o In course works, little attention was paid to the staggering of vertical joints.o Stone facing panels, carved with formalized representations of jaguars, coyotes and

eagles occur in Toltec Work.o Geometric Patterns formed by projecting stones are found in Mitla suggestive of

woven designs and characteristics of the Mixtec-Zapotec culture.o Roofs were flat, windows were not used, and doorways were square-headed.o The true arch was known, but Maya worked the principle of corbelo Corbelled openings and vaults were common in Mayao Interior walls could be decorated with mural paintings in the Aztec and Mayan

periods- Examples (please take note of the character and parts)

o Pyramid of the Suno Citadel, Teotihuacan (you may use the world wide web to check on this)

o Temple of the Giant Jaguar, Tikalo Temple of the Warrior, Chichen Itzao Palace of the Governorso Buildings of Tenochtitlan o The Ballcourt, Chichar Itza, Mexico

2. Peru- Influences

o Geographical, Geologic and Climatic Consist of two geographic regions such as great mountain range of the

Andes and the narrow coastal strip between Andes and the Pacific Adobe is rich in the coastal region; adobe brick was the basic building

material. Three types of stones were generally used for important buildings (black

andesite, yucay limestone and diorite porphyry)o Historical, Social and Religious (this information may be “enough” as a review guide)

Influenced by Tiahuanaco There was a sense of political and religious unity in the area until it

collapsed in the 11th century. Relatively advanced civilization The Inca people of the central highlands settled in the Cuzco basin, where

they founded their capital. The Inca waged war against neighboring tribes until superiority was

conclusively established in the 15th century. Inca invaded the coastal region and conquered the powerful Chimues and

eventually extended their empire into central Chile to the South and Columbia to the North.

- Architectural Characters (this may be enough as a reviewer)o Coastal Area

Adobe brick was the prime material Roofs were sometimes gabled Opening was kept to a minimum Generally, the architecture was strong and simple forms Adobe bricks were made in a variety of shapes at different periods and

included conical, hemispherical and cubic forms Houses has generally one room, entered by a single door without windows Several houses belonging to different members of the family were grouped

around a central courtyard A typical village was made up of a number of houses grouped around

central courto Andes Mountain Range

Simple buildings were made of rubble. Sometimes bonded with clay Public buildings and fortress were made of dressed stones in a variety of

forms, including smooth ashlars, polygonal masonry of large irregular stone, and walling where edges of stones were beveled and their faces dressed into a cushion-like form

In all cases, stones were fitted together with great precision, their abutting faces probably being ground together with sand

In course work, little attention was given was paid to the staggering of vertical points

Rich external decoration was lacking in buildings in the highlands with exception at Tiahuanaco where decoration is found cut into the great andesite lintel of the Gate of the Sun

Roofs even in public buildings were covered with thatch but in some parts of highlands, corbelled roofs were sometimes used

- Examples (please take note of the character and parts)o Temple of the Sun, Tiahuanacoo Machu Picchuo Sacsahuaman

PART 5. Greek Architecture1. Introduction

- Influenceso Geographical and Geological (this may be enough as reviewer)

Includes island of Crete (great sea-power of the Mediterranean which flourished ten thousand years before the Greek civilization reached its peak); island of Sicily; present day Greece (Macedon, and Thessaly); and areas across the Aegean Sea such as Mycia, Lydia, Caria and Lycia.

Geography determined the fortunes of Aegean and Greek Cultures, for the rugged nature of Greek peninsula and its islands, with mountainous hinterlands which rendered internal communication difficult, made the sea inevitable means of intercourse.

The mountains of inland Greece separated the inhabitants into groups or clans, thus arose the rivalry which characterized the Greek states, whether in peace or war.

o Climatic (this may be enough as reviewer) Intermediate between rigorous cold and relaxing heat The clear atmosphere and intensity of light was conducive to the

development of that love of precise and exact form The administration of justice, dramatic representations, and most public

ceremonies took place in the open air, even in winter, and as a result, there is limited variety of public buildings other than temples

The hot summer sun and sudden winter showers, together with the Greek love of conversation probably explain the porticoes and colonnades

o Historical and Social (this may be enough as reviewer) Aegean (earliest time to 1,100 BC) – embraces the civilization of Crete and

the mainland Greece. The civilization expanded, developing empire protected by a naval power. Crafts, pottery and trade through coastal towns produced unity of culture and economic stability. During 1,600 BC, the whole Aegean culture achieved a power co-equal to Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilization. Women took part in social life and participated in most activities. There were no monumental class structures compared to Egypt and Mesopotamia. Aegean civilization declined after 1,500 BC. In about 1,450 to 1400 BC Knossos and other palace towns were destroyed and the civilization they represented collapsed in ruin. The destruction was widespread. Control of the sea thus passed to the mainland princes, who now existed in a sort of federation linked by ties of varying strength.

Mycenaean or Helladic Greece (1,400 -1,100 BC) –violence and conflicts between towns led to the fortifications of Mycenae. The absorption of Cretan ideas and the use of Cretan craftsmen produced continuity of

architectural character during Cretan supremacy and after its collapse. Citadel palaces became centers of small but powerful empire. About 1,300 BC the wealth of Helladic Greece towns began to decline. The Trojan War began and citadel palaces were destroyed. Some centers survived so that certain continuity of traditions and standards obtained to give rise to slow development through the age of Homer. Athens was one of such centers.

Hellenic Greece (80 – 323 BC) – The city state (Polis) emerge as the basis of Greek society. Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, the lack of political unity was countered by sort of federal unity derived from common language, custom and religion. The constricted setting of the city and its government dissatisfaction among expanding population led to emigration and eventually paved way to the rise of new cities which include Sicily and South Italy. Freed from homeland conservatism, colonial cities developed into remarkably developing and contributing unique expressions of Greek ideas and produced brilliant outburst of building and architecture. By 600 BC, the cities of Greece have settled down to their several forms of government- oligarchic, tyrannic and democratic. By the end of 6 th century BC, the tempo of events and ideas accelerated further. The disruption by war and the collective victory of Greek cities against Persian Empire paved way to the downfall of tyrannic governments and the development of democratic regimes based on elections. The growth of democracy synthesized the Greek achievement and eventually paved to the creation of Rules of Pericles which further paved way to prosperity and eventually resulted to tremendous outburst of building activity which expressed the ultimate development of Hellenic art and architecture.

Hellenistic Greece (323-30BC) – The fourth century saw sequence of attempts by city-states to dominate Greece. This was resolved into a federal system imposed by the Supremacy of Macedonia. In 359 to 336, under Philip, the unification of Greece was accomplished, and firmly established under his son Alexander the Great who then embarked on a national crusade against Persia. Within five years, he completely destroyed Persian Empire, annexing Egypt and penetrating Far East up to Punjab. The vast territory became a Hellenistic Empire through which Greek Civilization was extended. New and splendid city were founded of which Alexandria was to be the largest and most famous. As a result, the center of Greece shifted to east-politically, economically and artistically- the West declined in importance.

o Religious (this may be enough as reviewer) The religion of the Aegeans was a nature worship which went through a

series of primitive stages. Mysteries of masculine force were represented by a sacred bull, symbolized by “horns and consecration”. The supreme deity was the fertility or mother-goddess, Rhea, priestesses rather than priests conducted religious rituals. Worship centered on sacrificial altars, in open-air enclosures, caves, small chapels or household shrines. The religious ceremonies of the Aegeans included games and ritual dance.

The Greek religion was also a worship of natural phenomena and highly developed. The gods were personifications of particular elements, or were deified heroes, and each town or district has its own local preferences, ceremonies and traditions. There was no regular priesthood. Priest and priestesses were not members of an exclusive class but led the normal community life.

Greek Deities (the 12 Olympians)

Zeus The supreme god; ruler of the skyHera Wife of Zeus, goddess of marriageApollo God of law and reason, art, music and poetry; founder of

citiesAthena Goddess of wisdom and learningPoseidon God of the seaDionysus God of wine; feasting and revelryDemeter Goddess of earth and agricultureArtemis Goddess of the chasteHermes Messenger of godAphrodite Goddess of commerceHephaestus God of fire, flame and forge god of handicraftsAres God of warHeracles (Hercules) god of strength and labor pan, god of flocks

2. Aegean Architecture- Architectural Character

o Island People Aegean people are Asiatic in origin thus the buildings has flat roof typical to

eastern countries Flat roof allowed buildings to be drawn together, in large blocks and in

multi-multi storey Light wells are used to admit natural light Spacious stairway were developed Flat roofs form part of serviceable accommodation

o Mainland people Low-pitched roof Single-storey Megaron (take note of the character and parts)

o Common or General Traits of Aegean Architecture Houses and palaces are the principal building types Underground tomb were also present Buildings were constructed of rubble or cut stone to dado height Upper parts of buildings have heavy double frame of timber, the panel

being filled with sun-dried bricks or stone rubble. The walls were coated with stucco outside, and either tinted, or painted

with patterns inspired by framed construction which lay behind Gypsum (plenty in Crete) also served to make hard, polished floor and roof

deckings carried on rounded logs, or was used in slabs for similar purposes Masonry techniques was developed, particularly comprised of great boulder

like stones, used in fortifications, to coarse or fine ashlar of heavy blocks Methods of walling (please research for the illustrations)

Cyclopean Polygonal Rectangular Inclined Blocks

No mortar was employed; clay sometimes served for bedding in rubble or cyclopean works

False arches of heavy blocks, or of corbels was introduced Corbel method was normal for vaults and pointed domes

Square masonry pillar with bracket form of capital sometimes gave intermediate support on lower floors, but distinctive column was of cypress wood with a downward taper cylindrical shaft, a slight disc-like base and a widely projecting capital with two main parts (a square abacus above and a circular bulbous echinus (take note of the illustration and explanation about echinus)

- Examples (take note of the illustrations and parts)o Palace

The Palace in Tiryns Lion Gate in Mycenae

o Tombs Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae Dromos Tholos

3. Greek Architecture- Architectural Character

o Hellenic Period Temples are the chief building types; the earliest type resembled the

Aegean megaron (take note of the ways how the megaron characters were adopted)

Temple enclosures had propylaea, colonnades appear- surrounding the temple

The character was essentially columnar and trabeated Wooden roofs was untrussed, the rafters being supported by longitudinal

beam (research for illustrations) At first, Greek columns and their entablatures were entirely timber with

terra cotta decorations on the upper trabeation but were later converted into stone

On 600 BC, translation of timber forms imitated in marble was remarkably successful thus, Greek architecture sometimes has been called a “carpentry in marble”

Also on 600 BC, the walls became wholly of stone, yet the tradition of dado always survive in the special way the stones were arranged at the base of the walls

Ceilings are sometimes omitted Almost all kinds of stone walls were used from coursed rubble to ashlar,

well bounded but without mortar Stones were secured together by wrought iron cramps and dowels

protected by molten lead Optical Illusion were practice 3Orders of architecture developed (Doric, Ionic and Corinthian)

o Hellenistic Period This period provide much of the decorative inspiration of some Roman

building types This period of architecture mostly had been of religious character Civic design developed space, and entire group of buildings were laid on

symmetrical lines in orderly schemes, often linked by colonnade porticoes or stoas.

Town planning became normal Trabeated architecture, but arches began to appear over wall openings Advent of roof trusses The original purity of form of the orders was lost. Corinthian order is now mostly used Parts were interchanges on Doric and Ionic Doric or Ionic were superimposed in tiers when colonnade buildings were 2

storeys high

- Examples (take note of the plan and form characters, and parts; also, take note of the definitions)o Temples (take note of the types of temples as to number of columns on the entrance)

Parthenon Temple of Apollo, Corinth Temple of Apollo, Delphi Temple of Zeus, Olympia Temple of Illissus, Athens Temple of Nike, Apteros, Athens Temples of Apollo Epicurius

o Monuments Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens

o Theaterso Tombs

Nereid Monuments Sarcophagus, Cnidos Mausoleum, Halicarnassus

o Domestic Buildings o Public Buildings

Agora (Agora at Athens) Stoa Prythaneion Bouleutarion Odeion Stadium Hippodrome Palaestra Naval Buildings

- Terminologies (please take time to understand the following terms)/ and significant “evolutions”

o Dadoo Echinuso Cofferso Entasis (take note of the methods and ways aside from the definition)o Stoaso Exedraeo 5 Orders of Architecture (including “applications”, parts- terminologies and examples)o Propylaeao Temenoso Pinacothecao Acropolis o Crepidomao Pediment (take note of the parts)o Mutules

o Pedimento Acroterion o Tympanumo Corniceo Friezeo Architraveo Capitalo Shafto Stylobateo Triglypho Metopeo Tenia/ Taeniao Guttaeo Regulao Annuletso Tracheliono Hypotracheliono Entablatureo Antefixaeo Arriso Fluteso Abacuso Architraveo Atlantes and Telamoneso Plintho Filletso Dentilso Cymatiumo Caryatid and Canephorao Caucolio Anconeso Modilliono Greek Mouldings (take note of the types and cross sectional illustrations)o Bas-reliefo Auditorium or Cavea (take note of the parts and sub-terminologies)o Podium

PART 6. Roman Architecture1. Influences

- Geographicalo Within the periphery or region of Mediterranean Seao Multi-geographical (parts of Europe, Asia and Africa)

- Geologicalo Exploited the natural resources to the fullesto Romans could procure terra-cotta and bricko In neighborhood of Rome, Tufa (a type of building stone) was usedo Volcanic Stones from Mt. Albano was used o Travertine from Tivoli was usedo Lava, sand and gravel was also usedo Concrete was introduced

- Climatic

o North Italy has the climate similar to that of other European Countrieso Central Italy is genial and sunnyo Southern portion is tropicalo The variety of climatic condition is sufficient to account for diversity of architectural

features and treatment in the Italian Peninsulao Varying climate in Roman provinces produced local modifications in details although

Roman architecture was so pronounced and assertive as to leave little choice in general design

- Historical and Social o 753 BC, Rome was little more than significant hill town in South Etruria; it was under

Etruscan domination and ruled by Etruscan Kingso The declaration and development of a constitutional republic and civil service are

indicative of Roman Character; they were great organizer, thrifty, patient farmer-soldiers, dutiful to authority and the law, and concerned with efficiency and justice

o Romans began to conquer peoples outside Italy. The war had affected the Roman personality and constitutional government. Eventually, it experienced social and political concerns and people dissatisfaction. The acquisition of vast territory produce social imbalance and overwhelmed the system of government devised for a city state. These problems were further aggravated of maintaining large standing armies serving a long campaign in distant territories. A citizen “soldiery” had to be transformed into a professional army, the reform and control of which was exasperated ineffective republican government and gave rise to a succession of military dictatorship like the famous Julius Caesar.

o Social life of Romans is clearly revealed in their architecture- thermae for bathing and games, circuses for races, amphitheaters for gladiatorial contests, theaters for drama, basilica for lawsuits, state temples for religion, apartment house (domus) for family life, and forum for public life and national commerce.

o Amidst the diversity, one constant traits of Roman life is the capacity for obedience which was the basis alike to society and state

o Romans developed their capacity as lawmakerso Roman women were held in high respect, family life was protected

- Religiouso Polytheistic and fusion of several cultso Roman Gods acquired similar attributes to those of the Greekso Religious feelings was not so strong compared to Greekso Dissatisfaction on empire religion was visible in the introduction to Rome of alien

cults from Egypt and Near East2. Architectural Characters

- Etruscan Architectureo Etruscans, inhabitants of West-central Italy were great builders; their methods were

overtaken by the Romans.o They made remarkable advances in the organization of large scale undertakings

such as construction of city walls, sewers, the draining of the marshes and the control of rivers, and the cutting of channels to regulate water levels of lakes

o Introduced a new order of architecture, the Tuscano Towns were fortified with powerful stone walls (several feet thick)o No mortar was used in stone works or wallso City walls were largely partly burnt bricks lain in clay mortars

o Tombs were located outside the city walls on special necropolis sites. Tombs took the form of great conical tumuli, with stone burial chambers concealed with earthen mounds (majority were underground)

o Types of house are the “atrium”, made of sun-dried bricks, covered with terra-cotta tiled wooden roofs.

o Columns were sheathed with terra-coat.o Walls and columns were of stone throughout, as at all times were the high platforms

(podiums) or which the temples stood.o Temples were invariably frontal and usually faced southo Ordinary Burial and Cremation was practiced in Etruria. Sarcophagi of stone,

alabaster and terra-cotta were used in very large number

- Roman Architectureo Adapted columnar and trabeated style of Greekso Developed arches and vaults from the beginnings made by the Etruscanso Combined column, beam and arches is the keynote of the Roman style in its earliest

stageo In the collosseum piers was improved and faced by attached half columns that

support arches, which in their turn carry the entablature. o In aqueducts, the arch was supported on piers without the facing columno The orders of architecture were used by Romans as decorative features (unlike

Greeks which used it constructively)o Added ”Composite” order to the Greek Orders of Architectureo Architectural aims of Romans were utilitariano Romans introduced the “use” of several storeys on buildings which were frequently

ornamented as in the colosseumo Used of concrete promoted building economyo Roman walls, both of stone and concrete, are of special character (please take note of

the different types of walls such as opus quadratum, etc)o Stone arch was developedo Concrete vaults were also used (please take note of the process of construction and

types)o Three principal buttresses were used (please take note of the process of construction and

types)o The Pantheon at Rome, the finest of all illustrations of Roman construction,

embodies every form of Roman buttress (please conduct special “look” on Pantheon)3. Examples

- Etruscan Architecture (please take note of the form, plan and parts)o Etruscan Sarcophagio Atriumo Great Conical Tombo Cloaca Maxima, Romeo Arch of Augustus, Perugia o Temple of Juno Sospita, Lanuviumo Etruscan Tomb (Corneto-Tarquinia)o Necropolis Cerveteri

- Roman Architecture (please take note of the form, plan and parts)o Forums

Forum Romanum Imperial Forums Rorum of Trajan

o Rectangular Temples Temple of Fortuna, Virilis, Rome Temple of Mars, Ultor Rome Temple of Concord, Rome Temple of Castor and Pollux, Rome Maison Carree,Nimes Temple of Diana, Nimes Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Saturn, Rome Temple of Jupiter, Baalbek Temple of Bacchus Temple of Vespasian, Rome

o Circular and Polygonal Temples Temple of Vesta, Rome Temple of Vesta, Tivoli Temple of Portunus, Rome Pantheon, Rome

o Basilicas Basilica of Trajan, Rome

o Thermae Thermae of Caracalla

o Circuseso Tombs

Monumental Mausoleum of Augustus

Coemeteria Loculi Columbaria

o Triumphal Arches Arch of Titus, Rome Arch of Constantine, Rome

o Town Gateways and Archways Porte S. Andre

o Roman Houses Domus

House of Augustus House of Pansa, Pompeii

Villa Insula

o Aqueducts Segovia Aqueducts Pont du Gard, Nimes, France Bridge of Augustus, Rimini

4. Terminologies/ Significant sub-topic groupings- Dais, nave, apse (parts of Basilica)- Cella- Velarium- Mast - Loculi- Keystone- Soffit

- Spandrel- Quadriga- Peristyle- Atrium- Complovium- Prothyrum- Impluvium

- Lean- Tablinium- Fauces- Triclinium

- Cubiculum- Oecus- Mosaic- Fresco

PART 7. Early Christian Architecture (313-800 BC)1. Influences

- Geographicalo Christianity had its birth in Judea, an eastern province of the Roman Empire… and

was naturally carried by St. Peter, St. Paul and other missionaries to Rome, as the center of the world-empire.

o In spite of opposition and persecution, the new religion took root and grew until it became strong enough to become recognized universal religion of the whole Roman Empire

o Early Christian architecture in Rome was influenced by existing Roman art.- Geological (this may be enough as a reviewer)

o Geological influences maybe said to have acted indirectly rather than directly on early Christian architecture, for the ruins of Roman buildings often provided quarry where materials were obtained.

o The influenced style, both as a regards to construction and decoration, for columns and other architectural features as well as fine sculptures and mosaics from older buildings were worked into basilican churches of the new faith.

- Historical and Social (this may be enough as a reviewer)o The early Christian period generally taken as lasting from Constantine coronation of

Charlemagne.o Constantine changed the capital of the empire from Rome to Byzantium in 330

when the old Roman political system came to an end. The royal convert reigned as an absolute monarch until his death in 337

o The series of emperors in the west came to an end in AD 476, and the eastern and Western empires was nominally reunited by Zeno, who reined Constantinople.

o The emancipation of western Europe from direct imperial control resulted in the development of Romano-teofeonic civilization which facilitated the growth of new states and nationalities, gave a fresh impulse to Christianity, and eventually strengthened the power of bishops

- Religiouso Christianity has inspired the building of some of the greatest architectural

monumentso Unlike the temple of the old Greeks and Romans which were built to shelter the

statues of the gods, the purpose of the Christian Church was to shelter worshippers who met for a prayer and praise to unseen deity

o During unsettled conditions at the beginnings of Christianity, various places were adopted for this worship

o The individual worship during the Pagan times of Roman empire was suddenly replaced with “congregational” worship; thus the old Roman temples were abandoned and instead, the basilica which is originally a place for public gathering were adapted as the new edifice for Christian worship.

2. Architectural Character (have a copy of a typical plan and form of basilica and note the following characters)- Roman craftsman continued the old Roman traditions

- Early Christian buildings hardly have the architectural value, simply because, during the time of persecution, believers secretly used roman houses converted as place for worship (house church).

- But, when Christianity was accepted , the plan of a basilica was adopted- Basilican churches are rendered impressive and dignified by the long perspective of columns

which carry the eye along the sanctuary; a treatment which, combined with the comparatively low height of interiors, makes these churches appear longer than they really are

- An “arch of triumph” figurative of the transition through death to eternal life gave entrance to sanctuary with the high altar in the center standing free under its “baldachino” upheld by marble columns

- The vista was rounded off by an apse lined with marble slabs and crowned with semi-dome encrusted with glittering golden mosaics in which Christ appears surrounded by prophets, saints and martyrs

- Timber roofs covered the central nave and only simple forms of constructions, such as king and queen post trusses were employed

- The narrower side aisles were occasionally vaulted and the apse was usually domed- Walls were still constructed according to Roman methods of using hand-laid marble-

concrete faced with brick or stone and sometimes plaster. - Mosaic decoration was added internally and sometimes also externally on west facades;

through little regard was paid to external architectural effect (conduct further study on the different examples of mosaics as applied in Christian Basilican Churches)

- Introduction of “color” with the use of glass mosaics gave richness and mystery to interiors

3. Examples (take note of the plan, form and parts or spaces) - Christian Basilica

o Old St. Peter’s Basilican Church, Romeo St. Paolo Fuori Le Mura, Romeo St. Agnese Fuori Le Murao Basilica of St. Clemente, Romeo Basilica of St. Apollinaire, Ravenna

- Baptisterieso Baptistery of Constantine, Rome

- Tombso Tomb of Galla Pacidia, Rome

PART 8. Byzantine Architecture (330-1453)1. Influences

- Geographicalo Byzantium, renamed Constantinople after Constantine the Great, and later Istanbul,

was also called the “New Rome” was inaugurated as the capital of the Roman Empire in 330

o It stood at the junction of Bosphorus and the sea of Marmora, where Asia and Europe are divided only by a narrow strip of water. This gave commanding and central position for the government of the eastern and most valuable part of the Roman Empire

o Byzantine art pervaded all parts of Eastern Roman Empire and was carried by traders to Greece, Serbia, Russia, Asia Minor, North Africa and further west where it found in Venice, Ravenna and Perigueux.

o Venice , by its situation, was connecting link between the Byzantine and Frankish Empires, and a depot for merchandise from both east and west

- Geologicalo Constantinople had no good building stone, and local materials such as clay for

brocks and rubble for concrete were employed. Other materials more monumental in character had therefore be imported

o Marble was brought from quarries in the island along the shores of Eastern Mediterranean to Constantinople, which was the chief marble-working center and supplied all parts of Roman Empire

- Climatico Flat roofs for summer were combined with oriental domes, and these, with small

windows often high up otherwise unbroken walls, formed the chief features if the style, and sheltering arcades surrounded the open courts

- Historical and Socialo Byzantium was founded as a Greek colony in 660 BC and in 330 AD became the

capital of Roman Empire. New imperial buildings were executed by Greek craftsmen untrammeled by Roman traditions.

o On the death of Emperor Thedosius in 395 AD, the empire was finally divided and Byzantium continued to be the capital of the Eastern Empire, and throughout the middle ages was the bulwark of Christianity against the attacks of Slav barbarians on the west and of Moslem on the east

o Byzantium them faced conflicts with various empires, races or groups such as Persians, Moslems, Normans, Venetians, Turks, Ottoman Turks and others… as a result the spirit of the empire had fallen especially in Russia and in the Balkans

o However, Constantinople has continues up to the present as seat of a Patriarch of the Orthodox Church

- Religiouso In the year 313 AD, the Edict of Milan was issued which granted toleration of

Christians, and in 330 AD, Constantinople became the capital of the first Christian Empire. It follows that the chief buildings erected in the new capital were churches for the new Religion. At first, they were of the Basilican – Early Christian Type but later, the dominical Byzantine Style was developed.

o Byzantine architecture, devoid of statues has always been and still remains the official style of the Orthodox church of Greece and Eastern Europe which has conserved unchanged its doctrines and rituals.

2. Architectural Character- Development of dome to cover polygonal and square plans for churches, tombs and

baptisteries- Centralized (compacted plan)- Dome over pendentive (take note of the different dome designs)- Initially hand-laid concrete but progressively became more likely regular brickwork- Caprices in patterns and banding and internally it was suitable for covering with marble and

fresco decoration- The general use of brickwork necessitated special care in making mortar, which was

composed of lime and sand with crushed pottery, tiles or bricks- The decorative character of external façades dependent largely on the arrangement of the

facing brocks which are not laid horizontally, but sometimes obliquely, sometimes in form of the meander fret, sometimes in chevron or herring-bone pattern (please check the illustrations of these patterns)

- Fresco was likewise used3. Examples (take note of the form, parts and plans)

- Hagia Sophia, Istanbul- St. Mark Church in Venice- Gracanica Church- St. Sophia, Novgorod

4. Other important things/ terms to remember- Piazza- Centering- Three types and sub-types of domes- Fresco- Monolith shafts- Gymnaceum- Iconostasis- Atrium- Mosaics- cubiform- dosseret block

NOTE: please take note of the power point presentation on Church Architecture to learn more about the evolution of churches!

PART 9. Islamic Architecture1. Influences (this may be enough as a reviewer)

- Geographicalo Muslim faith flourished principally in the countries of Southern Asia and North Africao Spread of Islam has always been frequently associated with military conquest, racial

movements, and in some cases with the consequent displacement of established populations

o Most important movement is the Arab Expansion towards north and west to the Arabian Peninsula, and the drive of the Turkish and Mongol groups south, southwest out of Central Asia

o The resulting architecture very largely associated with religious civic complexes- Geological

o Islam expanded into countries with rich building tradition and the important techniques of exploitation of natural resources for building work and trade in building materials had long been established.

o Bricks making and pise’ walling was the almost universal in alluvial plaino In the stone bearing areas, the art of selecting and working stones were strongo Marble was generally available as an article for tradeo Building stones occur in varietyo Long tradition of ceramic production, use of gypsum plasters, glass manufacture and

various forms of metalwork needed for building (except for Lebanon, Northern Iran, the Balkans and parts of Asia Minor)

o Timber was of limited type and quality – in many areas, it was scarceo Earthquake is prevalent necessitating specialized structural techniques

- Climatico Much of the territory historically dominated by Islam tends to be fertile by virtue of

irrigation, rather than direct rainfallo The greater part of Moslem world lies in the grip of some form of continental

climate with extremes of temperature and modest rainfall

o Generally excessive sunshine has produced a tendency towards wide eaves and sheltering arcades, while window openings are minimized and rainwater disposal is neglected

o The cooling effect of the structures with very heavy walls and high rooms has been widely exploited

o Unprotected circulation areas are common- Historical

o The military “movement” of Mohammed to various places on what is now Moslem world is the prime mover of Islamic religion intensification

o The Islamic “bearers” was able to established a cultural tie with its Arabian heartland as a sacred duty to be annually renewed in the great pilgrimage to Mecca

o This cultural concentricity did much to unite the thought and architecture or the Islamic people

- Socialo Arab groups were tribal and their behavior patterns and cultural attributes were

based on traditions of the deserto As Moslem communities became stabilized over the succeeding centuries, clear

pattern emerged in which public life was reserved for meno Women played secondary role, almost inevitably assuming a major share of the

domestic and sometimes agricultural burdeno Only among nomadic groups did the Moslem world accept any degree of equality

between sexes in public life; for the rest, women’s place was in the private part of the house- the harem

o Men performed the significant public duties and controlled public affairs; and this social structure had direct architectural consequences in the layout of domestic and public buildings

- Religiouso Islam is the last of the three religions of the Middle Easto Its essence is contained in a simple sentence, which both the profession of faith and

the credo of its adherent There is only one God and his prophet is Mohammed The faith is held to be ultimate revelation of God’s will for creation It is a complete philosophy of life and government, and there is no

differentiation in Islamic thinking between religious and secular matterso Consequently, Islamic precept apply equally to all behavior and all buildingso Moslem thought is codified in three works

The Koran is regarded as revelation through the medium of prophet Mohammed

The Hadith is a collection of his sayings or injunctions and is of lesser weight The law is extracted from prophet’s instructions, from traditions and

exampleo The Islamic faith produced in successive generations of its followers a way of life and

a set of attitudes which had a great influence on their architecture An acceptance of the transitory nature of earthly life Personal humility An abhorrence of images worship

o The effect of these beliefs on Islamic Architecture can be seen in the following characteristics

There is no essential differentiation techniques between buildings with a directly religious connotation and other buildings

That important architectural endeavor is normally expected on buildings having a direct social or community purpose, including that of worship

That decorations tend towards abstract, using geometric, calligraphic and plant motifs, with preference for a uniform field of decoration rather than a focal element

That a basic conservatism discouraged innovations and favored established forms

2. Architectural Characters- Islamic Architecture is a product of major historic event – the rapid conquest of diverse

territories by people with no architectural tradition and the conquest synthesis of styles under one philosophy but in many circumstances

- The majority of Islamic buildings are fundamentally related to principal axis. This axis frequently extended into a formal landscape which is an integral part of the design

- While the prime axis was the KIBLA, the general concept was derived from the line of balance and symmetry implicit in the concept of perfect creation, as seen in gardens and buildings

- Islamic Architecture is fundamentally centered upon God. At its heart is the Mosque and inward-looking building whose prime purpose is contemplation and prayer. It is a space removed from the impact or worldly affairs. In mosque, there is no positive object of attention or adoration

- Mosque may serve many functions other than prayer. It may be a school, transactions may be made inside and treasures may be stored too. Official notices could also be given inside a mosque

- The earliest mosque consist of an open courts surrounded by arcades or by trabeated timber colonnade with flat roofs. An early innovation was the minaret, a tower from whose top the Muezzin gave the call to prayer

- The mosque is always conceived round an axis directly to Mecca, with the exceptions of the earliest instances, this axis is terminated in the inner face of the Mosque by the Mihrab- a niche where the leader of the congregation (the Imam) makes his prayers

- The courtyard which is so fundamental feature of the mosque is also in its several variations. - Courtyard is also the principal element of the other building types, the college, the hostel,

the palace, and the house.- Depending on function, the courtyard maybe cloistered or arcaded and the sides were

punctuated with gateways, prayer chambers or arched porches.- The other important element of Islamic building is the “single building cell”. At one extreme,

this might be the simple kiosk used in isolation as a little ornamental pavilion, emphasizing a roof or providing focus in a pleasure garden; it may take the form of a massive tomb, high and domed, or it may be repeated to form a cloister, terrace or court. It is an almost universal rule in Islamic building that each cell of a complex building is individually expressed, in plan and in volume.

- Rarely, except in domestic examples, is a concealing envelope wrapped around a multi-cellular construction

- All traditional construction techniques were employed, including baked and unbaked bricks, timber framing with block or plaster infill, rubble and worked stone. A wide variety of facings and castings were used.

- The technique of “Striated Masonry” (alternate bands of bricks and stone) was borrowed from Byzantium.

- The most important form of opening is pointed arch which is principally two-and four-centered and generally constructed as a true arch, though corbelled examples were common in India. (take note of the ways of constructing arches)

- Arches were generally tied

- Window openings were frequently small and traditionally closed with wooden shutters, iron bars, marble grilles or plaster light set with clear glass

- The construction of doors tended to be a complex for decorative reasons, and to depend upon the skillful assembly of a large number of small components

- The relieving arch was frequently used, often in conjunction with a lintel, when the lunette might be glazed or filled with a decorative panel.

- In Europe and Asia Minor, flat and pitched roof were normally constructed of timber- Stone slab roofs were largely confined in India and parts of Syria - Barrel vaulting or cross vaulting were widely used for minor spans, particularly for

caravanserais, bazaars, military works and cisterns- Domes (mostly pointed) were widely used (take note of the different types of Domes)- Persia, Mughal and Egypt used pointed domes while Turkish used hemispherical domes- Pitched roofs covered with Roman tiles were used in Mediterranean countries, while domes

were sheathed in India, ceramic tiles in Persia and Iraq, and lead in Asia Minor. - In Europe, flat roof were rendered, paved, sealed with bitumen or compacted clay- Ancient Greek and Roman columns were often reused by Moslems, and become models of

new works- Wide variety of mouldings and friezes were used (please conduct research on the different types

and examples - illustrations)- Friezes and cresting are often associated with mouldings

- The following extensive decorations techniques were used:o Arabesqueo Cresting to wallso Stalactite moulding and corbelling o Pointed arches (take note of the different forms such as pointed saracenic, horseshoe,

tudor, etc)o Muquarnaso Chamferingo bas-reliefo carvings

3. Examples- Arab Peninsula, Syria and Mesopotamia

o Kubbet-es Sakhra (The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem)o The Great Mosque, Damascus

- Egypt, North Africa and Tunisiao The DAR al-Irama and Mosque of IBN Tulun, Cairoo Madrassah and Tomb of Sultan Hasan, Cairo

- Spain and Western Africao The Great Mosque,Kairouan, Tunisiao The Great Mosque, Cordobao The Alhambra, Grenada

- Persia and Turkestan o The Tomb of Ismail, the Samanid and Bukharao Minare Medrese, Konya

- Turkeyo The Chinli Kiosk, Istanbulo The Suleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul

- Indiao Tomb of Iltutmisho Tomb of Humayun, Delhi

o The Tomb of Akbar, Sikandra, Agrao The Taj-Majal, Agra (please take note of the parts)

- Islamic Vernacular Architectureo Beehive village near Alleppo, Northern Syriao Shibam, Hadramaut, Saudi Arabiao Kasbah, Air Ben Haddon, Morocco

4. Terminologies- Building Types

o Masjid (Persia, India) mosqueo Jami: mosque, principal place of worship, or use of the building for Friday prayerso Masjid (Turkey): small prayer houseo Madrassah (Egypt)o Medrese (Turkey): Religious college and mosqueo Saray, Serai: palace

- Building Components o Nihrab: niche oriented towards Meccao Mimber: Raised platform for ceremonial announcementso Iwan, Ivan (Persia): open-fronted vault facing on to a courto Bab: gatewayo Sahn: courtyard of a mosqueo Minaret: tower from which call to prayer is madeo Selamlik: men’s or quest’s quartero Harem: women’s or private quarters of a house or palaceo Kibla, kibble: axis oriented towards Meccao Chttri (India): Kiosk

- Personnelo Muenzzin: caller who summons the faithful to prayero Imam man who leads the congregation at prayero Calipin: successor to the prophet as military, judicial and spiritual leader of Islam

- Otherso Take note of the typical Mosque elevations and parts