History and Techniques of Enameling before 1600By Baintighearna Ruadhnait inghean Ruaidhri

(mka. Brenda Tighe)

Fig 1 Reliquary Casket, 1200 AD, France

Since it’s early beginnings, enameling has developed into a complex and diverse means of adding decoration to everything from reliquary objects to buttons. In modern times, enameling has become an art in and of its self, but it began as a means of mimicking precious stones.

Enameling at its most basic level is the fusing of a thin layer of glass to metal, by means of intense heat, to create a long-lasting finish that will retain its color for centuries. Enamels are comprised of relatively soft glass, a compound of flint or sand, red lead, and soda or potash. This mixture, when melted together produces a clear, slightly blue or green tinged glass called flux or frit—or, in France, fondant. The degree of hardness of the resultant glass is dependent upon the proportions of ingredients. Harder glass fires at higher temperatures (~1600°F) and is more durable than very soft glass, which fires at far lower temperatures (~1300°F) and is vulnerable to breakage and erosion. The colors of enamel are achieved by the addition of various metallic oxides and minerals when the flux mixture is in a molten state. For instance, copper oxides produce green colored enamels, while iron oxides make red enamels and cobalt makes blue enamels. Translucent and opaque enamels are produced by the addition of calx, a mixture of tin and lead calcined. White enamel is produced by adding stannic and arsenious acids to the flux, the quantity of the acid affecting the density, or opacity, of the enamel (Art- Enamelling). To make enamels the desired pigments are added to the ingredients for the frit and fired into cakes of approximately 4-5 inches in diameter. Each cake is then pulverized into powder, and then washed repeatedly until the run-off is clear. The powdered enamel is then spread out onto sheets to dry.

For most of the SCA period there were two main types of enameling “cloisonné” which originated in the area around the Mediterranean Sea, and “champlevé” which originated in Northern Europe. Cloisonné uses wires to create compartments, called ‘cloisons’ to create a pattern and to keep the different colors of glass from blending together or ‘bleeding’. Champlevé is the exact opposite in that the artisan digs down into the base metal to create channels to create patterns and prevent bleeding. These two basic techniques have given rise

to a number of diverse styles of enameling including, basse-taille, and plique-a-jour. In the 15th

century, enamellists began to draw from the painterly techniques, and derived painted enamels (Limoges technique) and grisaille.

Early History in the MediterraneanLong before the first enamels were made glass had been used to make beads and vessels, but cloisonné (the earliest form of enameling) owes its beginnings to the jewelers of ancient Egypt, who cut glass and inlaid it into gold filigree to create the beautiful pieces demanded by the Pharaohs. The cloisonné and filigree techniques used by the Egyptians predate the first enamels by nearly 30 centuries (Michaelides) Filigree work using cloisons to separate and hold gems, pieces of shell and glass had become a very refined art, by the time the earliest known enamels were made in the 12-13th century BC. Some of the most impressive pieces using this technique are those found

Fig 2 Ring, 14th century BC, Cypress in the digs from the tomb of Tutankhamun. His burial mask is well known to people today and is a fine example of the Egyptian goldsmith’s skill. The Egyptian pieces do not represent true enamels as the cut glass that was used in them was held in place by means of adhesives, prongs or bezels.

Not until some unknown craftsman in Cypress discovered that glass would adhere to metal when fired at high temperatures, and began using this method, were the first true enamels made (Maryon, 170). .

The earliest known examples of vitreous enamels were 6 gold rings discovered in the tomb at Kouklia in Mycenaean that date to the 13th century BC, and a gold scepter and an orb discovered in the tomb at Kourion that date to the 11 th

century BC. The glass used in these pieces was most likely very carefully cut to fit into a pre-made filigree pattern of twisted gold wires, and then fired (Maryon, 170; Michaelides).

Unfortunately, very few relics remain to us today to make a testament to the early development of this technique. It is fairly certain that enameling spread from Cypress into Greece and from there into Europe, the Middle East and Asia, but there is a large gap of time between these earliest artifacts and pieces found of Greek manufacture dating to the 6th-3rd

centuries BC. Fig 3 Golden Scepter, 11th century BC, Cypress

Western EuropeWhile cloisonné enameling was spreading throughout the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, the Celts of Northern Europe were developing their own technique of enameling. Champlevé enameling is in many ways the exact opposite of cloisonné enameling. In this technique, channels are gouged or cast out of a base metal to create recesses for the glass. Copper or bronze were more often used as base metal for this technique, due to the need for thicker backing material that could be cut away or cast to create channels. These pieces were often gilded to create the appearance of gold once finished. It is uncertain how much influence the enameling techniques of the southern peoples may have had

Fig 4 Reliquary Box, c. 1250-1300, on the early Celts development of enamel decoration, but we Limoges, France do know that by the time Caesar’s troops conquered the British Isles the use of enameling to decorate everything from horse trappings to household items was commonplace.

The Birdlip mirror, a bronze mirror buried with its owner near Gloucester, England in approximately 50 AD, is comprised of chased and worked curvilinear patterns. Traces of red enamel can still be found in protected recesses of the design. (Art. Birdlip Mirror) Philostratus, of the 2nd century AD, describes a boar hunt at which the riders appear with horse trappings ornamented in bright colors, “It is said that the barbarians in the ocean [i.e., the Celtic tribes] pour these colors into bronze moulds, that the colors become as hard as stone, preserving the designs.” (EBO-4) This quote would seem to indicate that the process of enameling was unfamiliar to the writer and was not in practice in Italy or Greece during this time period. The use of champlevé enameling remained quite common in Northwestern Europe, until the 12th century.

The Sutton Hoo boat burial dating to the 7 th century AD, represents a vast treasure trove of early enamels. Of these, ornaments on the hanging bowls (most likely of Celtic manufacture) represent some of the most intricate champlevé work of the period (Sutton Hoo art. 2).

The champlevé technique remained the dominant form throughout Western Europe for the majority of the medieval period, and the cloisonné technique fell completely out of use there by the end of 12th century.

Fig 5 Champleve Medallions, 7th Century, Celtic

ByzantiumEnameling is found in Byzantium dating from the 6th

century, and the techniques of Byzantine artists were being copied by Lombardy artisans as early as the 7th

century and were later copied by artisans in Italy and Sicily. The famous Alfred Jewel, made to the order of the English king Alfred the Great in the 9th century AD, shows strong Byzantine influence. (EBO-7)

The cloisonné technique used by the Byzantine craftsman differed from that of their western neighbors in that it was invariably executed on thin sheets of gold. The pattern outline was often chased into the gold and then cloisons were built into the channels created in the backing material.

The artifacts most commonly found are of a religious nature, primarily crucifixes and miniatures of saints. Fig 6 Cross Pendant, ca. 1080–1130, ConstantinopleThe 10th-11th centuries represent the hey-day of Byzantine enameling. The masterwork of the era is widely held to be the alter screen “Pala d'Oro” in St. Mark's, Venice. It is believed to have been brought from Constantinople to Venice about 1105. (EB0-7) Byzantine enamels were traded widely and can be found as far away as Italy and France. By the 12 th century the quality of Byzantine enamels was on the decline.

Fig 7 Pala d’Oro, 1105, Constantinople

Eastern EuropeArtifacts variously dated from the 2nd-9th centuries BC were found in a cemetery in the Kuban (near the Caucasus). The oldest of these artifacts (variously dated from the 7th-8th century BC), known as the “Maikop belt buckle”, is now thought by Russian experts to be a forgery (EBO-5). Given the other artifacts found at the site the emergence of enameling in southern Russia dates to the 2nd-3rd century BC. Enameling gained popularity during the Kievan Rus period (862 AD-1200 AD) and Russia remains the home of some of the most fabulous enamels known to us today. The enameling of the

Fig 8 Temple pendant, 1000-1200 AD, Kiev Kievan Rus period is executed in a very similar manner to Byzantine enamel work of the time period.

The Middle EastSome scholars state that there is very little evidence of the use of enameling within the Islamic cultures before 1600 AD. (EBO-13); however Sultan Hasan (reigned 1344–51 AD and 1354–61 AD) of Cairo, is known to have commissioned hundreds of enameled lamps for his mosques. (Lane-Poole, 221) These lamps were suspended by chains and filled with oil to illuminate the mosque. The style of these lamps was very similar to that practiced in Byzantium. Those scholars who doubt that these artifacts were manufactured within the Islamic culture believe that they were commissioned from Byzantine workshops. (EBO-5).

FFig 9 Mosque Lamp, c. 1360, Egypt

The Far EastAlthough it is fairly certain that the Chinese were introduced to the concept of the manufacture of glass as early as the 5th century AD, the earliest enameled artifact of Chinese manufacture dates to the T'ang dynasty (618–907). This artifact, a silver mirror with a back decorated in cloisonné enamels and most likely of Chinese manufacture, is now housed in the Shoso-in (principal storehouse) at Nara, Japan represents the only piece that can be dated to earlier than the 14th century. The reign of the last emperor of the Yu’an period (1333-68) ushered in the true beginnings of enameling in the Far East. The finest works of this time period came slightly later during

Fig 10 Tripod Incense Burner, c. 1400-50 AD, China the Ming period (1368-1644 AD). The bold designs and clarity of color produced by the Ming artisans remains unsurpassed.

The Development of New TechniquesItalian artisans created a new technique called “basse-taille” in the 13th century. This technique consists of first creating a low-relief sculpture sunken below the surface level, and then covering the whole in transparent enamel. This both magnifies and protects the design. The earliest known piece date from 1290, a gold chalice made for the Convent of St Francis of Assisi, but references to this technique date as early as 1286. Relief patterns were created by either carving, casting or chasing the backing material. In the 14th century the most common means of creating the relief sculpture over which to create basse-taille enamels was by chasing the backing material. Due to the nature of the technique, it was not necessary for the person doing the chasing to have a great deal of skill in the technique (Maryon, 186-7).

Fig 11 Reliquary Pendant, c 1370-90, France

Plique-a-jour enameling is a direct descendant of the cloisonné technique, wherein a network of wires is shaped and soldered together to create a framework for the enamels. In plique-a-jour, however, the framework and enamels do not have a backing. The pieces are created either using a backing material that the enamels will not fuse to (ie. Mica or Aluminum-bronze) or a resist material (usually clay slip) is used to coat the backing material. (Cellini, 13-14) This creates the effect of a miniature stained glass window. It’s beauty is derived both from the intricacy of the it’s wirework and the luminescence of the glass as light passes through it. The oldest recorded piece of plique-a-jour enameling was created in the 13th century. Unfortunately, due to the delicacy of pieces created with this technique, there is only one piece created before 1600 that remains to us today. The Merode Cup (Fig 15) dates to the 15th century, and is now housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Up to this point, enameling was in many ways simply a part of the jeweler’s craft. In the 15th century, artisans began to draw on the painterly techniques of the time and developed a completely new art form, painted enamels. In all of the centuries that came before, artisans has always sought to separate and define the colors of enamels by the use of metal frameworks and channels. It was probably Flemish artisans who originally developed the technique and it was later developed by Venetian artisans, but by the 16th century the workshops of Limoges were the undisputed masters of painted enamels. (EBO-1) So much so, that even today painted enameling is often referred to as “Limoges work”. Painted enamels are executed by first firing a layer of white or other light colored enamel on

both the front and back of a panel. Enamels are then mixed Fig 12 Deposition in the Tomb, late 15th/early 16th

with a small amount of lavender oil to create thin vanishes. Century, Limoges

which can then be applied in the same manner as other paints. These panels are then fired repeatedly, as layer upon layer of enamels are built up to create depth and luminescence in the

composition. Painted enamels have the advantage of durability over their oil or tempura counterparts, as their colors do not fade over the centuries. The painted enamels of the 15th century are as vibrant and colorful today as they were the day they were fired; however, they are limited by the size of the kilns or furnaces available in which to fire them.

Summary of Enameling Techniques

CloisonnéThe word cloisonné comes from the Old French meaning ‘cloison’ meaning room or partition. Cloisonné enameling uses a framework of wires to define spaces, called ‘cloisons’, to create a pattern within the define and to separate the different colors of enamels. These wires are then either soldered into place or held static by the glass itself.

Cloisonné is the earliest form of enameling, dating from the 13th century BC. It originated in Cypress, and spread from there into Greece. Cloisonné was widely used through out the medieval time period and was developed extensively by the artisans of Byzantium and later by

Fig 13 The Kingston Brooch, 7th century, England those in Russia. In the , and gave rise to the plique-a-jour technique in the 14th century.Braided Cloisonné enameling uses the same techniques, but uses braided or twisted wire to make the cloisons.

Champlevé

The word champlevé is derived from the French words ‘champ leve’ meaning raised field. Champlevé enameling creates recesses for enameling by etching, carving, casting or chasing the backing material. Because of the need to remove or mould large amounts of material, this technique was typically done on less expensive materials, such as copper or bronze. It was quite often gilded once the enameling was done to give the appearance of gold. Champlevé enameling was invented and widely used by the Celts in northern Europe. It is uncertain when this technique was developed, but it was in use by the 3rd century BC, and

Fig 14 Chariot Trappings, c 200-400 AD, by the time Julius Caesar’s troops invaded the British Isles Provincial Roman it was being used widely and was to become the dominant form of enameling in western Europe.

Plique-a-jourPlique-a-jour means ‘braid letting in daylight’. Plique-a-jour uses the same techniques as cloisonné, except that once fired the enamel and wires are removed from the backing they are fired on, creating a stained glass window effect in miniature. This technique was developed in the late 14th- early 15th century in France. Due to the delicacy of this technique only one extant example is in existence today. The Mérode cup now housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum dates from the 15th Century and is thought to be of Flemish or Burgundian origin.

Fig 15 The Merode Cup, 15th century, French

Basse Taille

Basse taille comes from the French meaning ‘low cutting’. Basse taille uses the same basic techniques as champlevé, except that instead of making simple channel cuts in the base metal create a low relief sculpture that is made at a slightly lower depth than the outmost rim. The relief sculpture is created either through carving, chasing or casting. In the 14th century, it was most common for the sculptures to be created by chasing. The recess is filled with transparent glass, which magnifies the relief sculpture under it. This

technique originated in the 13th century in Italy.

Fig 16 Valve of Mirror, c 1350, France

Encrusted enameling (or émail en ronde bosse)

Encrusted enameling is used on 3-dimensional objects. This technique uses innovative methods of wrapping the piece to prevent distortions during the firing process, including elaborate armatures and packing the piece in plaster of Paris. This technique originated in the mid-16th century, and although it was quickly put into practice throughout Europe, Benvenuto Cellini of Florence was the only artisan to have written a technical treatise on the subject.

Fig 17 Saltcellar. 1540, Benvenuto Cellini, Florence

Painted enamels

Painted enamels draw from the painterly techniques of the time, and differ from other enameling techniques in that it does not use strips of metal to prevent the blurring or mixing of colors. Transparent enamels were mixed with oil, and applied to a backing that had been first coated with a layer of white enamel. The piece was fired many times to create the shading and variation in colors. This technique is believed to have been created by Flemish artisans for the Burgundian court in the early 15th century, but the artisans of Limoges are so noted for this style that it is often referred to as ‘Limoges technique’.

Fig. 18 The Annunciation, c 1500, Limoges, France.

GrisailleGrisaille comes from the French "gris" meaning gray. Grisaiille enameling is a painted enamel that is done on a black enameled backing, and the patterns are executed by coating the plate with a layer of white enamel. Before the plate is fired, the white enamel is scratched through to reveal the black layer beneath it. The design is outlined and areas are crosshatched to create shading. The result after firing is a layer of gray enamel over black outlines. This process

is repeated to create a low relief wherein the white parts of the design are

Fig 19 The Wedding Feast of Cupid composed of several layers of white enamel glaze. This and Psyche, 1558 Pierre technique originated in the early 16th century in Limoges.Reymond

In ConclusionOver the centuries enameling has evolved from its very humble beginnings as a simple piece of glass glued to a piece of jewelry. It has developed into an independent artform, and has given rise to many different genres of enamels. The concept has spread into nearly every country and culture, and has adapted to the cultural aesthetic of each culture.

Today, it is common to find enamelwork in everything from keychains and figurines to architectural elements in people’s homes and Faberge eggs.

Photo Notations and Credits1. Enameled Casket depicting Christ in majesty, surrounded of the Virgin, apostles and

angels, 1200 AD, the Municipal Museum of Evêchéhttp://www.premiumwanadoo.com/sahl/document.htm

2. One of 6 gold rings found in the tomb of Kouklia, Cyprus, 14th century BCThe Earliest Cloisonne Enamels from Cyprus by Dr. Panicos Michaelides; Glass on Metal, Volume 8, Number 2, April 1989

3. The scepter found in the tomb of Kouklia, Cyprus, 11th century BCThe Earliest Cloisonne Enamels from Cyprus by Dr. Panicos Michaelides; Glass on Metal, Volume 8, Number 2, April 1989

4. Reliquary casket, c. 1250-1300, France, Limoges, Champlevé enamel on copper, 3-5/8 x 3-1/8 x 1-3/4 in. (9.0 x 7.7 x 4.2 cm), Kimball Art Museum, Fort Worth, TXhttp://www.kimbellart.org/database/index.cfm?detail=yes&ID=AP%201979.27

5. Champleve enameled medallion from a hanging bowl, Sutton Hoo boat Burialhttp://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ3924

6. Cross Pendant, ca. 1080–1130, Byzantine; Made in Constantinople, Gold and enamel worked in cloisonné; H. 1 1/8 in. (2.9 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NYhttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/byza/ho_1998.542.htm

7. Pala d’Oro, 1105, Constantinople, currently in St. Mark's, Venice.http://www.antiquorum.com/vox/june_2002/enameling/enameling.htm

8. Temple Pendant with Two Birds Flanking the Tree of Life, ca. 1000–1200 AD, Kievan Rus'; Kiev, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NYhttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/07/eue/hod_17.190.679.htm

9. Mosque lamp, c 1360, Egypthttp://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/online/islamic/figural1a.htm

10. Tripod Incense Burner, about 1400-50 AD, Cloisonné enamel on gilt-bronze, 19 cm width, Compton Verney Gallery, Warwickshire, Englandhttp://www.comptonverney.org.uk/?page=collections/china/tripodIncense.html

11. Panel-The Deposition in the Tomb, late 15th-early 16th century, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russiahttp://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/04/2005/hm4_1_110_0.html

12. Reliquary Pendant portraying Saint Catherine of Alexandria, silver gilt and basse-taille enamel, c. 1370-90, Louvre Museum, Paris, France. (Phillips, plate 55)

13. The Kingston Brooch, cloisonné enamels, garnets, shell, 7th century, Liverpool Museum, Irelandhttp://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/wml/humanworld/antiquities/anglosaxon/kingston_brooch.asp

14. Chariot Trappings, 200-400 AD, Provincial Roman, possibly Thrace, Metropolitan Museum, New York, NYhttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gaul/ho_2000.505a-o.htm

15. The Merode Cup, 15ht century, France, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, England

http://www.vam.ac.uk/images/image/4427-popup.html16. Valve of Mirror, c 1350, France, Louvre Museum, Paris, France

http://www.insecula.com/oeuvre/O0007811.html

17. Saltcellar of Francis I, encrusted enamel and gold, by Benvenuto Cellini, 1540www.answers.com/topic/benvenuto-cellini

18. The Annunciation, enamel painted on copper (width 11.2 cm x height 18 cm), c 1500, Limoges, France, private collectionhttp://www.vam.ac.uk/images/image/13409-popup.html

19. The Wedding Feast of Cupid and Psyche, 1558, Pierre Reymond (French, 1513–after 1584), Enamel on copper; 19 3/4 x 15 1/4 in. (50 x 38.5 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/valo_2/hod_1984.195.htm

Bibliography-Benjamin, Sarah; Enamels; Cooper-Hewitt Museum, 1983.Cellini, Benvenuto, translated by Ashbee, C.R., The Treatises of Benvenuto Cellini on Goldsmithing and Scupture; Kessinger Publishing, 2006Lane-Poole, Stanley; The Art of the Saracens in Egypt; Chapman and Hall, limited; 1886Liban, Felicia and Mitchell, Louise; Cloisonne Enameling and Jewelry Making; Dover, 1980.Maryon, Herbert; Metalwork and Enamelling; , 1971.Michaelides, Panicos Dr.; The Earliest Cloisonne Enamels from Cyprus; Glass on Metal, Volume 8, Number 2, April 1989Phillips, Clare; Jewelry; From Antiquity to the Present; Thames and Hudson, 1996Strosahl, Patrick, Strosahl, Judith Lull, and Barnhart, Carol L; A Manual of Cloisonne and Champleve Enameling; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1981.

On-line resources:Patrizzi, Osvaldo, A Brief History of Enameling, Vox Antiquarum, parts I & II

1- http://www.antiquorum.com/vox/june_2002/enameling/enameling.htm 2- http://www.antiquorum.com/html/vox/vox2003/enameling/enameling.htm

Encyclopedia Britannica Online articles:(EBO) 1- Enamelwork 15th century to the present: European- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74081 2- Enamelwork China- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74082 3- Enamelwork- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108354 4- Enamelwork Western European- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74080 5- Enamelwork, Ancient Western- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74076 6- Enamelwork, Basse-taille- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74071 7- Enamelwork, Byzantine- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74078 8- Enamelwork, Champlevé- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74070 9-Enamelwork, China, Champlevé- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-7408410-Enamelwork, China, Cloisonné- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-7408311-Enamelwork, Cloisonné- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-7406912-Enamelwork, Encrusted enameling- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-7407313-Enamelwork, Islamic- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-7407914-Enamelwork, Japan- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-7408615-Enamelwork, Materials and techniques- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-7406816-Enamelwork, Painted enamels- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-7407417-Enamelwork, Plique-à-jour- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74072

The Birdlip Mirror-http://www.gloucester.gov.uk/Content.aspx?urn=1278

The Sutton Hoo Boat Burial-1-http://www.suttonhoo.org/2-http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ3924

“Enamelling”, T he Household Cyclopedia http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/enamelling.html

“Arts of the Islamic World- Abstract Design”, National Museum of Asian Art http://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/online/islamic/figural1a.htm