8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

1/38

Lecture 1 Aristotle's Cosmos-Based on our experience...

-The heavenly bodies revolve around the Earth-The heavens don't fall or recede from us

-Therefore, the earth is at the center of the universe and the heavens move around the

center-On Earth, motions are either downward (toward the center or upward(away from thecenter

-Example! "tone falls up, smo#e rises up-On Earth, rotational motion of a body is not natural, it is a forced motion-There is no chan$e in the heavens! the only chan$e is displacement or the motion of theheavenly body, this motion is circular and uniformterrestrial re$ion! place of chan$e, $eneration, and corruption that has % basic elements!Earth, water, air, and &re that are arran$ed based on their property of $ravity-"ince the nature and motion of the heavens are dierent, their substance is also dierent

-eavens are composed of the )th element called the aether(ether-*ccordin$ to *ristotle, there are + dierent! re$ions, substances, concepts of motion,concepts of chan$e, physical constitutions, physical behaviors

Epistemology/Logicsyllo$ism! a deductive scheme of a formal ar$ument consistin$ of a maor and a minorpremise and a conclusion

Example! all men are mortal --> "ocrates is a man --> "ocrates is mortal-The purpose of this philosophical scheme was to understand in the most fundamental waywhat thin$s were and why they behaved as they did

Medieval Europe-The population of Europe as a whole rose / between %00 and 1000*$ricultural 2evolution!Innovations

1 heavy plow! eliminated the need for cross plowin$, but need oxen to pull it, butincreased

a$ricultural production by allowin$ the farmer to cultivate the wet cow lands.3onse4uences! expensive so that led to collective ownership and communal

a$ricultureand animal husbandry which solidi&es manorial system

+horse! used instead of an ox, faster, more enduranceEect! allowed for lar$er villa$es, more diverse, better villa$e life, decreased

cost oftransportin$ $oods

&eld rotation system! arable land divided into &elds with plantin$s rotatedover a year

cycle! + seasonal plantin$s (winter5sprin$ with one fallowEect! replaced two &eld farm system of the 6editerranean, sprin$ crop of

ve$$ies

made peoples diets better and increased productivity / to )0/100! population of Europe (to the 7ral 6ountains rose to 89 million from a low +: million in:00

6ilitary *airs1stirrup! provide stability, made it so all horseman could &$ht on horse(ori$inallydeveloped by 3hinese+mounted shoc# combat! new style of warfare where momentum replaced muscle

-This &t in well with the manorial system caused by the *$ricultural 2evolution

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

2/38

-#ni$ht replaced peasant -soldier, bein$ a #ni$ht is a full time ob-feudal relations! vassal #ni$hts pled$ed loyalty and their arms to a hi$her feudal lord

for part of the lord's domain

;urin$ the 6iddle *$es, European societies had a decentrali>-The "eventh 3rusade started in 1+80

-6edieval Europe became the &rst $reat civilislamic world

 Adelard o! *ath"&&&+ - &&$,! translated Euclid's Elements and other *rabic mathtets

Gerard o! Cremona "&&&$ - &&.): most noted translator, traveled to "pain to &nd=tolemy's

 Algamest and translate 0 other wor#s

by 1+00! Europeans recovered much of current science alon$ with the second centuries ofscienti&c and philosophical accomplishment produced within the >slamic world

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

3/38

cienti0c 1enaissance1+th century! period of translation1th century! period of assimilation where the educated in Europe be$an to absorb thescienti&c5philosophical traditions of anti4uity5medieval >slamThomas A2uinas "&,,$ - &,.$! his $reat intellectual synthesis completed theassimilation

- made it so *ristotle provided a complete intellectual system where scholars4uestioned thou$hts about od, man, and natureThe Divine Comedy! famous poem by >talian poet ;ante *li$hieri about the vision of thecosmos

-Earth is motionless and &xed at the center of the world-Earth has % elements and their natural5violent motions provides settin$ for drama-ell at center, pur$atory in the middle, paradise is beyond

->nstitutional con?icts compounded the intellectual problems of assimilatin$ *ristotle intostandard theolo$y

=roblems of 2enaissance!1 the eternity of the universe+ problems of the soul problems of cause and eect

3ondemnation of 1+88! Bishop of =aris, "tephen Tempier prohibited the teachin$ of +19philosophical and theolo$ical theses held by *ristoleians and people who believed5tau$ht itwould be excommunicated

 3ean *uridan "&,#. - &(%): Drench priest who founded the 3opernicus revolution inEurope developed the 1st concept of impetus, &rst step towards inertia, proectile motion4icole 5resma"&(, - &(+,): Drench man famous for criti4ue of several *ristotle's claims,considered the $reatest medieval economist, uniformly accelerated motion, wrote On theConfguration o Qualities(1350, created $raphs to represent 4ualities and 4ualitativechan$e $eometrically1oert Grosseteste"&&+ - &,%(): founder of the tradition of scienti&c thou$ht inmedieval Oxford, ar$ued for active investi$ations of nature1oger *acon" &,&% - &,#,): one of the earliest advocates of the modern scienti&cmethod, proposed that human in$enuity ou$ht to be applied to the creation of usefulmechanical devices

 3oradanus de 4emore "&,,-6): mechanical 4uestions about statics and a science ofwei$ht7ildegard o! *ingen "&# - &&.#): woman who served in positions of authority asabbesses and collected useful information, wrote about thelo$y, medicine, most importantwoman of the 6iddle *$es

->nterruption in European prosperity due toBlac# ;eath! sweepin$ Europe in 1%8 - 1% and wiped out a 4uarter to a third of

the population-removal of papacy from 2ome to *vi$non which bro#e 3hristian unity-undred ears Far-=easant revolts, social unrest

1evolution in 8ar Technologies -cannons and sailin$ ships

$unpowder revolution (100 - 1:)0-made it so weapons were desi$ned more in response to tactical demand-undermined military roles of #ni$hts5lords and replaced them with $unpowderarmies5navies &nanced by the $overnmentlar$e cannon! developed in Europe in 110-1+0

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

4/38

-mus#ets developed in 1))0s-trace italienne! made due to the fact cannons could ta#e down castles, wereearthen ramparts studded with star-shaped masonry bastions, allowed a defender tora#e the attac#in$ formations

6ilitary 2evolution!-Fave of European colonialism and the be$innin$s of European $lobal con4uest

 3oan o! Arc "&$&, - &$(&): had a $ood s#ill of placin$ artillery on the &eld,exempli&es transition in military5tech historyEects!1 shifted power from local feudal authorities to centrali

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

5/38

-*n explosion of anatomical research in the 2enaissance may be attributed to thisneed in the artistic community

 -Throu$h the wor# of Leon *attista Alerti "&$$ - &$.,) and Alrechturer"&$.&-&%,)

artists learned to practice math rules $overnin$ perspective Andreas

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

6/38

Copernicus-attempted to &nd out the position of the Earth, and eliminate the e4uant, believed that the"un was the center of the universe-Three maor discoveries!

1 put planets in motion around the "un includin$ the Earth

+attributed rotational and revolution motion to planetsattributed +.) de$rees tilt to Earth-solved lon$ lastin$ philosophies, but people didn't accept model because there was nophysical observational evidence to prove this

-problem of stellar parallax undermined its appeal too because 3opernicus did notobserve any

stellar parallax! dierence in position of a star as seen from Earth and "un-fallin$ bodies don't appear to be left behind as the earth alle$edly moves-reli$ious obections that heliocentrism contradicted Bible passa$es

-explained retro$rade motion, revolution of Earth was faster than 6ars

-Frote De !evolutioni&us (15'3-planets, includin$ Earth are movin$ around the sun

-solved problem of annual chan$es in the celestial sphere and retro$rademotion

-earth not only moves around the sun but rotates around its axissolved problem of diurnal motion of the celestial sphere

-axis of rotation of the Earth isn't perpendicular to the plane of the solar system-solved problem of seasons and the way that celestial motions happen

-seasonal dierence in insolation-"ummer in Horthern hemisphere! Earth's axis tilted toward "un-Finter in Horthern hemisphere! Earth's axis titled away from the "un

 3ames *radley: demonstrated the earth's annual motion 3B-*B-L =oucault: proved the Earth's daily rotation usin$ a pendulumTycho *rahe"&%$+-&+&)-built and e4uipped two $reat astronomical palaces

17ranibor$! castle of he heavens+"ternebor$!castel of the stars

-built lar$e5delicately calibrated na#ed-eye instruments li#e mural 4uadrants and armillaryspheres

-produced the most precise observations, trustworthy to ) to 10 seconds up to %minutes max-reected 3opernicus and heliocentrism-1)8+ "upernova! "upernova in constellation 3assiopeia, showed that this star wasn't inEarth's atmosphere or in the re$ion below the moon but stood in the heavens above thesphere of "aturn

-proved celestial spheres were not real

reat 3omet of 1)88! comet appeared, proved that the comet was in an elliptical orbit, was

a turnin$ point in science, shows the role of math in science-Earth is at the center of the solar system, "un5nova in orbit and planets orbit around

the "un

 3ohannes ?epler "&%.& - &+()-Brahe's student, idea about platanoic solids

-Tetradhedron (9 faces, 3ube(: faces, Octahedron ( faces, ;odecedron(1+ faces,>cosahedron(+0 faces

->n his 1st boo#, The Cosmogra$hi )ystery% defended 3opernican system

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

7/38

Iepler's Aaws1orbit of planets are ellipses+line oinin$ the planet to the "un sweeps out e4ual areas in e4ual times as the

planet travelsaround the ellipseThe ratio of the s4uares of the revolutionary periods for + planets is e4ual to the

ratio of thecubes of the their semi maor axes->n the armonice mundi, Iepler calculated astrolo$ical relations, correspondences ofplanets with metals, and the music of the spheres

music of the spheres! unheard tones $enerated by planets in their motions andconnections-Believed that the sun possessed an anima motrix! movin$ soul5spirit a#in to the oly hostthat propelled the planets throu$h their courses-move from philosophy to a mathematical view on science

Lecture 4-Drom 00 B3 - 1:00 B3, the bac#bone of education was based on *ristotle and ellenisticscience-"ome paradi$ms shaped how science was studiedtwo sphere universe! terrestrial and celestial re$ion-after 3opernicus' boo# in 1)%, O the !evolution o the Celestial #$heres, led to doubtsabout understandin$ of the universe

-mathematically sound model, solved astronomy problems-for +000 years, no clear acceptable theory of seasons-solved problem of understandin$ day and ni$ht- but still there was no observational evidence

Brahe! supernova5comets, didn't prove 3opernicus was ri$ht but made crac#s at the currentunderstandin$ of science in 1)88 and 1:10Iepler! studied planetary motion (orbit of 6ars concluded that planetary motions areelliptical-mathematicians started to tal# about science (chan$e from non-philosophers not studyin$astronomy5universe for example, Iepler

Galileo Galilee "&%+$ - &+$,)-#ey &$ure in "cienti&c 2evolution1:10! appointed chief mathematician and philosopher at the 6edici court in Dlorence-telescopic observation of astro phenomena (learned about telescope in ollande currentlyused as war tool

-improved on the telescope with +0-0 ma$ni&cations-the mil#y way, "aturn's rin$s, phases of Genus-*ristotle said everythin$ revolves around Earth but alileo alilee disproved that-alileo discovered millions of starsMost important discovery: phases of Genus, Genus shows phases li#e the 6oon only if itrevolves around the "un

-Galileo and the Church: ma#es church an$ry-Aetters on "unspots-Aetter to rand ;uchess 3hristina! faith and reason cannot be in contradiciton sincethe Bible is the word of od and nature is the wor# of od. "cience supersedestheolo$y in 4uestions concernin$ nature and the Bible was written to be understoodby the people adn can be reinterpreted. Hature cannot be altered-his boo#s banned by the church

-veri&ed his results on observation-Frote The Dialogue on the T*o Chie +orld #ystems (1,3- in >talian

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

8/38

-everyone was able to read this, dialect between "alviati(3opernican position,"a$redo(neutral, and "implicio (=tolemy5*ristotle position

-step by step comparison of old5new astronomy-Frote Disourse on the - ne* sienes (1,3.

-#inematics and the stren$th of materials, freefall-mathematical analysis of motion, force and the stren$th of material

-made observation of pressure on the body, brea#in$ point of obects and for motion,studiedrelationship between motion and time5speed-determined all bodies would fall at the same speed

-Aeanin$ Tower experiment! dropped balls from the tower to discredit*ristotle's

view that heavy bodies fall faster than smaller bodies-made *ristotle believers5scientists loo# for a new way to understand reli$ion5science

-alileo's 6ethod! 1Observation +6easurement 6athematical Expression%Experimentation

-see that science and technolo$y mer$e because you need to create new tools fornew experiments

-basis for scienti&c method we use now-linear motion

-founded formulas for motionx K vot L 15+atM+

1ene escartes "&%#+ - &+%)1:0s! maor chan$e in science, maor paradi$m shift-Frote /e )onde in 1: which defends 3opernicus and Disourse on )ethod-mechanistic philosophy (believed entire universe was particles in motion-matter in motion, mathematics5$eometry-philosophical depression (as#eptical at the time-introduces 3artesian coordinates to &nd position of particles-after this, scientists view od as en$ineer5creator and it's up to us to &$ure out the blueprints of the universe-father of modern philosophy-idea that #nowled$e should be put to use for the $eneral $ood of all men ;escartes universe! belief in multiple worlds, views universe as cloc#wor#

 Anton van LeeuenhoeD"&+(, - &.,()-observed blood corpuscles, spermato

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

9/38

-li$ht composed of rays-dierent rays are refracted to dierent de$rees throu$h lenses and prisms-each ray corresponds to a dierent color-the white li$ht represents the combos of all rays and colors

Edin 7ule: 6t. =alomar +00th Telescope-Hewton was a believer in alchemy

-his study of reli$ion-didn't believe in the Trinity-believed in *ryanism (7nitarianism!

-belief that there existed bodies of secret, pristine, and arcane #nowled$econcernin$ matters reli$ious and scienti&c that od had initially conveyed toHoah which passed to 6oses and =ytha$oras and then down to Hewton whichis why he believed he could read hidden codes in nature and Bible

-occult science, alchemy! atoms are li#e bulbs and you rearran$e them but forHewton, it was

that od made chan$es to the world-;ebates after Hewton's 1:8+ paper about active a$ents

-is paper published in =hilosophical Transaction of the 2oyal "ociety of Aondon-2oyal "ociety of Aondon (1::+ - promoted experimental science

-=hilosophical Transaction (1::: is the &rst scienti&c ournal-=aris *cademy of "ciences(1::: also promoted experimental sciences

-@ournal des "cavons (1::: started to publish scienti&c ournal, +nd ournal inDrench

-18th, 1th, 19th centuries, the scienti&c world is a man's worldMadam du Chatelet"&.+ - &..$): Hewton's Drench translatorLaura *assin: "&..): >talian, &rst woman to earn a university chair in a scienti&c &eld ofstudy-Dlamsteed $ave )0 moon observations to Hewton an alley published it1:8! foundations of planetary motion in The rini$iaAaws of 6otion

1Obects stay in motion unless external force applied to it+D K ma e4ual5opposite reactions

-3alculus basis was then founded by universal $ravitation and motion laws and Iepler's lawsHewton's 3annon (1:8! thou$ht experiment created by Hewton where he ima$inedshootin$ a cannonball parallel to the Earth's surface from the top of a mountain anddependin$ on the velocity of the cannonball, it would stri#e the $round at some distancefrom the mountain top, $o into orbit around the Earth or ?y o into spaLecture 6"cienti&c 2evolution

-new approach to understand nature-nature seen in a mathematical way-natural laws, experimental philosophy, instrumentation, new sciences

-Hewton in?uenced contemporary science traditions-*dam "mith, Aoc#e, Goltaire, Dran#lin, ;arwin

-introduction of universal law

-The "cienti&c 2evolution can be summari

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

10/38

-2oyal ardens at Iew, Aondon (18)

=rancis *acon-lon$ in?uence on the pro$ress of science-introduced inductive methodolo$y in science

-*ristotle's was deductive-3reator empiricism, or$ani

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

11/38

new four &eld system and provided the necessary a$ricultural surplus to support thecomin$ of

industriali

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

12/38

manufacture in urban centers. Dive hundred steam en$ines pued away in Britain in 100,and the number rose rapidly after that.

-Eliminated the alternate heatin$ and coolin$ of the cylinder, more ecient-Fatt's en$ine was bi$ and stationary

1ichard TrevithicD: 100, his en$ine was much smaller and could be placed on a carria$e-his hi$h pressure steam en$ine altered the economics of transportation by ma#in$

the railroad possible 3ohn ?ay: 18, invented the ?yin$ shuttle which improved weavin$ but created a la$ inthe spinnin$ of threadGeorge tephenson: 11%, British en$ineer who improved Trevithic#'s en$ine andintroduced his &rst steam locomotive

-the &rst public line opened between Aiverpool and 6anchester in 10->n Britain, the railroad-buildin$ boom pea#ed in the 18%0s, in 1%8, :)00 miles of railroadtrac# were under construction->ron --P 3oal --PTranportation

Te>tile 9ndustry -*fter18), with the mechanically powered loom, to which the steam en$ine wouldultimately be applied as an independent power source, weavin$ became mechanin 11 +,%00 power looms operatedQ by1, the number increased to 100,000.

Lecture "-science see#s to create better versions of the same concept, technolo$y limitless-;urin$ >ndustrial 2evolution, introduction of empirical approach-* population of rural farmers became a population of urban factory wor#ers.-Aocomotives and iron trac#s replaced horses and dirt roads.->ron increasin$ly replaced wood and stone as structural materials, and The steamshipreplaced the sailin$ ship

9ndustrial Civiliation

-Hew ener$y sources fuelin$ the >ndustrial 2evolution,-The new or$anideolo$ical chan$es that accompanied industrialindustrial 2evolution chan$ed the tradition formed from the *$ricultural 2evolution

-ener$y sources-=re modern! human, animal power, water, wind power-;urin$5*fter >ndustrial 2ev! chan$e in available ener$y resources and patterns of

ener$y consumption (coal5oil-per capita ener$y consumption is )510 times $reater than pre-industrial society

-Ho factories before 1th century

EFect o! =actories-centrali

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

13/38

-+5 of his wor#ers were children->nvention of the assembly line perfected by #enry $ord culminated the evolution of the

modern factory-formation for new wor#in$ class that rivaled the traditional rural peasantry-money economy replaced tradition exchan$e of $oods5services-severe exploitation of labor in En$land

-restrictions of unions with the =arliamentary *ct of 1899-Bill of 1+)! reco$ninterest rates fell steadily throu$h the 18th and 1th centuries, reachin$ a low of percent

in18)8 and remainin$ low thereafter.-* low interest rate made available lar$e amounts of cheap money, without which the capital

re4uirements of early factories could not have been met.-"hift from mercantilism (the idea of a state-controlled economy to open mar#ets and free

enterprise or Rlaisse "&& - &()-Das a$ital! Hewton li#e rules for society-tryin$ to mimic what Hewton did in the physical world! &nd basic laws and the $randnarrative-wor#er class producers are the pro&t and they should run society-even distribution of pro&t, $uessed that the 1st communist establishment would be inEn$landbut was wron$ -- it happened in 2ussia which was run on a$riculture

1omantic Movement -desire to re$ress bac# to tran4uility before >ndustrial 2evolution (no dirty cities, hi$h speed

industry-movement in poetry5literature, music and other &ne arts-focus on simplicity of nature, the family, matters of the heart-2omantic movement was a reactionary response to the rava$es of industrialiron production umped from 800,000 tons in 10 to %million tons in 1:0. -3oal production soared from +% million tons in10 to 110 million tons in180.->n 1)0 for the &rst time the urban population of En$land topped )0 percent.-reat >nternational Exhibition! the &rst world's fair in Aondon 1)1, exempli&ed the power of 

industriali

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

14/38

Legacies o! 1evolution4 Two distinct scienti&c traditions developed

13lassical sciences! astronomy, mechanics, optics-matured as research endeavors in the ancient world-not experimental in approach, built on math5theoretical foundations, re4uired trained

experts+Baconian sciences! systematic study of electricity, ma$netism, heat-didn't have roots as a formal science but spran$ into existence as domains of

empirical investi$ation-more 4ualititative 5experimental in approach-dependent as instruments, more empirical and only loosely $uided on theory-developed parallel to but lar$ely separate from the classical sciences durin$5after

"cienti&c 2ev.

Triumph o! the 4etonian physics:-The predicted return of alleys comet in18)U)9-6easurin$ the earths curvature-The transit of Genus in 18:1 and 18:9, and the accurate calculation of the earth-sun for the

&rst time-;iscovery of the planet Heptune in 1%:-Hewtons Optic#s (180%, provided the conceptual umbrella beneath which the Baconian

sciences developed in the ei$hteenth century.BBLaplace"&.$#-&(.): Celestial )ehanis% 5 volumes% written wholly in the lan$ua$e

of calculus, saw the absence of od in physics

Electricity; Magnetism; 7eat -"tatic electricity was #nown at least since anti4uity.->ts investi$ation too# o in the ei$hteenth century, as new instruments were developed to

$enerate and store static electricity and as scientists applied them- selves to studyin$a host of new facts relative to electrical conduction, insulation, attraction, andrepulsion.

*enamin =ranDlin-#ite experiment &rst performed 18)+, identi&ed li$htnin$ as a static electricalphenomenon-exempli&ed Baconian experimental, 4ualitative research

9n earch o! the ether -Electricity V heat V li$ht V(later 6a$netism-*ction at a distance-Hewtons theory of ether-=ost-Hewtonian theories of ether-*epinus (18+%U10+, ether for ma$netism-"tephen ales (1:88U18:1, Rve$etableS ether in plants-Dran< *nton 6esmer (18%U11) Ranimal ma$netismS

-One can extend the concept of the Baconian sciences to include research in 1th centurymeteorolo$y, natural history, botany, and $eolo$y, all of which were moreobservational and empirical than theoretical.

-Hew specimens from all over the worldCount de *uFon "&..H); ir 3oseph *anDs "&.$(H&,); or Carolus Linnaeus

"&..H. attempted to develop rational systems of classi&cation-Even pro$ress in $eolo$y depended on data collections a$ain emphasi

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

15/38

Chemistry/Chemical 1evolution-chemistry underwent no revolutionary restructurin$ in the "cienti&c 2evolution of the 1:thand 18th centuries, and chemistry in the 1th century does not &t well into either theempirical Baconian sciences or the problem-oriented research of the 3lassical sciences.-=hlo$iston theory of combustion! a &re-li#e element called Nphlo$istonN, which was

contained within combustible bodies and released durin$ combustion.-=hlo$iston theory $ave a coherent account of a diverse ran$e of phenomena such ascombustion, plant $rowth, di$estion, respiration, and smeltin$.-The discovery of R&xed airS (carbon dioxide by @oseph Blac# in 18): PP air is not a sin$leelement-;iscovery of new RairsS-Antoine Lavoisier "&.$(H#$): in combustion somethin$ was ta#en out of the air ratherthan released into it.

-That Rsomethin$S proved to be oxy$en, Cuantitative chemistry-2evolutionintroduced caloric ether

-Hew nomenclature, ;iscovery of new elements PP ;altons atomic theory %oseph &riestley '1"((-1!)4*: would not accept Aavoisier's mature views on chemistry,

went to his $rave as the last adherent to phlo$iston chemistry

Lecture !The econd cienti0c 1evolution-Two closely connected trends characteri

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

16/38

4analy9ed the *or:ings o the steam engine and ela&orated *hat *e :no* as theCarnot yle *hih desri&es *hat ha$$ens in the ylinders o all heat engines4"e did the 1st sientif investigation o the steam engine

-The most remar#able development in heat studiesWand, indeed, in all of the physicalsciences in the nineteenth centuryWwas the creation of an entirely new theoreticaldiscipline, thermodynamics, which uni&ed the sciences of heat and motion.

-By the mid-19th century! he &rst law of thermodynamics, the conservation of ener$yWtheprinciple that the various forces of nature can chan$e from one form to another and that anindestructible entity called ener$y is conserved in the transformations.rescott 3oule"&&-&#): wor#ed out the mechanical e4uivalent of heat1udol! Calusius"&,,-&): formulated the second law of thermodynamics. This lawconcerns the behavior of ener$y over time! ener$y, li#e water, naturally Rruns downhillS andthat, without additional wor#, reactions are not naturally reversible.

 3ames ClerD Ma>ell"&(&-&.#): mathematici

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

17/38

 – the Yoolo$ical "ociety of Aondon (1+: – the 2oyal *stronomical "ociety (11

 – /pecialied ournals: – 3hemische @ournal (188 – *nnalen der =hysi# (1890

-En$lish word scientist was coined in 1%0

The pread o! 9ndustrial Civiliation-Bel$ium, ermany, Drance, and the 7nited "tates were the &rst countries outside of En$landto start industriali-ermany, the "oviet 7nion (1918 , and @apan->n the twentieth century @apan led the way in brea#in$ the industrial monopoly of Europe2evolution in 2ussia (1918! development pro$rams-By the late 19%0s, despite the heavy toll of Forld Far >>, the "oviet 7nion emer$ed as

the second lar$est manufacturin$ economy in the world (the 7nited "tates was &rst Applying cience in 9ndustry -"cience and industry and the cultures of science and technolo$y $enerally be$an theirhistorical uni&cation in the nineteenth century.-The new 19th century science of current electricity spawned several new applied-science industries, of which the tele$raph represents a prime example.

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

18/38

 Ale>ander Graham *ell: invented the telephone in18:, but it too# some time beforetelephony challen$ed the tele$raph as an eective communications medium. (theproblem of the infrastructure-the electric li$htin$ industry 5 the impact of electricity-radio communications (6aconi, 199, &rst si$nal across the En$lish 3hannel -3hemistry 5 the dye industry 5 ermans advance in or$anic chemistry 5 &rst chemistry

=h.;. in 18%-in19: the Bayer 3ompany subected +,8 colors to an assortment of tests but

mar#eted only8-6odern 2esearch Aabs

•  Thomas Edisons laboratory at 6enlo =ar#, Hew @ersey,•  "tandard Oil (10• eneral Electric (1901• ;u=ont (190+• 3ornin$ lass (190• Bell Aabs (1911• Eastman Ioda# (191•  eneral 6otors (1919

• technolo$ical pro$ress is achieved throu$h!

-"hortenin$ the time re4uired for the production of the $iven obect or throu$h reducin$the cost of production.

Example! >n 190, before introducin$ the assembly line, enry Dord made 10,:086odel Ts, Z0 each.

e shifted to an assembly line in 191 and production rose to 00,000 cars a year.->n 191: he sold 80,0%1 6odel Ts for Z:0 each.->n 19+% he produced two million of the cars retailin$ at Z+90 each.

The impact o! the automoile industry on society -Oil industry-2epair5 services

-;ealers-2ules5trac li$hts5 re$ulations->nsurance-*dvertisement-2oads-Easy travel5transportations5 vacations5economic $rowth-+00! 7"! 1%,000,000 cars-89,000,000 li$ht truc#s-8)0,000 buses

Communication 1evolution-2adio5TG5 communications

-19%957"5 % million TG 59 TG stations-19)+! +1 million TG sets

-Drom 19:+! Telstar 5other satellites-1998! [ +19 million TG sets-Marshall McLuhan "+$ ! The R$lobal villa$eS

-6ovie industry (19)-2ecorded music5picture industry

Technology in everyday li!e-Electricity and the domestic revolution-"tartin$ from the be$innin$ of the +0th century-Fashin$ machine, vacuum cleaner, uicer, dish washers, electric ovens, refri$erator5free

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

19/38

-Electricity consumption by 108 million 7.". households in +001 totaled 1,1%0 billion #Fh-eatin$, ventilation, and coolin$ (G*3 accounted for ): billion #Fh, 1 percent of theelectricity consumed by 7.". households in +001-2efri$erators, the bi$$est consumers amon$ household appliances, used 1): billion #Fh ofelectricity (+001-"ocial impacts5 personal behavior

->ndustrial civili-characteri

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

20/38

-2utherford's experiment revealed that there are positive particles at the center ofatomsThomson's Atom

-diuse mass and char$e1uther!ord's Atom

-concentrated mass and positive char$e at the nucleus

-electrons roam empty space around the nucleus+ \-rays 2adioactivity

7enri *ec2uerel: discovered a new #ind of ray emanatin$ from uranium salts!discovery of the 2adioactivity=roperties of *lpha =articles!

1 6uch more massive than electrons+ =ositively char$ed Expose photo$raphic &lm

Marie Curie and ierre Curie! reco$ni

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

21/38

-19%0! Glenn eaorg"*erDeley) discovered a trans uranium element which is calledplutonium, theory predicted that plutonium should &ssion even more readily than 7+), andsince it was a distinct element, it should be separated by chemical methods. This meantthey need not rely solely on 7+) for the weapon

Targets !or Atomic *om

1Iyoto! urban industrial area with a million people, former capital of @apan+iroshima! important army depot and port of embar#ation in the middle of an urbanindustrial areao#ohama! important urban industrial area which has been untouched%Io#ura *rsenal! one of the lar$est arsenals in @apan and is surrounded by urban industrialstructures)Ha$asa#i:The possible bombin$ of the emperors palace

Cosmology -ow bi$ is the universeJ->s it &niteJ->s there other planetary systemsJ-ow can we measure the si

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

22/38

Einstein's General Theory o! 1elativity-"pace time curvature-The curved space around the sun can chan$e the path of the li$ht of stars passin$ close tothe sun-Einstein and 8illem de itter: The universe is static

-Einstein's cosmos was a &nite, %; space and had a non-Euclidean $eometry,

-7ule's discovery of the expansion of the universe disproved Einstein's idea of thestatic cosmos->f $alaxies are recedin$, they once they were very close to each other

-The Bi$ Ban$ TheoryGeorge Gamo: calculation of the bac#$round radiation in the 19%0s

 Arno Allen enias/1oert 8B 8ilson: discovered bac#$round radiation in 19:%,observational evidence of the Bi$ Ban$ Theory

The Cosmic *acDground E>plorer -199+, the 3OBE produced for the &rst time ever, a map of the s#y in microwaves-These microwaves corresponded to a temperature of +.8 Ielvin which is the ambienttemperature of the universe

Medical Technologies

-in recent decades, the exploitation of science for medical applications has been relentlesslysuccessful, and stunnin$ developments have ta#en place re$ardin$ the application offundamental research in biolo$y, chemistry, and physics to pharmaceuticals, medicaltechnolo$ies, and the practice of medicine.->n the 19th century, scienti&c medicine be$an to become a reality with anesthesia,antisepsis, the $erm theory of disease, and modernima$in$ technolo$ies! \-rayQ 3*TQ =ETQ62>Q E3Q EE,]-discovery of antibiotics-$rowth of pharmaceutical industry after FF>>-"uccessful introduction of oral contraceptives in the 19:0s-"uccessful or$an transplant sur$eries in the 19:0s and after, the re4uired medications-+00+! %00 billion dollars in $lobal sales-The pharmaceutical industry is now dominated by a handful of multinational corporationsthat are responsible for virtually all new dru$s that come into widespread use-Over the counter dru$s

-Gitamins5heartburn pills5pain#illers5supplements5-Gitaminomania-Gia$ra and similar pills

-Beauty5cosmetic supplies-3han$e in advertisin$, mar#etin$, brand names

Li!e E>pectancy in the U1901! %9 --P 190! )9.8 --P+001! 88.+-3ompared to @apan at .9 years-impacts on providin$ social services5fundin$ national social security and health plans-6edical expenses! rich and poor nations

cience as a mode o! production

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

23/38

-Aed by the 7nited "tates, industrialindustry driven-=rivate industry now out- spends the federal $overnment on 2^; by more than atwo-to-one ratio, with funds $oin$ overwhelmin$ly to product development andapplied research, especially in the life sciences. 2esearch to advance #nowled$e inthe ellenic tradition ta#es place only here and there in universities, $overnment,and industry.

L.C+3. 12The Atomi Age

 August ,% 1'5; iroshima, the &rst atomic bomb August % 1'5; Ha$asa#i, the second atomic bomb-The atomic bomb did not immediately appear to be so dierent in #ind from that caused byconventional weaponsOperation 6eetin$house! air raid on 6arch 9-10, 19%) that was later estimated to be thesin$le most destructive bombin$ raid in history)arh % 1'5; % B-+9s droppin$ incendiaries destroy +:8,000 buildin$s and +)/ of city(Operation 6eetin$house #illin$ some 100,000 people-The development of the atomic bomb re4uired unprecedented cooperation betweenscientists, industry and the military-;urin$ the period of the 7nited "tates' nuclear monopoly, the 4uestion of how to protectthis so-called secret became a national obsession with lon$-lastin$ conse4uences for thepractice of culture of postwar science-Cuestion of who should control science when scienti&c #nowled$e turned into a weapon

 Atomi Age >-Einstein's letter to 2oosevelt-7" military's interest in atomic ener$y rather than atomic bomb-*ttac# on =earl arbor on ;ecember 8, 19%1

 The 6anhattan =roect! 3ooperation of over 1)0,000 people from the 7", En$land and3anada costin$ more than Z+ billion, lar$ely carried out at secret scienti&c cities that wereestablished by power of eminent domain Aos *lamos, Hew 6exico, Oa# 2id$e, Tennessee,and 2ichland, Fashin$ton

-Dirst lar$e scale cooperation of scientists and the military-Theoretical and technical problems in utili

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

24/38

-;iscovery of =lutonium in 19%1-3lash of military and scienti&c cultures-"ecrecy vs. free ?ow of scienti&c information-debate over the use of the atomic bomb

-"cientists! the bomb must not be used on civilians without prior militarydemonstration

 3ames =rancD: =hysicist, and Hobel Aaureate, said that neither secrecy nor an attemptedmonopoly of the raw materials could prevent a nuclear arms race-;ierent viewpoints in the *merican military leadership about the strate$y to be followeda$ainst @apan! Haval bloc#ade and saturation bombin$ of the home island vs. a massiveinvasion-7ncertainty about the response of the @apanese civilians-"eems that =resident Truman and his advisors hoped to use the bomb to intimidate the"oviets-;urin$ the period of the 7"' nuclear monopoly, they were 4uestionin$ how to continue this-The need to protect the secret of the bomb forced scientists and politicians to reconsiderthe rules of scienti&c openness

Cuestions!1. Fho had the ri$ht to determine the uses to which scienti&c #nowled$e could

be putJ+. 3ould scienti&c #nowled$e be contained within national bordersJ. ow could the re4uirements of national security be reconciled with traditions

of scienti&c opennessJ=eneral =roves A$$roah; Fithin a wee# of the bomb's use, the basic outlines of theirscienti&c and technical details had revealed to the public throu$h the "myth 2eport

6issin$ points!-3rucial information relisted to technolo$ical #nowhow-=lutonium implosion-The 7" and the 7I had secured the exclusive ri$hts to more than 9)/ of the

world's #nownuranium reserves

-"ome scientists5politicians! The 7" could maintain the nuclear monopoly for about ) years-roves! the potential period of monopoly could be much lon$er

ro&lems assoiated *ith Atomi

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

25/38

-7ranium from Eastern Europe-Theoretical information from the "myth 2eport-Technical information from spy rin$s-The "oviet 7nion scientists detonated their &rst atomic bomb on *u$ust +9, 19%9

Edard Teller: proect of the ydro$en Bomb, *fter the "oviet explosion of the atomicbomb, it was a ri$ht time for a crash pro$ram to develop a thermonuclear weapon

-Throu$h a ris#y investment, a successful thermonuclear weapon oered the potential for anexplosion at least a thousand times as powerful as contemporary atomic weapons-The *3 report declared that a crash pro$ram had a Nbetter than evenN chance ofproducin$ a thermonuclear weapon within ) years-owever, in the last part of the report, the maority of the committee ar$ued that thehydro$en bomb should not be developed, even if it were technically feasible-* hydro$en bomb could be used only to slau$hter innocent civilians-*ddendum to *3 report! NFe believe a super bomb should never be produced. 6an#indwould be far better o not to have a demonstration of the feasibility of such a weaponNsi$ned by 3onant, Oppenheimer, ;uBrid$e, Derm, and 2abi7H>G*3! at the time, the most hi$h speed computer, used to perform hydro$en bombcalculations

 ?anuary 31% 150; Truman announced that the 7" would pursue the development ofthermonuclear weaponsovem&er 155; "oviet 7nion detonated a 1.) me$aton device much closer in desi$n to the*merican bomb, there was no monopoly-Oppenheimer and Iurchatov G" policy ma#ers-;urin$ the early post-war years almost _ of all federal investment in scienti&c researchcame from a sin$le military research a$ency, the Oce of Haval 2esearch (OH2-The relationship between $overnment, scientists, and the military

-6ilitary authorities! "cientists are most useful to the state when called upon to solvespeci&c problems-"cientists5en$ineers! "cientists must be free to pursue their research re$ardless ofpractical needs-some politicians! postwar science must be harnessed under a national sciencepro$ram

-=ure "cience, *pplied science, Technolo$y5>ndustry, "ocial "ciences-=olicy ma#in$ in H"D, OH2, ;O;, *E3, O"2;-The role of H"D after the mid 19)0s-Basic research in

-=hysics-i$h ener$y particles-6edicine-2adio controlled devices-2adar-*ntiaircraft missiles-3omputation devices->3B6s and >2B6s

 `` ybrid institutions ``

#erey and #eurity -3lassi&cation of at least 8.) billion to + trillion pa$es of information in the &fty yearsfollowin$ the FF>>-"ystem of classi&cation extended not only to scienti&c #nowled$e but also to #nowled$eabout the practice of science-"ome scientists became tar$ets of loyalty investi$ations-The ouse 3ommittee on 7n-*merican *ctivities (7*3-3ases of! Edard Condon; 1oert 5ppenheimer; =ranD 5ppenheimer 

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

26/38

-Dueled by federal dollars, *merican scienti&c and technical research underwent enormousexpansion in the 19)0s.-7ntil the launch of "putni# in 19)8, however, only a tiny fraction of this investmentori$inated with civilian a$encies for nondefense purposes.-The impact of military investment on *merican science!

-=ath of scienti&c research

-"i -=ostwar debates about the appropriate relationship between scienti&c research, the federal$overnment, and the militarychemistry, and physics into mass-produced antibiotics, radar, and the atomic bombCuestion... Fho would pay for scienceJ

1 General Groves: believed scientists proved to be most useful to the state whencalled upon to solve scienti&c problems that re4uired technical expertise N on tap, not ontopN

+ n the 19)0s, the ;O; supplied on avera$e, a third of all 2 ^ ; funds in private

industry7 '8ce o9 7ational esearch*: military research and unclassi&ed research proectsproposed5carried out by university researchers

-7niversity administrators li#ed OH2's willin$ness to pay for capital researchers andresearchers enoyed the lac# of military oversi$ht and minimal reportin$ re4uirementsetlev *ronD/Lee u*ridge! critics of the OH2,resident Eisenhoer ! issued an executive order to follow a pluralistic approach to basicresearch! while the H"D should ta#e over an increasin$ share of basic research, othera$encies (*E3 and ;o; would continue to fund Rmission-oriented basic research

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

27/38

-NEvery $un that is made, every warship launched, every roc#et &red si$ni&es in the&nal sense a theft

from those who hun$er and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothedN

7yrid 9nstitutes-*pplied =hysics lab (*=A at @ohns op#ins 7niversity L Iellex 3ompany PP *=A - Iellex

-developed proximity fuse, became the center of the Havy's eorts to develop $uidedanti-aircraft missles-=roect Bumblebee-failed university-industrial partnership with Iellex

- Broo#haven Hational Aab-hi$h ener$y physics-demonstrates how the *E3's usti&cation for scienti&c research chan$ed over time-more accessible to outsiders-3osmotron! allowed researchers to observe mesons

-6>T and "*E (semi-automatic $round environment! would display real time radar datafrom + defense sectors-2*H;! *ir force's nonpro&t research institution, had about 10/ of the nations toppro$rammers, too# on the "*E proect-The problem of security and secrecy started durin$ FF>> with security clearances,classi&cation codes, and compartmentali>-*tomic Ener$y *ct! 19%8, 19)%, desi$nated nuclear weapons ino as a born secret-Boo#s, articles, reports, and even dissertations in physics, electronics, aeronautics,oceano$raphy, and hi$h-altitude physiolo$y were classi&ed on a re$ular basis-overnemtn crac#downs on 3ommunists, scientists could lose security clearanceEdard UB Condon: prominent physicist well li#ed in the scienti&c community, but cameunder alle$ations of bein$ a communist, never found $uilty of wron$doin$ but $ot securityclearance revo#ed

 3B 1oert 5ppenheimer: chair at *E3, ;O;, Havy's research committee, and oce ofdefense mobili

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

28/38

-Teams of multidisciplinary researchers wor#in$ on common problems-3ollaborative research networ#s-* new operatin$ structure-The ma$nitude of bud$et, man power, time allocated to research-=roliferation of capital-intensive research facilities-The centrality of instruments

-Emphasis on relationship between physicists, en$ineers, chemists, and biolo$ists-The availability of nearly unlimited federal funds for research in certain &elds allowedresearchers to construct lar$e, expensive, capital-intensive instrumentsGlaser and Alvare: bubble chamber particle director-6anpower for science!

-The need of massive technolo$ical proects for enormous scienti&c and technolo$icalwor#force

->ncrease in the number of university students, the sincrease in the number of =h;s!

-190s! 000 ---P 6id 19)0s! 9000 ---P 198! ),000

9mpact o! putniD -2esults of a allup =oll the wee# followin$ the launch showed the *merican maority feelin$that it was a blow to 7.". presti$e and surprised that the 2ussians beat the *mericans to thelaunch.-Aife ma$a

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

29/38

-The 7" excelled in lon$ ran$e bombers and was not too concerned with missiles! @et&$hters, heavy aircrafts

2easons!-Heeds for a ri$orous economy-Dunds be put into bi$$er bombers5et aircrafts

-The assumption of *merican superiority in aviation-"cienti&c pessimism about the technical problems of missiles-The 7" did not need an >3B6 as badly as the "oviets-i$h altitude and scienti&c research of the upper research

- >n 19%:, **D as#ed 2*H; about the value of an Earth satellite-1)0 million, &ve years to build

-The Iorean Far! 19)0 PP nature of the "oviet 7nion-6>IE! ydro$en bomb, Hovember 1, 19)+-The &rst "oviet test of the hydro$en bomb! *u$ust 1+, 19)-Eisenhower! *fter months in oce (19) and havin$ initial frustratin$ eorts to trim thefederal bud$et PPP press conference!

-Every $un5warship5roc#et that is made is a theft from those who hun$er and not fed-The cost of a modern bomber K 0 modern schools

K + electric power plants servin$ :0,000K+ fully e4uipped hospitalsK )0 miles concrete F

-* sin$le destroyer K new homes to house ,000 people-Eisenhower proposed a limitation on the sin4uiry into "atellite and 6issile =ro$ram, be$an on Hovember+)th, 19)8 and were pretty much political in nature since @ohnson was tryin$ to capture the;emocratic nomination for =resident in 19:0. The conclusions of the hearin$s were that the "oviets were ahead in areas li#e missiledevelopment, submarines, 2 ^ ;, and space, and were catchin$ up in the area of aircraft.

•  @ohnsons report also included a list of seventeen recommendations, all of whichre4uired hi$her levels of spendin$.

 –  "tren$thenin$ of "*3 ("trate$ic *ir 3ommand

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

30/38

 –  *cceleration of missile production and anti-missile 2^; –  * pro$ram to build a roc#et en$ine of one million pounds thrust –  6anned missile systems

-The conclusions of the hearin$s were that the "oviets were ahead in areas li#e missiledevelopment, submarines, 2 ^ ;, and space, and were catchin$ up in the area of aircraft.

-Eisenhower emphasin @anuary of 19), the 7.". launched the Explorer, which put a satellite into orbit.-*merica was ma#in$ speedy pro$ress in many of its missile pro$rams but the psycholo$icalimpact of the "putni#s was not anticipated by the $overnment.-19)8! Eisenhower decided to assemble his own $roup of scienti&c advisors- 3ames ?illian! appointed as his special assistant for science and technolo$y, attendedcabinet and other federal a$encies (*E3, ;O;, 3>*, ;epartment of "tate-Establishment of the =resident's "cience *dvisory 3ommittee (="*3-;ramatic increase of H"D's bud$et after 19)-Establishment of H*"*

-The 4uestion of scienti&c $rowth-relationship between the scienti&c research and industrial practice-scientometrics! applied the techni4ues of 4uantitative social sciences to ma#e sense

of science's $rowth

7o to maintain the scienti0c superiority -Drom the *merican perspective, one of the most alarmin$ aspects of "oviet scienti&c andtechnical success was its potential to inspire the populations of unali$ned nations-The emer$ence of do

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

31/38

-The &erce competition between the superpowers meant that a clever leader could use thethreat of shiftin$ alle$iance

8B8B 1osto: anti-communist forei$n policy based on economic development, #ey tomoderniT Ianpur sponsored by the 7" but 7" stopped support when >ndia partnered withthe "oviet 7nion

(* Buildin #ealth in Me

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

32/38

-6arshall =lan and =oint Dour helped establish a friendly climate for *merican businessinterests-7" economy based on free enterprise shaped by $overnment support5re$ulationGannevar Bush! stressed the importance of basic research for national defense, health, andcreation of obs

 3ohn ?enneth Galraith! economist who wrote The *uent "ociety that critici> landin$ capped a decade of en$ineerin$ and mana$erial feats that once absorbed%/ of the federal bud$et-*pollo last hurrah of the 3old Far

The eace!ul Dies

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

33/38

-The 7" ultimately decided to position its manned space pro$ram in civilian terms while the"oviets pursued a more military tac#Open "#ies policy! provided le$al cover for over?i$ht military reconnaissance in contrast tothe territorial laws that ruled the seas-Ori$inally three approaches to space warfare

16ilitary strate$ists hoped to use lon$ ran$e missiles to hurl weapons

hundreds5thousands miles fromlaunch site+ *ir Dorce wanted pilots in space to intercept enemy missiles=lacin$ humans in semi-permanent orbit to provide a perch from which to launch

weapons from space->2B6" and >3B6" $rew directly out of erman success with the terrifyin$ G-+ roc#et in FF>>8ernher von *raun: wor#ed to develop the *rmy's 2edstone5@uptier missiles-Havy and *ir Dorce supported their own missiles -- Gi#in$ and =olaris (Havy and *tlas and Thor (*ir DorceChucD Jeager: bro#e throu$h the sound barrier in an *ir Dorce \-1 in 19%8-2*H; had an idea! satellites that could snap pictures over enemy airspace, unbothered andundetected and beyond the ran$e of enemy attac#-*ir Dorce with Aoc#heed's 6issile "ystems ;ivision try to develop systems for satellitereconnaissance

1 based on simultaneous video transmission+ recoverin$ &lm capsules dropped out of orbit based on an infrared system that could scan the s#ies for missile activity

-H*"* turned into a civilian a$ency with Hational *eronautics and "pace *ct of 19) whichmade H*"* in char$e of all space activities except for military, defense, and weapons-*2=* would be responsible for reconnaissance, missile defense, orbital weapons systems

;iscoverer 1%! &rst successful =roect 3orona ?i$ht that produced a +0lb roll of &lm thatrevealed air&elds, surface to air missile sites, and roc#et launch facilities throu$hout EasternEurope and the "oviet 7nion-7" had several satellites in $eostationary orbit over the "oviet 7nion=artial Test Ban Theory! bans the testin$ of weapons in space except for military techbetween 7"5"oviet 7nion-Explorer 1 revealed existence of the Gan *llen radiation belt

• Hot only was the 7.". en$a$ed in a race for space with the 2ussians, each of the serviceswas involved in competition with the others.

•  The 7"*D had plans for manned space ?i$hts alon$ with moon landin$s.•  Gon Braun and his team eventually became a part of H*"* and the moon proect as

H*"* ac4uired part of the untsville installation, the eor$e 3. 6arshall "pace Dli$ht3enter. +his =asically removed the rmy 9rom the space =usiness

•  The *ir Dorce didn't li#e the idea of a divided space pro$ram. Even H*"* a$reed that thedivided pro$ram created some problems.

• $or political purposes the space proram had to remain in civilian control Thiswas Eisenhower's point of view as he ruled in favor of H*"* over the *ir Dorce.

• =roect 6ercury was the &rst human space?i$ht pro$ram of the 7nited "tates.•  >t ran from 19)9 throu$h 19: with the $oal of puttin$ a human in orbit around the

Earth.•  The 6ercury-*tlas : ?i$ht on Debruary +0, 19:+, was the &rst *merican ?i$ht to achieve

this $oal.•  The decision was made to $o ahead with the plans for the /aturn roc?et @ith the $-1

enine. *nythin$ bi$$er had to wait until they received a decision on whether or notthey were $oin$ to oin the space race.

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

34/38

•  They needed the "aturn for moon ?i$hts and manned ?i$hts since these were the trueobectives. The 7nited "tates was committed to the space pro$ram whether they wereracin$ a$ainst the "oviets or not.

•  The decision was made to $o ahead with the plans for the /aturn roc?et @ith the $-1enine. *nythin$ bi$$er had to wait until they received a decision on whether or notthey were $oin$ to oin the space race.

•

 They needed the "aturn for moon ?i$hts and manned ?i$hts since these were the trueobectives. The 7nited "tates was committed to the space pro$ram whether they wereracin$ a$ainst the "oviets or not.

•  The issues in the comin$ =residential campai$n.• In May 16) the ussians shot do@n the 3-2 spy plane piloted =y $rancis Gary

&o@ers• Dour days after =owers disappeared, H*"* issued a very detailed press release notin$

that an aircraft had N$one missin$N north of Tur#ey.•  To bolster this, a 7-+ plane was 4uic#ly painted in H*"* colors and shown to the media.• *fter learnin$ of this, "oviet =remier Hi#ita Ihrushchev announced to the world, that a

Nspy planeN had been shot down but intentionally made no reference to the pilot.•  The Eisenhower *dministration, thin#in$ the pilot had died in the crash, authori3B6s did not pose the threat that had beenattributed to them.

•  There weren't that many of them and the 7.". had more than enou$h B)+s to counterthem. Eisenhower was 4uestioned by the press about the ur$ency of the situation. edidn't see any ur$ency. The 7.". space pro$ram was one to be proud of from his point ofview.

•  The Iennedy-@ohnson pro$ram, the Hew Drontier, was based on space exploration.• H*"* published its lon$-ran$e plan, which predicted manned Aihts =y the mid-

16)s and a moon landin$ around 1980 and said the 2ussians would continue to havesome &rsts but that they would not be able to compete.

•  The *pollo moon pro$ram was proposed at this time.•

pace Age Management -*pollo provided business to more than +0,000 contractors in aerospace, electronics, and6"E-Aunar Orbit 2ende

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

35/38

+ >nternational "atellite 3onsortium5>ntelstat created in 19:% to oversee thedevelopment of a $lobal satellite system, 7" $uaranteed a maority vote and amana$ement role in the form of 3omsat

-7" used international cooperation to draw allies close while maintainin$ a mana$erialframewor# that ensure 7" &nancial control-European Aauncher ;evelopment Or$aninformation! was developed that declared that lay citi

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

36/38

-oered independent assessments of military technolo$ies and su$$ested newtechnolo$ies that military planners mi$ht want to pursue

-chose their own members-Operation 2ollin$ Thunder! attempt to disable Horth Gietnamese throu$h intense

bombin$ that failed-became a symbol of all that went wron$ with the relationship between academic

scientists ^ military-=resident Hixon disbanded ="*3, created "afe$uard, relied on independent contractors-Hixon created the Oce of "cience and Technolo$y to analy -after war, a call for reduction in the si #nown as "tar Fars-6utually assured destruction! re4uires adherents to reco$nintelli$ence *$ency,convinced a $roup of well-heeled conservative activists that the 7" was in $rave dan$er oflosin$ its strate$ic advanta$e to the "oviets

i$h Drontier =anel! vision of missile defense lin#ed to space tech, exploration of thes#ies, and free enterprise, lin#ed military dominance of the s#ies to economic development-;ecisions on defense 2^; policy were increasin$ly controlled by what came to be #nown asthe N>ron Trian$leN of defense contractors, defense a$encies, and 3on$ress

End o! an Era-orbachev commits to openness and restructurin$-new neo-liberal consensus succeeded in shiftin$ *merican colle$es to private support in theforms of dramatic tuition increases and corporate partnerships

putniD's impact on America-Eisenhower said "oviet 7nion helped to establish the principle of Nfreedom of spaceN-*t the time of "putni# crisis, =roect 3O2OH* in place to create a spy satellite to tell*merican intelli$ence where every "oviet missile was located-=opular interest in science and technolo$y had been on the rise since 199 Forld's Dair-Dair's transportation pavilion was devoted to space exploration-19)8, interstate hi$hway system, $rowin$ suburbs, families with + cars and color TG isbecomin$ the norm

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

37/38

-Z81. billion federal bud$et-"putni# forced the 7" to place a new national priority on research science which led to thedevelopment of microelectronics-aected national attitudes towards conspicuous consumption, and created a perception of*merican wea#ness, complacency, and a missile $ap-publicly depicted Eisenhower as passive and unconcerned despite him bein$ very dedicated

to avoidin$ a nuclear war-helped reali$n the 7" and reat Britain as allies and with the common threat of "ovietpower, H*TO was stren$thened, $uaranteein$ the placement of *merican nuclear arms inEurope-H*"* formed as a result of "putni# as a means for turnin$ missiles into launch vehicles for*merica's civilian space eorts-Iennedy made a lunar landin$ a national priority-=ranDlin ia! came to the 7" from 3osta 2ica to become an astronaut-Hational insecurity, wounded national pride, in&$htin$, political $randstandin$, clandestineplots, and ruthless media frenT but >B6 won the contract for "*E-"*E $ave thousands of >B6 en$ineers and pro$rammers their basic trainin$ in thebusiness-Gacuum tubes in early televisions5computers were lar$e, fra$ile, and expensive- -Bell Aab unveiled a prototype called The Transistor

-hi$hly attractive to armed forces because they needed reliable, li$htwei$ht

$uidance5communicationssystems in ships, planes and $uided missiles

atellites and the revolution in communications-"oviet 2-8 missile launched the world's &rst arti&cial earth satellite on Oct, 19)8-Hovember , put a do$ in space-Ihruschev declared that the "oviets would surpass the 7" in per capita output within 1)years

8/19/2019 Hist 109 Notes

38/38

-"eptember 19), Hational ;efense Education *ct authorin most European countries, mail, telephone, and tele$raph services were under the controlof a $overnment department-3ontrol of them enabled $overnments to play 'Bi$ Brother' throu$h mail censorship andphone tappin$-"uch surveillance was routine in 3ommunist or authoritarian states but most Festern$overnments also #ept tele$raph services under close control

-Ed$ar oover notorious for phone tappin$-"atellites vital for 3old Far intelli$enceComputers and the revolution in in!ormation

-Fithout the 3old Far, electronics and the computin$ world would not have developed so4uic#ly in the 7"-3apitalism and openness in the 7" made possible spin-os and cross fertili