hief llerNarration and 1. INN ReDescripti.on in tJI"'- ew all'tyFort Manon Art

-------Joyce M. Szabo

The Anne S.K. Brown Military collection contained in theJohn Hay Library at Brown University offers a diversesample of military and naval uniforms from around theworld. Amassed over a forty-year period by Anne Brown(1906-1985) of Providence, the collection covers theeras from 1500 to 1918. Thousands of books, albums,scrapbooks, sketchbooks, prints , drawings and water-colors, as well as some five thousand miniature lead sol-diers, comprise the collection.

In 1947, Brown added a colorful book of drawingsto her already significant holdings. The commercial draw-ing book , eight -and -a-half by eleven inches, containsfour drawings in lead pencil, one with both lead and col-

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ored pencil, and eleven in pencil, ink, crayon and coloredpencil. Two of the drawings depict groups of military fig-ures in uniforms, thus explaining Anne Brown's interest inthe small volume.

The following ink inscription is on the inside frontcover: "Drawings by Indians on the Reservation in S1.Augustine, Florida - March 1877." This inscription bol-sters the visual information prov ided by the drawings.S1. Augustine was in the midst of an art istic explosion inMarch of 1877. The old seventeenth-century Spanishfort of San Marcos , called Fort Marion during the nine-teenth century, was used as a prison for Plains captivesbrought to S1. Augustine at the end of the Southern

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Plains wars. Many of the younger prisoners createddrawings in commercial drawing books and sold thosedrawings to visiting tourists or dignitaries. Some draw-ings were sent home to Indian Territory to the friends andfamilies from whom the prisoners were separated. Otherbooks were given as gifts by Lt. Richard H. Pratt, thearmy officer in charge of Fort Marion, to governmentofficials and leaders who might be of future benefit tothe Indians.

The final page of the book has a drawing depictingfour mounted Plains warriors, each with shield and lance,with a handwritten pencil notation - "Chief Killer" - inthe upper left corner. This inscription is the signature ofthe Fort Marion artist who created the drawings in thebook. A Southern Cheyenne warrior, Chief Killer foughtduring the late pre-reservation years and was one of theseventy-two Southern Plains warriors and chiefs sent toFlorida. He remained a prisoner of war from the springof 1875 until his release in April 1878. Upon his return tothe Cheyenne and Arapaho Reservation in IndianTerritory, Chief Killer held various jobs including those ofpolice officer, butcher and teamster in repeated attemptsto fight the poverty of reservation life (Petersen 1971:234;Oestreicher 1981:164-165). In a case of historical irony,theformer captive sent his daughter to his old jailor RichardPratt for education at Carlisle Institute in 1887(Oestreicher 1981:253-254). In 1899, at the Cheyenneand Arapaho Agency, Elbridge Ayer Burbank painted theaging Chief Killer 's portrait, the dignity of the man whohad fought bravely, been exiled and had experiencedrecurring poverty etched in the sitter's face (Fig. 2). Theformer prisoner of war died in 1922.

Chief Killer was twenty-six or twenty-seven whenhe was exiled to Fort Marion due to his involvement inone of the most notorious episodes of the SouthernPlains wars. As a member of a small war party led by theSouthern Cheyenne Medicine Water, also a Fort Marionprisoner and the artist's stepfather, Chief Killer took partin the attack on the John German family in present-dayKansas in October 1874 (Meredith 1927; Berthrong1963:392-400; Powell 1981 :867-891). The parents and anolder daughter were killed and four younger sisters, rang-ing in ages from five to eighteen, were taken by the warparty. The girls' abduction was a major impetus forincreased military activity by the federal government inattempts to guarantee their safe return. Medicine Waterand his warriors ultimately set the girls free, the youngesttwo in November of 1874, and the older sisters in Marchof 1875 (Meredith 1927; Miles 1897:167-168). Subse-quently, eight members of the war party, including ChiefKiller, Medicine Water and Medicine Water's wife BuffaloCalf, were sent to prison in Florida (Pratt 1964:138-144).The drawing book from the Brown collection is an impor-tant addition to the corpus of Fort Marion art. Prior tothe examination of this book, only two Chief Killer draw-ings were known to be housed in public collec-tions. Those two drawings, approximately four by six

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inches, appear in an autograph book filled with draw-ings by twenty different artists from the Fort Mariongroup and now contained in the Richard H. Pratt Papersat Yale University (Fig. 1).1 The sixteen drawings from theBrown book add significantly to history's view of ChiefKiller, the artist. They help identify forty-four total draw-ings as Chief Killer's." While Karen Petersen, with goodcause, referred to Chief Killer as a minor artist in her 1971

1Contained withinthe Richard H. Prattpapersin theWestern Americanacollections of Yale University, the book of drawings is rare in manysenses. It is tiny, measuring only six-and-three-quarter inchesby fourinches. Themajority of drawings fromFort Marion arefoundin drawingbooksof the samesize as the one in the Browncollection. Theselarg-er, standard-size drawingbookswererequisitioned by Prattearly in theFort Marion confinement. However, the most intriguingdifferenceofthis Prattbook is that it includes work by many artists.At Fort Marion,two or occasionally three artists frequently workedon separate pageswithin the same book and many books exist that are the work of onlyone artist.

2 A sixteen-page book of Fort Marion drawings was sold throughMorningStarGalleryin SantaFe in 1990. The authorexamined thosedrawings prior to their sale and has subsequentlyworked with nine-teen images from that book that are now in private collections. Onthe basisof stylisticcharacteristics, the author has attributed them toChief Killer.

2

1. "Meeting a Friend" by Chief Killer, c. 1878. Pencil , crayon andwatercolor on paper. 4" high (10 cm); 6%"wide (17 ern), CourtesyRichard H. Pratt Papers, Western Americana Collections,Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, YaleUniversity, NewHaven, Connecticut.2. "Chief Chief·Killer, Southern Cheyenne" by Elbridge AyerBurbank, 1899.Oil on canvas. 13" high (33 cm); 9" wide (23 cm).Photograph courtesy Butler Institute of American Art,Youngstown, Ohio.

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study of Fort Marion art (1971 :xvii) , he now joins theranks of major artists from the Florida period.

Chief Killer, The Artist

••..

-3

Five remaining scenes in the Chief Killer drawingbook, one pencil sketch and four crayon and ink images,offer a radically different approach to the act of represen-tation . A sketch and two of the images are of militaryposts (Fig. 5) while another drawing records trains pass-ing through a city (Fig. 9). The final image is a detailedpanoramic view of the city of St. Augustine (Fig. 6). Giventhe location of the artist at the time he rendered this viewand the inclusion of various scenes of the Plains as wellas of Florida, the train scene must represent a portion ofthe journey which the Fort Marion-bound prisoners tookthrough many cities on their way from Indian Territorydur-ing the spring of 1875.

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Chief Killer's style is one of firmly outlined forms filled witha variety of colors (Fig. 7). Humans appear with roundedforeheads, long noses with slight upturns, curving nos-trils and prominent, often pointed chins . Forearms andhands, if rendered at all, are cursory. Long-legged butotherwise well-proportioned horses appear in profile withangular backs and large hoofs. It is, however, Chief Killer'suse of color and pattern which is the most distinctive char-acteristic of his finished works . The artist applied colorlightly in some areas while coloring with greater pressurein others to increase intensity, thus broadening the rangeof hues. He experimented with textural variations; mottledor spotted horses or the fur of animal quivers , for exam-ple, appear against other solidly colored areas. Thevibrant patterns of textiles play against horse ornamentsand the detailed beadwork of clothing.

The majority of Chief Killer's drawings from theBrown book have counterparts among the works of otherFort Marion artists. Two of the scenes depict buffalohunts, rendered only in pencil , while two others illustratedetailed courting scenes. A single sketch of the SunDance - nineteen warriors included from a foreshort-ened rear view within the lodge - suggests the ritualaspects of Plains life. Five of the sixteen images depictgroups of Plains warriors on horseback , parallel lines ofmen walking between mounted leaders or standing war-riors holding their horses near lodges.

The importance of people and what they carry orwear is the visual focus of each of these drawings. ChiefKiller carefully detailed blankets with bead-ed strips , breastplates , shields , war bon-nets, German silver hair plates, saddleblankets, quivers and lances. Indeed, thedetails of clothing and paraphernalia con-trast strongly with the generic faces, mostwithout eyes, of the figures who wear orcarry these objects.

One drawing seems to diverge con-ceptually from Chief Killer's other work.Three rows of government soldiers moveabove two cryptic buildings, probably a fort(Fig. 4). While the specific subject matter dif-fers , Chief Killer's interests are similar tothose of his other drawings. Clothing andarms of the soldiers and officers are careful-ly detailed, the color scheme limited by thereality of army attire. The artist did not aban-don his color sense; the horses appear asvibrant variations of red-orange, rose, yellowand green. The addition of the outlined andcrosshatched buildings in the lower pictorialspace , however, signals a new concern in 4the artist's work.

52 AMERICAN INDIAN ART MAGAZI NE

The episodes taking place on the Plains, the court-ing scenes and standing or mounted warriors appearagainst the blank background of the drawing page (Figs.1,7). No further identification of setting or environment isoffered since the location is understood to be IndianTerritory. These drawings tell or suggest a story in whichthe participants who are portrayed serve as the centralfocus. Warrior society members appear in societal regaliaand Medicine Lodge participants stand at a specificmoment in the ceremony. Other images of men andwomen on horseback or engaged in social meetings orthe columns of cavalry moving across the page suggestactions to the viewer. Yet, like drawings created by Plainsartists prior to the Fort Marion confinement, these imagessuggest a story, but one that cannot be adequately recon-structed from the drawings alone. Men on the Plains cre-ated drawings on paper as part of the recognition and cel-ebration of heroic deeds. Drawings were part of a morecomprehensive cultural setting. The images did not haveto relay the entire account of various battles, for warriorsthemselves recounted the events verbally. Similarly, most

3. Detail of Fig. 5. Courtesy Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection,John Hay Library, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island.4. Drawing by Chief Killer, March 1877. Pencil, ink, crayon, coloredpencil, paper. 8Y2" (19 cm); 11" (28 cm). Courtesy Anne S.K. BrownMilitary Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University, Provl-dence, Rhode Island.5. Drawing by Chief Killer, March 1877. Pencil, ink, crayon, coloredpencil, paper. 8Y2" (19 cm); 11" (28 ern), Courtesy Anne S.K. BrownMilitary Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University, Provi·dence, Rhode Island.

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Florida drawings are suggestions of events, not fullydetailed illustrations of them.

Within Fort Marion, the Southern Plains artists cre-ated drawings for various reasons. The fact that manydrawing books were sold to people who knew little, ifanything, about actual life on the Plains makes it likelythat the kinds of partial messages relayed through theimage portion of traditional Plains ledger art, and byextension through the majority of the Chief Killer draw-ings under examination, would be lost on the new audi-ence. If more complex episodes were the subject of illus-tration for the Fort Marion artist , these would not be clearto the purchaser. Perhaps in partial compensation forthis, many Fort Marion drawings have handwritten cap-tions, most recorded either by Pratt or by the fort inter-preter, George Fox. Such legends communicated thebasic message of the drawing in the event that the visu-al image did not do so. Chief Killer 's drawings from theBrown collection, however, carry no such written mes -sages. Most offer only a partial suggestion of the peopleand the actions they record.

Records of New Experiences

The journey drawings from the Brown book (Figs. 5,6,8,9)differ in style as well as focus from the vast majority ofPlains art, both art produced on the Plains and at FortMarion . The Fort Marion-bound prisoners began theirunified journey to Florida from Fort Sill where they wereconfined in the guardhouse, the ice house and surround-ing tents. Subsequently, the Florida-bound prisoners wereloaded into wagons to travel to the train depot at FortLeavenworth and , from there, to Florida via wagons,trains and ships. In one of the drawings, a scene whichcertainly attracted Anne Brown's attention, there is a fortwith military personnel on the parade ground, the offi -cers' presence made clear through Chief Killer 's atten -tion to different style uniforms and headgear (Fig. 5). Herethe artist has so carefully detailed the fort that it can beidentified as Fort Sill although no caption accompaniesthe drawing . Comparison to existing drawings and pho-tographs of Fort Sill from the second half of the nineteenthcentury confirms the parallels (Nye 1969; Griswold 1958).

Chief Killer's spatial orientation is precise; he hasrendered the north portion of the fort and its locale to theright of the drawing with west at the top of the page .Medicine Bluff Creek traverses the lower right and bottomsection of the drawing, with the fort and parade groundlocated in relation to that creek as they were in actuality.The hospital, separated from the remainder of barracksand officers' quarters, is in the upper right region of thebase ; and the aforementioned guardhouse is renderedin the upper left corner of the drawing just south of thecavalry barracks. Chief Killer differentiated the com-manding officer 's quarters , too, with the columned porchof the prominent house appearing to the left of the paradeground (Fig. 3). The ice house and surrounding tents

53

appear in the bottom of the drawing. This topographical-ly detailed drawing recorded a place Chief Killer hadobserved nearly two years before the drawing was made.

This record of Fort Sill is one of four drawings thatrelay information which Chief Killer 's other drawings donot. The remaining three images - one of a post nestledin the mountains, another of trains passing through atown, and the third of the city of St. Augustine - are sim-ilar to the Fort Sill drawing in that each describes a placerather than narrating a story- Detailing the mountains,the houses and the topography of St. Augustine (Fig. 6),for example, Chief Killer has not placed himself or anyother figure within the boundaries of the drawing page.He describes the specifics of the place as he saw them.In the same way, while the Fort Sill scene contains manyparticipants, it is more a description than a narration. Theplan of the fort, the differentiation of buildings, the varia-tion in officers' and enlisted men's uniforms are allrecorded as a fully illustrative reproduction of Fort Sill. 6Chief Killer is an observer, emphasizing descriptive skillsthat were not previously a part of ledger art.

Drawings on the Plains detailed important identifyingfeatures of participants in actions portrayed. The personinvolved in a scene was known by virtue of his parapher-nalia, such as shields, specific lodge designs, horseaccou-trements or body paint which could stand on their own assignifiersfor the owner of the shield, horse or design.

Ledger art dating from this period prior to FortMarion often included representations of the principalprotagonists in battle encounters or horse raids. ThePlains artist directed his attention to the importantaspects of each event - who did what to whom -though occasionally he presented a house, an armypost , a wagon or, more rarely, a landscape. It was notnecessary to illustrate where actions took place.

The communications system of Fort Marion art wasdrastically different. Drawings made there existed formany reasons - exploration of scenes of the distantPlains for exiled prisoners, the creation of drawings tosend home to families , and the use of such art for saleto interested outsiders . Audiences beyond the confinesof the prison did not share a common base of experiencewith the artists. Without this foundation , drawings losttheir traditional ability to communicate narrative withoutadditional verbal or written explanation.

Directly or indirectly, Richard Pratt may have had aneffect on the type of subjects explored in Florida by theprisoners of war. In recall ing the long trip from IndianTerritory to Florida, Pratt observed that "these incidentsand many others made vivid pictures in the minds of theIndians Soon the Indians with their pencils and paperbegan to make pictures of the incidents of their prisonlife, beginning at Fort Sill" (Pratt n.d.). However, the ear-liest Fort Marion drawings bearing collection dates of

3Svetlana Alpers promoted the questions posed hereof FortMarionart (1976-1977, 1983).

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6. Drawing by Chief Killer, March 1877.Pencil, ink, crayon, coloredpencil, paper. 81," (19 cm); 11" (28 cm). Courtesy Anne S.K. BrownMilitary Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University,Providence, Rhode Island.7. Drawing by Chief Killer, March 1877. Pencil, ink, crayon, col-ored pencil, paper. 8 y," (19 cm); 11" (28 ern), Courtesy Anne S.K.Brown Military Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University,Providence, Rhode Island.

1875and early 1876are not concerned with these views;rather they concentrate on nostalgic images of thePlains. By mid-1876, a year into the Florida confinement,incidents of prison life and the journey from Fort Sill, asPratt indicated, did become prominent.

The long train trip from Fort Sill took the menthrough various large cities including Indianapolis, St.Louis, Nashville and Atlanta. Chief Killer has recordedone of those cities in the rows of buildings that line thetrain's passage (Fig. 9). Trains appear multiple times inFort Marion drawings created by other known artists(Supree 1977:23-29; Harris 1989: 107, 111) . The menmust have been intrigued by these fast-moving systemsof transport. Pratt fueled this interest, consciously orunconsciously, by ordering what he termed picture cardsof various objects and machinery - including locomo-tives and steamboats - to place in the sections of theold fort converted to classrooms for use by the prison-ers (Pratt 1876a).

The World in Miniature

Chief Killer sought new means of record ing images ofhis experiences beginning with the journey from Fort Silland continuing with his life in Florida. These composi-tional schemes move from the single band of figures ormultiple rows of participants presented against a blankpage to the all-encompassing bird's-eye views of Fort Sillor, even more impressive , of St. August ine (Fig. 6). Thelush landscapes, the differentiation of architectural forms,

AMERICA N INDIAN ART MAGAZINE

4 Various For t Marion drawi ngs recording the journey to Florida wereincluded in "Beyond the Prison Gate : The Fort Marion Experience andIts Artistic Legacy," an exhibit organized by the National Cowboy Hallof Fame , on tour between spring of 1993 and 1994. Silberman (1993)includes illustrations of similar drawings by the Kiowa art ist Zotom andthe Cheyenne artist Making Medicine . Dunn 1969, Harris 1989, Pratt1964, Supree 1977 and Szabo 1994 are among the publications whichinclude For t Marion drawings with a similar focus on the journey toFort Marion and life in SI. Augustine.

the exacting details of location and the vast panoramasdepicted differ from the other images in Chief Killer 'sdrawing book and from previous Plains drawings. Theview of Fort Sill , St. Augustine and the town along thetrain's route is profile, yet simultaneously bird's-eye, as theviewer looks down on the angled town or fort.

In his renditions of landscape, Chief Killer departedfrom the linear, outlined style that predominates in bothFort Marion and Plains art and instead used watercolorsor inks in a painterly fashion, rather than outlining shapesand filling them with color. The flow of the liqu id coloracross the pages resulted in mottled effects. Some areasof the ocher-shaded landscape appear muted while oth-ers are deeply saturated. The range of colors the art istused in the cityscapes , particularly in the view of St.Augustine , and the painstaking detail he provided areunusual.

Chief Killer 's plan of the city of St. Augustine - itsappropriately placed gazebo and monument in the midstof the city plaza, Trinity Episcopal Church located southof the plaza and the cathedral on the north, the juttingplan of the fortress of San Marcos , the piers and hous-es that line the city streets, and the presence across thebay of two lighthouses , both the older white structure tothe north and the new black-and-white striped lighthouse- is complete (Fig. 6). The specificity of this drawing iscomparable to exacting portraiture , only here the sub-ject is a place not a person.

Chief Killer, like the other Fort Marion inmates, wasnot kept locked within the prison walls but was allowed totravel the streets of St. Augustine, thus familiarizing him-self with the plan of the community. Maps or elevations ofthe city were available as were early postcards recording

the city 's formation. Such eleva -tions and maps of St. Augustinecreated by various artists duringthe second half of the nineteenthcentu ry may have provided atleast some inspiration for ChiefKiller's view of St. Augustine.

The pictorial concept at workin these drawings includes clearlandmarks of cities and tran-scribes those locations in waysthat geographers might use. Butthe kind of mapping or transcrip-tion offered in Chief Killer 's draw-ings differs from the sketchymaps known from the Plains. Theartist's presence is suggestedthrough his knowledge of thelandscape, but he is not here asa participant in the scene ; heobserves from outside the spaceas well.

""""--"-,-- - - - - ---";"77- -07- ----,""""..,,,-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -' 7 The Chief Killer images fromthe Brown University drawing

book embody a new attention to graphic description oflocale. Other artists from the Fort Mario n period alsoexplored landscaped illustrations , and they, like ChiefKiller, used these representational schemes most fre-quently in images detailing the journey to and exile inFlorida.. That these were new themes without precedenton the Plains may partially expla in the innovations.However, the complex reasons for the creation of FortMarion art may have had an effect as well.

The detailed renditions of St. August ine, the light-house and the fort may have served as mementos forthe visitors who carried such colorful drawings home withthem. Too, memories of the Plains wars were strong inMarch 1877. For years, press accounts of the Plains hadfueled the fears and imaginations of readers. Many of thelast major battles of the Central and Northern Plains ,including Rosebud and Little Big Horn, had been foughtafter the Southern Plains prisoners were transported toFlorida. Even if the Florida audience did not know thatChief Killer or any of the other Fort Marion captives hadbeen involved in the well -publicized German affair, thestory of Custer 's defeat was still being told repeatedly. Adrawing book from Fort Marion offered a way of cominginto contact with these potentially dangerous events and

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men while simultaneously keeping safe and removedfrom them.

The Fort Marion inmates themselves had manynew experiences during their captivity. That artists choseto record memories of these new places and experi -ences cannot simply be attributed to Pratt's influence.Recording these places, presenting miniature renditionsof their reality, was important to the artists. They wereoutsiders , placed in foreign locations, and their draw-ings were a means of exploring and understanding thosenew places.

As previously mentioned, some of the detaileddrawings the artists created in Florida were sent home tofriends and families in Indian Territory as a way of shar-ing at least a portion of their experience of foreign life.That at least the Cheyenne and Arapaho inmates wereanxious to communicate with their families is apparentthrough extant picture letters as well as official corre-spondence between Pratt and the Cheyenne andArapaho Agent John D. Miles (Miles 1875a, 1875b,1876a, 1876b,1876c;Pratt 1876b,1877b). Pratt mentionsonly one drawing sent from Fort Marion to IndianTerritory in enough detail to reconstruct its subject ; thedrawing, by an unnamed Southern Cheyenne artist,recorded the Fort Marion prisoners at work moving alocal St. Augustine building (Pratt 1877a).

The multiple roles that Fort Marion drawings playedfor their creators and their various audiences give thesedrawings a unique position in the history of Plains art.The artists' dislocation from their previous lives and therelated reasons for making art offer at least a partialexplanation for the diversity of images included within asingle book of drawings. Some of the sixteen Chief Killerdrawings from the Brown book are closely related to themessages and narrative communication required ofdrawings previously created on the Plains; others, likethe fully descriptive, non-narrative representations of St.Augustine or Fort Sill, suggest an artist now estrangedfrom previous life and views of art , using drawings tocommunicate to entirely different audiences. The result-ing books of drawings, in their entirety, illustrate the dis-junction of these roles and the creation of what have nowbecome multiple-voiced messages for diverse and dis-connected audiences. The similarity of this disjunctionto nineteenth-century art ists of varying cultures undervastly different circumstances is strik inq." The mixedmessages and multiple voices of Fort Marion drawingsare part of the beginning of the era of modern art inwhich artists, faced with rapidly changing circumstancesand diverse social structures, use art as a means ofexploring , understanding and coping with newly frag-mented lives.

' See T.J . Clark 1973 and Alpers 1976-1977.

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Alpers , Svetlana

1983 The Art of Describing : Dutch Art in the SeventeenthCentury. University of Chicago Press, Chicago .

1976- Describe or Narrate? A Problem in Realistic1977 Representation . New Literary History, 8:15-41.

Berthrong, Donald J.

1963 The Southern Cheyennes . University of Oklahoma Press,Norman .

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1973 Image of the People : Gustave Courbet and the 1848Revolution . New York Graphic Society, Ltd., Greenw ich,Connecticut.

Dunn , Dorothy

1969 1877: Plains Indian Skelch Books of Zo-Tomand HowlingWolf. Introduction by Dorothy Dunn. Northland Press,Flagstaff, Arizona .

Graham, Thomas

1978 The Awakening of St. Augustine, the Anderson Family andthe Oldest City: 1821-1924 . St. Augustine Historical Society,St. Augustine , Florida.

Griswold. Gillett

1958 Old Fort Sill: The First Seven Years. The Chronicles ofOklahoma . 36:2-14.

Harris , Moira F.1989 Between Two Cultures : Kiowa Art from Fort Marion. Pogo

Press, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota .

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1927 GirlCaptives of the Cheyennes : A True Story of the Captureand Rescue of Four Pioneer Girls, 1874. Gem PublishingCo., Los Angeles.

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1875a Letter to Richard H. Pratt , May 15. Box 7, folder 198, RichardH. Pratt Papers , Western Americana Collections , BeineckeRare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, NewHaven , Conn ecticut.

1875b Letter to Richard H. Pratt , December 17, Box 7, folder 198,Richard H. Pratt Papers, Western Amer icana Collections,Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, YaleUniversity, New Haven , Connecticut.

1876a Letter to Richard H. Pratt, June 27.Box 7, folder 198,Richard H. Pratt Papers , Western Americana Collections,Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, YaleUniversity, New Haven, Connect icut.

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Miles , Nelson A.

1897 Personal Recollections and Observations of GeneralNelson A. Miles Embracing a Brief View of the Civil War orfrom New England to the Golden Gate and the Story of HisIndian Campaigns with Comments on the Exploration,Development and Progress of Our Great Western Empire.The Werner Co., Chicago .

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The author wishes to acknowledge the invaluable help of PeterHarrington, Curator of the Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection of BrownUniversity, for inviting her to examine the Brown drawing book lastyear and Sheherzad Navidi , Librarian of the St. Augustine HistoricalSociety, for her assistance in obtaining nineteenth-century maps ofthe city.

1978 The Advantages of Mingling Indians with Whites. InAmericanizing the American Indians: Writings by the"Friends ofthe Indian" 1880-1900, edited by Francis PaulPrucha, pp.260 -271. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.(Originally published by Harvard University Press,Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1973.)

Silberman, Arthur

1993 The Art of Fort Marion . Native Peoples, 6:32-39.

Supree , Burton

1977 Bear 's Heart: Scenes from the Life of a Cheyenne Artist ofOne Hundred YearsAgo with Pictures by Himself. J.B.Lippincott , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Szabo , Joyce M.

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U.S. National Museum

1878 Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. 1.Government Printing Office, Washington , D.C.

Joyce M. Szabo is Assistant Professor of Art History, University ofNew Mexico, Albuquerque.

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8. Detail of Fig. 6. Courtesy Anne S.K. Brown MilitaryCollection, John Hay Library, Brown University, Provi-dence, Rhode Island.9. Detail of a drawing by Chief Killer, March 1877.Courtesy Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection, John HayLibrary, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island.

Petersen , Karen Daniels

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n.d. The Florida Indian Prisoners of 1875 to 1878. Box 25, folder676, Richard H. Pratt Papers , Western AmericanaCollections, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library,Yale Univers ity, New Haven , Connecticut. Typed manu-script.

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