Helping forests take cover - FAO Logincoin.fao.org/coin-static/cms/media/9/13171069612400/2005_13.pdf · use of fire --- these are some of the main ... but also non-timber forest

Helping forests

take cover

On forest protection, increasing forest cover and

future approaches to reforesting degraded

tropical landscapes in Asia and the Pacific

FA

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FI A T P A N

I S

RAP PUBLICATION 2005/13

Helping Forests Take Cover

The designations employed and thepresentation of material in this publication donot imply the expression of any opinionwhatsoever on the part of the Food andAgriculture Organization of the UnitedNations concerning the legal status of anycountry, territory, city or area or of itsauthorities, or concerning the delimitation ofits frontiers or boundaries.

All rights reserved. No part of this publicationmay be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem, or transmitted in any form or by anymeans, electronic, mechanical, photocopyingor otherwise, without the permission of thecopyright owner. Applications for suchpermission, with a statement of the purposeand extent of the reproduction, should beaddressed to the Senior Forestry Officer, FAO,Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok, Thailand.

@ FAO 2005

ISBN No: 974-7946-74-2

For copies of the report, write to:

Patrick B. DurstSenior Forestry OfficerFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.Tel: (66-2) 697-4000Fax: (66-2) 697-4445E-mail: [email protected]

contentsForeword

Deforestation rages on

Miracle trees and landscapesimplification

Exploring alternative forms of reforestation

The good, the bad and theugly: successes and failures in reforestation

Difficulties in reforestation

A matter of cost

Whither social benefits?

Embracing more stakeholders:reforestation of the future

Reforestation andrehabilitation constraints

Creating support for farm andcommunity forestry

Secondary forestmanagement: theunrecognised opportunities

Fire: the burning question

Conclusions

References

Acknowledgements

Picture Credits

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RAP PUBLICATION 2005/13

Helping forests take coverOn forest protection, increasing forest cover and future

approaches to reforesting degraded tropical landscapes

in Asia and the Pacific

Compiled by David Lamb

with contributions from:Ang Lai Hoe, Domingo T. Bacalla, Sharon Brown, Steve Elliott, Shigeo Kobayashi, Ani Adiwinata Nawir,Nguyen Hoang Nghia, Park Dong Kyun, Raja Barizan Raja Sulaiman, Tint Lwin Thaung, Irsyal Yasman, I. Nyomman Yuliarsana and Yap Sau Wai

Edited by: V. Poopathy, S. Appanah and P. B. Durst.Design & Layout by: Ishmael Sheo.

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS REGIONAL CENTRE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFICBangkok 2005


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forewordt may come as a paradox that while interest in tropical forests worldwide has been steadily growingin the last century, this has in no way halted the continued loss and degradation of one of earth’s

grandest terrestrial ecosystems.

In fact, the extent and rate of degradation and biological simplification is accelerating. So much so,some places have completely lost the original forests – they have been totally cleared and replaced bygrasslands. In other areas, some semblance of the original ecosystem may remain, but the structureand biomass of the forest have been irreparably damaged. Concern for this loss is not limited to theextinction of this huge wealth of animal and plant species. The clearing of the land is not onlybeginning to have implications on climate change, but of more immediate concern is theimpoverishment of people dependent on forests for their livelihoods.

Millions of people worldwide depend on these public lands entirely or partially for their survival – theforests are their source of food, housing material, fuel, medicine, and even products for sale in themarkets. Simply stated, a large portion of humankind will suffer considerably if the loss is not halted,and if something is not done to reverse the situation. So, reversing the trend may not necessarily justrequire filling the denuded land with trees. It must take into consideration the special needs of thepeople. This requires a complete paradigm shift in forest rehabilitation.

Researchers across the globe have started fashioning a variety of methods to rehabilitate the degradedlands. They include activities to assist the natural regeneration processes, eradicating weeds,rebuilding the soil, excluding animals from grazing the regenerating sites, and introducing a variety ofeconomic species. There is also interest in reforestation techniques which aim at bringing back thebiological diversity and functional processes of the original forests. These techniques show muchpromise, yet the rehabilitation effort remains halting and insignificant.

One constraint has been the cost – such work is sometimes considered too expensive to apply overextensive areas. But would that be the entire reason? There are a number of examples wherereforestation has been successfully carried out. What was behind the success? It seems humandecision making has much to do with it. When society recognizes definite benefits, usually measuredin financial terms, there is much support for bringing back the forests.

It is evident that decision making on the future of land use bears strongly on rehabilitation work.Unfortunately, most of the knowledge on how to plant, where to plant, and what are theconsequences of not taking any action is still in the hands of the technical experts. Whereas thedecisions on land use are usually made at a different level – by policy makers, land use planners andeconomists who usually do not have the benefit of technical expertise. The real need therefore is tomake this technically complex science accessible to the decision makers.

This publication presents, in language bereft of technical jargon, the basic issues behind rehabilitation.It explains the definitions in simple terms, exemplifies the work with interesting case studies, andpoints out the environmental and market forces that go into rehabilitation of landscapes. The work isfurther enhanced with clear illustrations, making the publication both enjoyable and insightful. I mustcongratulate the editors and the large number of experts for putting this work together.

It is our duty to make science work for all humankind, and one way is to make relevant knowledgeaccessible to all, from stakeholders and policy makers to members of the public. I believe thispublication contributes significantly to this objective.

He ChangchuiAssistant Director-General and Regional Representative

FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific


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Deforestation rages on

learing forests for food production, excessive and wasteful logging practices, and inappropriateuse of fire --- these are some of the main drivers behind the extensive deforestation in the Asia-

Pacific region over the last two decades.

As a result, a dramaticchange in the amount and natureof vegetation across the region hasemerged.

While cropland areas haveincreased, a smaller but significantincrease in abandoned lands hasalso occurred in cases whereagriculture had been unsustainable,or where lands had been degradedby other causes such as mining(Gilmour et al. 2000, FAO 2001).

The very large areas acrossthe region now occupied byImperata cylindrica are only themost obvious sign of this increase indegradation. Menz et al. (1998) estimates these areas now cover 35 million ha in Asia alone.

In addition, many of the remaining forests have been badly damaged by intensive andinappropriate logging practices. These forests will need to be protected for many decades beforethey can be re-harvested.

Some of this residual forest is bestdescribed as "regrowth" or secondary forest.Such forests are often found at the most heavilylogged sites and at some former agriculturallands that have since been abandoned. Few ofthese secondary forests will be able to supplytimber resources in the near future (Hurst 1990,Gilmour et al. 2000, Dauvergne 2001).

Many of these changes in forest coverhave supposedly taken place to improve thewell-being of rural communities. It isdisappointing to note, therefore, that there arestill large numbers of poor people living in ruralareas throughout the region, with many still notyet benefiting from the forest clearing orexploitation that has been carried out in recentyears.

Instead, it is widely recognized thatthese changes in forest cover have causedserious problems for many people. These woeshave included a loss of "goods" traditionallyobtained from forests (including not just timber,


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Imperata cylindrica... this is the most obvious sign of degradation.

Forests recovering after heavy logging...these are known as secondary or regrowth forests.Although regarded as highly degraded andtherefore worthless, they often contain manyresources useful to rural communities andsignificant levels of biodiversity. More information isneeded on appropriate ways to silviculturallymanage these forests.

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but also non-timber forest products such as medicinal plants and foods that many rural and forest-dwelling people have used).

The changes have also led to a loss of ecological services (such as watershed protection andbiodiversity) that the wider community has valued and previously taken for granted.

In part, to combat forest losses, some reforestation has occurred, and in some cases, theareas involved have been large. However, in most areas, reforestation has not kept pace with theincreases in the areas of abandoned and degraded lands (even accepting that "degraded" land isdifficult to define and map with precision).

Miracle trees and landscape simplification

eforestation efforts to date have relied largely on a comparatively small number of fast-growing,exotic species (from an even smaller number of genera).

These species were often regarded as "miracle trees" when they were first introducedbecause of their ability to grow rapidly, particularly in experimental conditions. These so-calledmiracle species included Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia crassicarpa, Acacia mangium, Casuarinaequisetifolia, Pinus caribaea, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus deglupta, Eucalyptus tereticornis,Gmelina arborea, Leucaena leucocephala and Paraserianthes falcataria (formerly Albizia falcataria).

Hybrids between some of these havealso been developed. But all of these specieshave site preferences and, not surprisingly,many have not always performed as well asexpected when more widely planted. This isnot to say that they do not have a role to play.Rather, it is wrong to assume that there are"miracle" species that will suit all siteconditions and fulfill the needs of allstakeholders interested in reforestation withina region as large and as diverse as Asia andthe Pacific.

Except for South Asia, mostprevious reforestation was carried out in largemonoculture plantations for industrialpurposes. In addition, many of theseplantations were established to producepulpwood and were grown in rotations ofonly 10 years or less (Nambiar and Brown1997, Cossalter and Pye Smith 2003).

Such reforestation had been promoted by most countries in the region in the expectationthat it would help generate a renewable resource, provide employment in rural areas and contributetowards national income. In many cases direct and indirect subsidies were provided. These includedaccess to cheap land, reductions in taxation and, sometimes, financial assistance of various kinds. Inmost cases, this support was directed largely at large corporations and industry groups (Enters et al.2004).

All this has led to a process of landscape simplification that has now been underway acrossthe region for several decades, resulting in some of the richest and most diverse forests on earth


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Monoculture plantations of fast-growingexotic species such as Eucalyptus... these

are attractive to industrial timber growersbecause of their potentially high productivity.

They produce a limited range of goods andshould not be seen as the only means by which

degraded lands are reforested.

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being replaced by simple agricultural or plantation forest landscapes.

The trend towards simplification has also been accompanied by considerable uncertainty.This includes uncertainty over the sustainability of some of the agriculture presently established oncleared forest lands (with an increasing extent of abandoned agricultural land demonstrating justhow problematic some of the original agricultural operations have been).

There is also growing uncertainty in many tropical areas over hill slope stability, watershedprotection and the future availability of adequate amounts of clean, high-quality water.


Exploring alternative forms of reforestation

lantations have been the traditional means to address rehabilitation of degraded lands. Puttingthem into perspective, they have been established and managed for both longer- rotation

sawlogs and short-rotation pulpwood. In fact, global plantation estates amounted to 187 millionhectares or 1.6% of global land area (FAO 2001). Plantations’ main purpose is to meet industrialneed for wood and fibre, and to a lesser extent for protection of soil and water, combatingdesertification, rehabilitating degraded lands, etc. Governments form the biggest owners ofplantations (55%), followed by smallholders (25%) and the private sector (20%). Plantations,especially those managed by the private sector, concentrate on production of industrial wood - in2000 such plantations (covering 0.8% of global land area) supplied 35% of global industrialroundwood, and this is expected to increase.

But changes are now underway. There is evidence that many land managers and otherstakeholders are now looking for trees that provide goods for other purposes, as well as establishingplantations that provide a wider variety of services. Researchers across the region have also begunexploring alternative forms of reforestation for cleared and abandoned lands using a much widerrange of silvicultural approaches.

FAO, for example, has been promoting "assisted natural regeneration (ANR)" ofImperata grasslands for several years. Fire control, restricted grazing, suppressing Imperata growth

After 6 years... 29 planted framework tree specieshave restored forest structure and ecological function,creating a closed canopy and dense leaf litter to thisThai forest. Wild animals such as civets and hogbadger have returned and bird species richness hasincreased threefold.

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Hmong hill tribe villagers of Ban Mae SaMai in Thailand... they weed and apply fertilizeraround planted framework tree species to restorebiodiversity-rich evergreen forest in degradedforestland.

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The good, the bad and the ugly: successes and failures in reforestation

eforestation has been underway in manycountries of the region for a very long time.

Most of these plantations were established toproduce timber and a number of theseplantation areas can now be seen as extremelysuccessful, while others have been less so. Butwhat constitutes "success" and "failure"?

Successful past plantation forestrypractices and initiatives

Notwithstanding the comments aboveabout "miracle" trees, one of the undoubtedsuccesses of the past has been the identificationand widespread adoption of certain key speciesthat were able to tolerate some of the moreinfertile soils present at many of the degraded sitesavailable for reforestation across the region.

But it must also be emphasized that asignificant portion of plantations are on longerrotations for production of high quality hardwoods(e.g. teak, mahogany and dipterocarps), andsoftwoods (e.g. Pinus spp., Araucaria, Dacrydiumetc. for plywood, veneer, framing and similar uses).

Box 1. Some definitions

Reforestation: to re-establishtrees on land previously occupied byforests. This is a broad term covering manykinds of planting, including industrialmonocultures as well as multi-speciesplanting programmes.

Restoration: to re-establish thepresumed structure, productivity andspecies diversity of the forest originallypresent at a site. In time, the ecologicalprocesses and functions of the restoredforest will match those of the originalforest.

Rehabilitation: to re-establishthe productivity and some, but notnecessarily all, of the original plant andanimal species diversity once present at asite. For economic or ecological reasons,the new forest may contain some speciesnot originally present at the site. In time,the protective function and many of theecological services once provided by theoriginal forest may become re-established.

Monoculture: a plantationoccupied by a single tree species.

A nursery for seedlings... methodologies forraising seedlings of different species can differsubstantially and extensive research may be neededto develop appropriate methods when new speciesare introduced into reforestation programmes.

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and community involvement are key elements of ANR which is a simple, inexpensive and effectivetechnique to convert these grasslands into more productive forests (Dugan et al. 2003).

Plantations are increasingly being established and managed for longer-rotationsawlogs and not just short-rotation pulpwood. In some cases, reforestation is being carried out usinghigh-value native tree species, and not just fast-growing "miracle" species (Appanah and Weinland1993, Banerjee 1995, Krishnapillay 2002, Do Dinh Sam and Nguyen Hoang Nghia 2003).

And in some cases, reforestation is being carried out to provide ecological services such aswatershed or biodiversity protection, rather than just timber production (Lamb and Gilmour 2003).

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Nursery systems have been developed toallow large-scale seedling production of thesespecies and field establishment and weed controlpractices have been refined to allow reliable andsuccessful plantation establishment to occur(Evans and Turnbull 2004, Nambiar and Brown1997, Cossalter and Pye Smith 2003).

These approaches have often led to theestablishment of high-yielding timber plantations.Large plantations of some of these species havenow been established in many countries acrossthe region. These successes have led to thedevelopment of improved techniques for localseed collection, seed storage and efficientmethods of plantation management in a numberof countries.

Most countries now have a number oftechnically-skilled reforestation practitioners. Suchtechnical skills will be useful for any kind of futurereforestation, irrespective of the species used orthe types of plantations that are established.

Some provenance testing of these specieshas also been carried out. Localised tree breedingbased on promising trees and stands has alsooccurred. As further genetic research isundertaken, the yields from these variousplantations are likely to increase.

There is no question, therefore, that manyof these plantations have fulfilled the particular


Box 2. Reforestation successesin Asia and the Pacific using

particular species

Case Study: Viet NamOne striking success has been thewidespread establishment of the bamboospecies, Dendrocalamus membranaceus.

This species was once found in onlyone or two provinces, but is now plantedmore widely in many provinces and coverssome 80,000 ha. Success can be attributedto developing an efficient method forreproducing planting material by airlayering of branches rather than usingrhizomes. Harvesting can be done afterthree years and there is a ready market forthe product.

Another success has been the use ofCasuarina equisetifolia in sandy coastalareas. The species tolerates the harsh siteconditions extremely well. Over 100,000 hahave been planted successfully using thisspecies.

Case Study: IndonesiaA significant success story in Indonesia hasbeen the widespread adoption by farmersin Java of Paraserianthes falcataria (picturebelow) and Acacia auriculiformis for use ascash crops and "green banks".

The value of these small ruralwoodlots has led to the development oflocal seedling vendors and the creation ofprocessing industries to use the timbers. Thereason for the success was that there was anappropriate silvicultural technology to raiseseedlings and a ready local market for theproduct.

Success has also been achieved insome areas of South Sulawesi growing Pinusmerkusii for resin production. The poor growth of trees ... this is largely

due to insufficient weed control during the earlystage of plantation development. Without suchweed removal, the trees will be out-competed.

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Difficulties in reforestation

n other cases, however, the "failures" have beencaused by a more complex array of factors. In

many of these cases, the notion of "success" or"failure" is less clear-cut.

Sometimes, these failures have involvedplantations being established without a clear ideaof the possible markets for the goods they mightproduce. In such cases, logs may end up beingsold for firewood rather than for producing sawntimber, for example.

In other cases, the supposed market may havedeclined during the time it took for the trees tomature. This might occur as a result ofoversupply of timber caused when manyplantations mature at the same time. Plantationowners may lose out in these circumstances,

objectives of those who established them andshould, in that sense, be regarded as "successes".

Less successful past plantation forestrypractices and initiatives

But there have also been numerous"failures".

Although it is probably impossible todetermine the ratio of successes to failures, someof the more obvious failures -- where trees have alldied or stagnated -- have occurred for technicalreasons.

Among these factors are lack of weedcontrol, inappropriate species or provenancechoices, inadequate nutrition, poor planting stockor failures because of droughts or fires. Suchproblems should become less frequent as thenumbers of trained staff increase, and establishedreforestation methodologies become more widelyadopted.

Box 3. Reforestation success on a large scale ---

the Korean experience

The Korean experience with reforestationdemonstrates "success" on a large scale. Inthe 1950s, Korea had large areas ofdegraded land without forest cover.Reforestation started in 1959, andexpanded over time through a series ofNational Forest Development Plans.

The first of these plans wasundertaken between 1973 and1978 whenone million ha were reforested. A series ofsubsequent plans followed which have ledto an area of over four million ha beingreforested in total. The land used forreforestation had belonged to a variety oflandowners including national andprovincial governments, industrialcompanies and private landowners.

The objective and focus of thereforestation programme has changed overtime as various targets were achieved.Likewise, the species used have alsochanged. The early plantations, forexample, were largely established to providefuelwood for small farmers and used fast-growing species such as Larix kaempferi,Pinus rigida and Populus species.

Subsequently, as more industrialplantations were established, differentspecies were used that were more suited forvarious commercial end-uses. More recently,reforestation has also been undertaken forprotection and conservation reasons, andnot just timber production.

At present around 78 species,including many native species, are beingplanted and the whole process is becomingless dependent on government resourcesand direction. After the fourth ForestDevelopment Plan ends in 2007, thegovernment’s role will diminish and be takenover by the private sector.

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Some 40 to 50 percent ofplantations in the Asia-Pacifichave been established byclearing natural forests, ratherthan by using degraded orabandoned lands

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but many local people may have still havebenefited from the employment created by theseplantations.

However, the fundamental problem with manypast reforestation programmes has been that thereforestation effort has been too one-dimensional --- the plantation was managed tomeet a very limited set of objectives.

Most plantation managers, for example,have simply sought to provide a single product(e.g. large volumes of cheap, low-grade timber)and have not been concerned about alsoproviding ecological services. These managersmight argue that it was not their responsibility todo so, but others, believing themselves to belegitimate stakeholders, have argued otherwise.

Many plantations have also used shortrotations, which mean they have run the risk ofgenerating significant environmental problemssuch as erosion and nutrient depletion unless they have been carefully managed.

Of course, there is nothing intrinsically wrong with such single-purpose plantations. Indeed,many owners would regard these as very successful. What critics of these plantations argue,however, is that nearly all large reforestation projects have been of this kind. This means that thisform of reforestation helps provide some of the goods but few of the services once provided to ruralcommunities by the original forests.

This last problem has been compounded by the fact that perhaps some 40 to 50 percent ofplantations in the Asia-Pacific region have also been established by clearing natural forests, ratherthan by using degraded grasslands or abandoned farmland (Hurst 1990, FAO 2001).


A matter of cost

ast-growing species used in short-rotation plantations are usually more profitable for industrialgrowers than plantations of species grown on longer rotations. There is usually a defined

market with established prices for the timbers produced, and the short rotations mean financial risksare reduced. It is much riskier to forecast what the future market might be for sawlogs grown on arotation of, say, 30-40 years.

But while such short-rotation plantations may be commercially successful, they may not beas useful to many rural communities because they do not supply them with the goods they oncereceived from natural forests such as foods, medicines, animal protein and special timbers. Needlessto say, these goods are often not part of the normal cash economy.

Nor do such short-rotation plantations supply many of the ecological services once suppliedto the wider community such as hill slope stability, and the watershed and biodiversity protectionthat were once supplied by the original forests.

This is not to say that many new plantations do not supply some of these services -- rather,it is that where such services are provided, they tend to be incidental to the main objective.

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Litter and small twigs regularlyharvested and used for fuel... no

understorey develops and erosion is more likelyat this site, leading to nutrient deficiencies that

slow tree growth.

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Whither social benefits?

ost reforestation has been carried out by governments on behalf of large corporations or bythe large corporations themselves, and the profits have tended to go to these industries.

Technical feasibility studies and financial assessments have usually been carried out, but socialimpact studies have been less common.

Two things might be said about this dilemma. One is that it could be short-sighted todisregard the market for higher quality timbers that require longer rotations. In most industries,there is always a market for high-quality products while the market for lower quality products canbe easily saturated. There seems no reason, therefore, why there should not be scope for short-rotation plantations for producing pulpwood, alongside longer-rotation plantations producinghigher quality timbers.

The second point is that there is increasing interest in establishing markets for ecologicalservices such as watershed protection, carbon sequestration and biodiversity (e.g. Miranda et al.2003). The impact of such markets on improving the economic attractiveness of specially designedplantations involving longer rotations could soon be significant (Echavarria et al. 2004). Together,these represent possible economic solutions to a major problem.


Box 4. Measuring success and failure

"Success", like degradation, is sometimes in the eye of the beholder.One viewer might define success as simply a well-stocked plantation of fast-growing trees.

Another might take the longer view and say success was where a plantation's output covered thecosts of establishment, and made the owner a profit.

A government or development agency might take the view that success was whenplantation establishment took place without government intervention --- when spontaneousplantation establishment occurred, when locally-owned nurseries raised seedlings for local farmersand when local processing industries began developing.

Others might say that these were overly restrictive definitions and that some account shouldbe made of the extent to which social and environmental benefits were created.

The re-establishment of certain medicinal or food plants in the forest under-storey, forexample, or the development of a multi-storey canopy structure with wildlife species present, stablewater catchments and the restoration of key ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, may beindicators of success for some.

These alternative approaches to judging "success" mean it is difficult to know when to makethe judgment. The first approach (i.e. when trees are fast-growing) might be made at say, age fiveyears. Some of the other approaches would obviously take much longer before it was clear that"success" had been achieved or not.

An example of the dilemma comes from the experiences with Acacia mangium in Malaysia.Early experience suggested it was a very promising species over a wide range of areas, includinghighly degraded sites such as those dominated by Imperata cylindrica. As a result, A. mangium waswidely planted. Then it was found that many plantations had trees with heart rot. It seemed all theplantations were failures. Several years later, it was found that early harvesting and careful sawingcombined with kiln drying would allow the production of high-value cabinet timber. The failedplantations were, once again, successes.

This suggests "success" (and "failure") can be difficult to determine and require a multi-stageevaluation. The final outcome may not even be that originally envisaged. Reasonable tree growthis often a necessary pre-requisite, but is not sufficient, by itself, to define success. (Durst et al. 2005)

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Embracing more stakeholders:reforestation of the future

ndustrial timber production will continue tobe a primary objective for many reforestation

projects, including using fast-growing, exoticspecies to grow pulpwood on short rotations.

However, it seems likely that somedifferent forms of reforestation will also beneeded in the future. It is clear there is a widerrange of stakeholders who are interested in thepotential benefits of tree planting beyond justthe industrial wood uses that have dominatedin the past (ITTO 2002).

These stakeholders might includefarmers and rural communities, watermanagers and hydroelectric power generatingagencies as well as protected area managers.

That is, large commercial timber companies will not be the only organizations interested.

Consequently, these future plantations might be expected to provide functional benefits andecological services as well as "goods" and will include reforms of reforestation that might be coveredby the terms "rehabilitation" or even "restoration" (see Box 1). That is, they will provide:

• higher quality timbers that are able to attract higher market prices;• clean water;• improved soil fertility on the increasing number of sites now degraded by previous land

uses;• multiple forest products from mixing timber trees with plants producing non-timber forest

products such as medicinal plants; and• carbon sequestration.

In some special cases, the specific objective of reforestation will also be the re-establishmentof forests resembling those originally present at the site to restore at least some of the original wildlifehabitats and biological diversity (Elliott et al. 2000).

Even where this is not the primary objective, biodiversity conservation is likely to become a

Sometimes, reforestation has actually disadvantaged local communities. Some wouldeven maintain that this has been more often the case than not, although there appears to be littlesolid data from across the region enabling firm conclusions to be drawn on this matter.

For example, in some cases reforestation has been carried out on land where ownership isdisputed, including areas where traditional owners may dispute the assertion of state ownership. Insome cases, the lands being planted were already being used by rural communities for otherpurposes. These communities had to be evicted before reforestation could occur, and planting wascarried out by external contractors.

In such cases, it is not surprising that failures have occurred when new plantations havebeen deliberately burned by aggrieved local communities.


Small rural sawmills... a crucial market formany of the timber produced by farm orcommunity forestry.

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more significant component of manyplantation programmes in the futurebecause forest plantations will be one of thefew areas where landscape rehabilitationcan be achieved.

These plantations will therefore include:

• management encompassing longrotations as well as short rotations;

• those suitable for small (farmer) woodlots as well as large industrial plantations; and• those managed as protection forests and nature reserves as well as those managed largely for

timber production.

These new forms of reforestation will require different types of silvicultural knowledge. Forexample, they will require knowledge of:

• The silviculture of a wider range of species than has been the case before. These will includehigh-value timber trees (that may grow more slowly in volume than the exotic fast-growingspecies, but which will have a higher value increment), as well as species that are able to growat degraded sites (many of which will necessarily be exotic species).

• The impacts of reforestation on local and regional hydrology; many policy makers expectreforestation will make streams run again and increase water supplies. In fact, young plantations


Box 5. Dealing with changed or unexpected circumstances

Tree plantations lose out to annual crops because of lengthy growth periods and becausecircumstances can change during a rotation cycle. Or sometimes problems only emerge after aconsiderable time has passed. Examples include:

• Vernicia montana is an oil-producing tree that was established over large areas (around 20 000ha) in Viet Nam to supply a market in China. The oil has been used for paints, plastics andmedicines. But in recent years, the market has changed and the plantations have becomevalueless because the market for V. montana oil has fallen. This illustrates the dangers of relyingon a single market.

• Cinnamomum cassia has been widely planted in Viet Nam to produce highly valued oil. The oilis extracted from bark and has been used for medicines, foods and cosmetics. But the oil contentin the plantation trees can vary with the seed source used, and can also be low if planted onunsuitable sites. Good tree growth is not always accompanied by high oil content. This illustratesthe need to undertake trial plantings and quality testing before embarking on large-scaleestablishment programmes. Quality testing may only be possible some years after trees areestablished.

• Jackfruit (Artocarpus spp.) is known to grow well in home gardens. However, the species doesnot grow nearly as well in larger plantations. The reasons for this are unclear. Nutrition may bea factor in some situations but is not the sole cause. Again, this illustrates the need for priortesting before embarking on large plantation schemes. These examples illustrate that plantingsingle-purpose tree crops for a single market is risky. The risks can be economic as well asbiological and may not emerge for some time. Such risks may be acceptable for a governmentagency or large corporation to take, but they are risks a smaller grower would be unwise toaccept.

New forms of reforestation will

require different types of

silvicultural knowledge

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Reforestation and rehabilitation constraints

he need to increase forest cover is widely recognized, but there are a number of factorscommonly limiting the extent to which reforestation actually occurs.

Recurrent disturbances There are numerous causes of forest

degradation. Whatever the underlyingcauses, the final agent is often a factor suchas fire or weeds or grazing. Reforestation isimpossible if these underlying causes as wellas these final agents are not dealt witheffectively.

Otherwise, the reforested areasthemselves will be also damaged.Disturbances such as fires are oftenparticularly difficult to prevent, especiallywhen previous fires have promoted grasseswhich, in turn, have made sites even moreprone to fires.

Site attributesMany sites available for reforestation are poor, with the better land usually being used for

agriculture. Sites available for reforestation often have poor soils (shallow, low nutrients, highacidity), long dry seasons or steep terrain. These marginal site conditions may be the factors thataccelerated the rate of degradation at the site in the first place. Many of these problems may beexpensive to correct.

Some difficult sites may need a sequential reforestation programme such as at some tin-mined sites in Malaysia, where the site is first reforested with tolerant exotic species in theexpectation that these can be subsequently under-planted with higher-value species. Suchmethodologies are still under development.

Land tenureLand tenure and access rights are crucial issues. Land users or managers are unlikely to be

interested in reforestation using trees that require long rotations unless they (or their families) willbenefit.

will reduce water supplies from reforested catchments.• Species-site relationships to ensure the most appropriate species are used at particular

sites.• Ways of restoring biodiversity (animals as well as plants) and ecological complexity to sites.• The silviculture and horticulture techniques for developing short-term crops (e.g. agricultural

crops and medicinal plants) beneath the tree canopies.

Finally, changes in the ways reforestation is carried out are only likely to be possible ifplantations are designed to include a higher degree of silvicultural flexibility to deal with the fact thatmarkets for goods and services can change over the time of a rotation.

This is particularly the case with reforested areas near large population centers. Examples ofproblems arising from a lack of flexibility are given in Box 5 below.

T

Land users or managers are

unlikely to be interested in

reforestation using trees that

require long rotations unless

they (or their families) will

benefit. Full land tenure is most

preferable

12

This usually necessitates that they be given long-duration land leases with rights to own,harvest and sell their tree crops. Full land tenure is even more preferable. Attempts to reforest landsubject to conflicting land-ownership claims are unlikely to be successful because of deliberatevandalism by disadvantaged parties.

FundingReforestation is usually expensive. This is particularly true for degraded areas where current

methods are simply too expensive for rehabilitation to be carried out. Rehabilitation of sites that aredifficult to reach and steep areas can be especially costly.

Reforestation can also be unattractive because of the long growth periods required beforeany harvesting and financial return is possible. This means high returns are needed when harvestingdoes take place to overcome the costs that have accrued over these periods.

Tree crops are further subject to considerable risk (e.g. fires, droughts, disease and changingmarkets). Forest owners, besides having to pay for the cost of replanting, rarely receive any financialreturn for the ecological services their reforestation efforts might provide to the community. That is,there is a mismatch between public benefit and private cost.

These disadvantages are lessened when rotations are short, and when reforestation iscarried out by large corporations with access to tax specialists and financial advisers. But suchdisadvantages are a significant disincentive to smaller growers.

One mechanism for dealing with these constraints is through joint ventures betweenlandowners and an industrial partner involving a sharing of financial costs and risks, as well as thereturns. Other forms of assistance to facilitate reforestation might include direct subsidies, low-interest loans, micro-credit or tax concessions. (Enters et al. 2004)

Payments for carbon sequestration or other ecological services such as clean water may beanother possibility. The types of financial assistance available will vary with both local and nationalcircumstances. Care should always be taken to ensure that incentive payments can be administeredefficiently and that they achieve their intended objectives.

Cases have occurred, for example, where payments made to encourage reforestation haveprompted further clearing of nearby intact forest to provide land to reforest using the subsidies.

MarketsMarkets may not be a problem for growers where an existing industry such as a paper mill

or plymill is already established. In fact, such industries often act as stimuli to tree growing. Ofcourse, the disadvantage of such single-market situations is the risk involved for the growers whoare dependent on the price offered, and who may have no alternative if the particular industry fails.

In other situations, the absence of an established local market can be a major disincentivebecause it is difficult for many potential growers to understand the conditions and prices that mightbe obtained at markets considerable distance away.

In a landscape with few remaining areas of natural forest and without a continued supplyof high-value timber species, local sawmills often shift to utilize large, old fruit trees present in homegardens. In these circumstances, it is difficult to predict the value of other high-value tree species thatmight potentially be grown, especially if these are only episodically produced and only smallvolumes are available at any particular time.

In such cases, the range of options often narrows to a few well-known species such aseucalypts that are seen as "safe bets".


13

There is also the dampening effect of liberalizing imports which can drive down the price ofdomestic wood and discourage reforestation (e.g. as has happened in parts of India).

SilvicultureLimited silvicultural knowledge is a common impediment to successful reforestation and

most foresters currently rely on a handful of well-known species for plantation development. Acrossthe region, surprisingly little is now known of the identity, ecology, silviculture or site requirementsof many indigenous species, although a large number of these species were once harvested fromthe natural forests.

The identity of species acceptable to timber users is well established and their relative valueis reflected by their market prices. Some of these species have also been tested in plantationconditions (e.g. Appanah and Weinland 1993, Soerianegara and Lemmens 1993, Krishnapillay2002, Do Dinh Sam and Nguyen Hoang Nghia 2003). But, in most countries, this testing has beenlimited and little is known of the site requirements or of the attributes of these species.

Administrative controlFinally, reforestation can be severely constrained by administrative requirements. These

include the need for harvesting permits, cutting restrictions, transport permits, checkpoints, exportcontrols, excessive taxation, marketing permits and burdensome documentation and paperworkrequirements.

Reforestation entirely administered by centrally regulated government agencies runs the riskof being unable to respond to local initiatives and local needs. At the same time, reforestationmanaged by local agencies lacking the background knowledge of previous reforestationprogrammes elsewhere in the country may be doomed to "re-inventing the wheel".

A balance needs to be found between the use of well-founded silvicultural prescriptionsbased on extensive experience, and the rigid application of administrative rules that may be lessrelevant in certain field situations. This dilemma is likely to sharpen as decentralisation of governmentactivities occurs, and as joint government-community forestry activities develop. The other side ofthis coin is that strong and coordinated government promotion of reforestation can produceimpressive outcomes under certain circumstances (see Box 3).


Creating support for farm andcommunity forestry

arm forestry is a means of fostering treegrowing in rural landscapes in a way that

benefits both the local and broadercommunities. Farm forestry is now beingwidely promoted throughout the region.

For example, Viet Nam has embarkedon its Five Million Hectare ReforestationProgram which relies heavily on farm forestry,and Thailand also has a similar nationalprogramme to assist farmers to plant moretrees in community forests.

F

Tree growing will be more attractive tofarmers... this is when they can obtain a financialreturn before the trees mature.

14

In some heavily populated but degraded watersheds, farm forestry may be the only way thatextensive reforestation may be possible.

Farm forestry may also be attractive in areas where populations have drifted to cities andrural population densities are declining, such as in Peninsular Malaysia. This means the demand foragricultural land may decrease over time, thereby increasing the availability of land for reforestation.

Farm forestry requires a different set of silvicultural prescriptions than does large-scale,industrial plantation forestry (Herbohn et al. 2001). Trees can be financially profitable for farmers, butthey are also a higher risk crop (because of the long rotation and unknown future markets). At thesame time, simple monocultures of long-lived tree species may not be attractive to farmers needingto grow their own food and to provide for themselves.

Left to themselves, many farmers who do grow trees usually use more than one tree speciesand commonly under-plant these with faster growing food or cash crops that will provide an earlierfinancial return than the trees. Such farmers may regard the trees largely as a form of insurance ora "silvicultural bank account" for special occasions.

But not all farmers are necessarily interested in tree growing. This may be because they seeno advantages in doing so, or because they are unaware of the opportunities that tree growingmay provide. If farm forestry is to be encouraged for environmental reasons (e.g. watershedprotection) and for the benefit of the wider society, then farmers (or absentee landowners) will needto be given incentives, compensation and appropriate assistance to motivate desired actions (LeTrong Cuc and Rambo 2001).

One form of assistance will be silvicultural knowledge and, in most situations, this will bedifferent from that generally used by larger industrial plantation companies. Farmers may requiretechnical assistance in:

• identifying potential future market opportunities (including markets for environmental services);• identifying the most appropriate species to use in their environmental and economic

circumstances (many farmers may opt for commonly planted and fast-growing exotic specieseven though the sites may not be appropriate and the future financial returns from these may be

low);• securing seeds or high-qualityseedlings;• determining when to plantand how to grow and manage theirtrees; and• marketing their infrequent andsmall production volumes.

Some farmers may recognizethe value and importance oftraditionally-used tree species andother non-timber species (althoughsome migrant farmers may not haverelevant traditional knowledge forthe sites they now occupy). Butthere may be alternatives, includingother exotic species that are moresuitable in the (degraded) sitesavailable for planting.


Multi-species plantations... these may be ofconsiderable importance, especially in farm forestry.

15


Secondary forest management:the unrecognised opportunities

lantation forestry and farm forestry arenot the only ways in which reforestation

may occur and, in many cases, regrowth vianatural successional processes will be themeans by which many extensive areas ofdegraded land are most likely to becomereforested.

Recovery will often depend onpreventing disturbances such as fire, whichcan be a major challenge. Nonetheless, suchregrowth is now common across the region.The areas of land involved are large,although statistics on just how large theseareas might be are difficult to gather.

As the supply of timber from natural forests declines, the economic opportunities for farmersable to grow some of the species once supplied by these forests may be increasing. This means thereis a need for a wider array of silvicultural knowledge, better advice on market opportunities (perhapsincluding using sellers’ cooperatives to match the market power of traders or log buyers) and betterways of communicating this knowledge to farmers in rural areas. The other forms of assistanceneeded to promote farm forestry are:

• long-term (preferably permanent) land tenure;• financial loans with low interest rates, flexible repayment schemes, micro finance, tax credits,

taxation assistance, etc;• payment schemes for the ecological services provided by farm forests to the rest of society.

Ways of repaying farmers for ecological services such as watershed protection,carbon sequestration (e.g. payment for carbon credits has been used to fund enrichment plantingin secondary forests in Sabah) and perhaps even biodiversity protection, need to be explored. Thislatter case might apply, for example, to farmers living in or around protected areas.

Studies in Costa Rica have revealed that payments for ecological services couldprovide a significant benefit to household incomes, although the transaction costs are high. Thiscould limit the attractiveness of these payments to smaller farmers (Miranda et al. 2003).

Transaction costs are less when the areas involved are larger. Hence the market forecological services such as carbon sequestration could also have the effect of concentrating landownership which might be undesirable for social reasons (May et al. 2004). Any market forecological services will obviously necessitate clearly defined land tenure.

It is important to note that some farmers or communities will also be motivated toplant trees by factors other than just timber production. For example, the Forest RestorationResearch Unit at Chiang Mai University has identified several northern Thailand communities that arewilling to attempt forest restoration to enhance biodiversity. In this case, the motivation for plantinghas less to do with immediate financial gain and is rather more complex, involving community pride,local politics and other issues. In other locations, the motivation for tree planting may be simply toaffirm land ownership.

PForest classifications wouldindicate which areas requireintervention to improve theirprotective or productionfunctions. The classification couldalso indicate which haveespecially high biodiversity value.This may be useful in formulatingregional landuse plans

16

These so-called "secondaryforests" were once viewed as"wastelands", but there is now muchwider recognition that many secondaryforests are still very valuable (and shouldbe more properly seen as "regenerating"forests).

Many contain species that areable to provide valuable timber and non-timber products (although it may takesome time before harvesting can occuronce more), and many provide importanthabitats for wildlife.

Most are also important becauseof their role in protecting watersheds.Provided further disturbances such as fireor additional logging are controlled,these secondary forests have the capacityto continue providing these benefits wellinto the future.

Not all secondary forests are thesame, and their composition andstructure vary according to their historicalorigins and management regimes (e.g.those created by heavy logging differfrom those developed after agriculturaldisturbances).

Better ways are needed forgrouping these forests into eitherproductivity classes (i.e. for economicpurposes), functional types (forwatershed purposes) or successionalstages (for biodiversity purposes). Somework on this process has already beeninitiated (Chokkalingam et al. 2001).

Such classifications wouldindicate which areas require interventionto improve their protective or productionfunctions. The classification could alsoindicate which have especially highbiodiversity values. This may be useful informulating regional land-use plans.

The capacity for successionaldevelopment and natural recovery totake place in these secondary forests willvary with the intensity of the previousdisturbances, and the capacity of trees


Box 6. Contrasting approaches toenrichment planting in Malaysia

Experimental enrichment planting has beencarried out over 10 000 ha of logged-over forestin Sabah. The approach currently being usedhas evolved over time and many changes haveoccurred as experience has accumulated.Initially, trees were planted at 3 m spacings inrows that were 10 m apart. The planting rowwas cut as a 2 m wide strip through the forest,and weeding was undertaken following theplanting of seedlings.

The seedlings planted in Sabah weremostly wildlings. Over time changes haveoccurred in the technique, most especially in theextent of climber cutting. There has also beenincreasing attention paid to tending weedsaround naturally occurring seedlings ofcommercially attractive species.

Weeding can continue for up to sixyears after enrichment. Results so far have beenpromising, although the economics of theoperations have been enhanced by paymentsmade for the carbon sequestration taking placeas the forest recovers.

A different approach is being developedin Peninsular Malaysia. This is because theseforests have a larger number of big canopy treesremaining than is the case in Sabah. This hasmade enrichment more difficult because theoverstorey shade has slowed seedling growthrates.

Traditional line planting methods havebeen used, but an approach being tested nowuses taller seedlings (up to 2 m height) plantedin holes dug by a Bobcat (a small trackedtractor) with a mechanical auger. Fertiliser is alsoapplied to enable rapid early growth and toreduce the need for extensive tending afterplanting.

Instead of using lines, planting is carriedout below canopy gaps immediately afterlogging, when overstorey cover is minimisedand before weeds have developed.

This approach is most suited to largercanopy gaps and skid trails where access ispossible for the machinery being used, but is lesssuited to off-road sites. Success is beingmeasured according to cost per establishedseedling, rather than cost per ha treated. Incontrast to Sabah, these particular trials are still atan early stage.

17

Fire: the burning question

ire regimes have changed dramatically across the Asia-Pacific region in the last 50 years, andfires are a much more serious problem than they once were.

The primary reason for this is the large areas of grassland that now cover land onceoccupied by forests. Many of these grasslands are subject to annual fires which can threatenadjoining areas of plantations and secondary forests. Technical solutions as well as cultural changeswill be needed to solve this problem.

Nearly every country in the region has numerous laws at national and local levels to regulatefire use, but cultural changes are needed amongst rural communities if fires are to be less damaging.This applies especially to fires that escape during agricultural clearing operations.

This will require a greater degree of participatory engagement between forest owners andmanagers on the one hand, and other groups and stakeholders in the rural community on theother. This engagement may involve fire prevention activities as well as managing and controllingfires that start. There should also be scope for reducing the fire hazard by surrounding importantreforestation areas with fire breaks comprised of fire-tolerant species. (Moore et al. 2002)

The identity of these species and the ages at which they become fire tolerant needs to beestablished and the knowledge shared. These boundary zones might then be burned to act asbuffers or fire breaks during periods of high fire risk. Some of this knowledge exists, but it has notyet been widely used in practice.

from nearby undisturbed forests to reach and colonise the secondary forests.

This capacity may be limited if remaining undisturbed forests are small or distant. Mostcommonly, however, the major problem for forest managers is how to shorten the time until someform of commercial harvesting can be carried out once more.

There are two basic types of silvicultural intervention. One involves simply protecting thevegetation from further disturbances, and managing the existing stands by selective thinning orperhaps pruning the trees already present. This is likely to be most suitable for small-scale communityforestry operations.

The other approach is to enrich the existing forest with tree species that are morecommercially attractive than those that are already there, or that are only present in low densities.This approach requires more sophisticated practices, and is likely to be restricted to larger-scaleoperations.

Various types of enrichment planting have been tried including planting trees in lines cutthrough the forest (with close or wide spacings between these planting lines), or gap plantings withtrees planted in only large gaps, or with intermittent small and large gaps in the canopy.

The diversity of approaches being tested in Malaysia (see Box 6) suggests a range ofapproaches will be required across the region depending on the ecological circumstances present.There is no single prescription that will suit all situations.

The economic advantages of enrichment planting are still unclear, although some promisingresults are being obtained in experimental conditions.


F

18

Conclusions

eforestation of degraded landscapes is difficult, but several silvicultural techniques have beendeveloped in recent years to achieve desired objectives.

Many early efforts focused on plantations of fast-growing exotic species. These approacheshave been useful in a variety of ecological and socio-economic situations, but are not universallysuitable. A much wider range of options is needed to address the increasingly diverse range of fieldconditions now encountered, and to fulfill the needs and expectations of stakeholders.

These new silvicultural options will need to involve a much wider range of species becausethey will be expected to produce a greater diversity of both goods and services. The goods suppliedwill include higher-value timbers as well as non-timber forest products. The services might includebetter watershed protection, better water production systems, restoration of soil fertility, biodiversityprotection and carbon sequestration.

Industrial forest companies are unlikely to be interested in many of these options. Hence, thework needed to develop these new systems will need to be taken up by governments andgovernment research organizations.

Reforestation to achieve these broader goals will not be easy and there are a number ofsignificant impediments to be overcome. Some are technical and others are economic, social oradministrative in nature.

Many of the desired rehabilitation efforts will be made by small landowners, rather than bygovernment organizations or corporations. Such small landowners will have a very different set ofneeds than plantation owners of the past.

Silviculturalists, managers and policy makers seeking to promote reforestation will need tofind ways of addressing these concerns if small landowners are to make a significant contribution tonational forest rehabilitation programmes.

Reforestation is expensive andchanges in current circumstanceswill require a mixture of incentivesand, possibly, also penalties.

Reforestation incentives mayinvolve financial loans, microfinancing, taxation changes (wherethese are appropriate), marketingadvice and perhaps even subsidies.Policies will need to targetcorporations as well as communitiesand individual farmers.

Some of the more successfulreforestation programmes acrossthe region have occurred whennational governments have made aserious and prolonged effort over anumber of years by providing suchsupportive incentives and policies.


Acacia mangium planting... after a forest clearing.

R

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References

Appanah, S. and Weinland G., 1993. Planting quality timber trees in Peninsular Malaysia: a review.Malayan Forest Record No. 38. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, Malaysia.

Banerjee, A.K. 1995. Rehabilitation of degraded forests in Asia. World Bank Technical Paper No. 270,World Bank, Washington.

Chokkalingam, U. and Bhat, D.M. 2001. Secondary forest associated with rehabilitation of degradedlands in tropical Asia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 13: 816-831.

Cossalter, C. and Pye Smith, C. 2003. Fast-wood forestry: myths and realities. Center for InternationalForestry Research and Forest Trends, Bogor, Indonesia.

Dauvergne, P. 2001. Loggers and degradation in the Asia-Pacific: corporations and environmentalmanagement. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Do Dinh Sam and Nguyen Hoang Nghia (eds.) 2003. Use of indigenous tree species in reforestationin Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi.

Dugan, P.C., Durst, P.B., Ganz, D.J. and McKenzie, P.J. (eds.) 2003. Advancing assisted naturalregeneration (ANR) in Asia and the Pacific. RAP Publication 2003/19, FAO, Bangkok.

Durst, P.B., Brown, C., Tacio, H.D. & Ishikawa, M. 2005. In search of excellence: exemplary forestmanagement in Asia and the Pacific. RAP Publication 2005/02, FAO, Bangkok.

Echavarria, M., Vogel, M. J., Alban, M. and Meneses, F. 2004. The impacts of payments forwatershed services in Ecuador. Emerging lessons from Pimampiro and Cuenca. InternationalInstitute for Environment and Development, London.

Elliott, S., Kerby, J., Blakesley, D., Hardwick, K., Woods, K and Anusarnsunthorn, V. (eds.) 2000.Forest restoration for wildlife conservation. International Tropical Timber Organization and TheForest Restoration Research Unit, University of Chiang Mai, Thailand.

Such programmes need not always be large. Over-ambitious government targets sometimesdo more harm than good. Simply removing impediments and unnecessary regulatory burdens canhave major catalytic value, especially for small landowners.

Appropriate conservation and protection programmes must accompany all reforestationefforts. It makes no sense to spend resources on reforestation, while unregulated logging of naturalforests is allowed to continue. The prevention of further degradation should be a high priority andinvolve serious commitment of resources and substantial penalties for violators.

Successful reforestation and rehabilitation of landscapes in Asia and the Pacific will requirenew knowledge, new ways of communicating, new approaches and new partnerships.Governments will need to lead the way through policy reform, incentives and demonstratedcommitment to halting further degradation of remaining forests. Given appropriate policies,incentives and technical support, small farmers and landowners as well as larger corporations canbe expected to respond positively.


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Enters, T., Durst, P.B., Brown, C., Carle, J. and McKenzie, P. 2004. What does it take? The role ofincentives in forest plantation development in Asia and the Pacific: executive summary. RAPPublication 2004/27, FAO, Bangkok.

Evans, J. and Turnbull, J.W. 2004. Plantation forestry in the tropics. The role of silviculture and useof planted forest for industrial, social, environmental and agroforestry purposes. Oxford UniversityPress.

FAO. 2001. Global forest resource assessment 2000: main report. FAO Forestry Technical PaperNo.140. Rome.

Gilmour, D.A., Nguyen Van San and Xiong Tsechalicha. 2000. Rehabilitation of degraded forestecosystems in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam. The World Conservation Union, Asia,Bangkok.

Herbohn, J.L., Harrison, S.R., Herbohn, K.F. and D.B. Smorfitt (eds.) 2001. Developing policies toencourage small-scale forestry. Proceedings from an international symposium held in Kuranda,Australia from 9-13 January 2000. University of Queensland, Brisbane.

Hurst, P. 1990. Rainforest politics: ecological destruction in Southeast Asia. Zed Books, London.

ITTO. 2002. ITTO guidelines for the restoration, management and rehabilitation of degraded andsecondary tropical forests. ITTO Policy Development Series No.13. International Tropical TimberOrganization, Yokohama, Japan.

Krishnapillay, B. (ed.) 2002. A manual for forest plantation establishment in Malaysia. Malayan ForestRecords No. 45. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, Malaysia.

Le Trong Cuc and Rambo, A.T. (eds.) 2001. Bright peak, dark valleys: a comparative analysis ofenvironmental and social conditions and development trends in five communities in Vietnam’sNorthern Mountain Region. National Political Publishing House, Hanoi.

Lamb, D. and Gilmour, D.A. 2003. Rehabilitation and restoration of degraded forests. The WorldConservation Union Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK and World Wide Fund for Nature,Gland, Switzerland.

May, P., Boyd, E., Veiga, F. and Chang, M. 2004. Local sustainable development effects of forestcarbon projects in Brazil and Bolivia: a view from the field. International Institute for Environmentand Development, London.

Menz, K., Magcale-Macandog, D. and Rusastra. I.W. (eds.). 1998. Improving smallholder farmingsystems in Imperata areas of Southeast Asia: alternatives to shifting cultivation. Australian Center forInternational Agricultural Research Monograph 52, Australian Center for International AgriculturalResearch, Canberra.

Miranda, M., Poras, I. and Moreno, M. 2003. The social impact of payments for ecological servicesin Cosata Rica: a quantitative field survey and analysis of the Virilla watershed. International Institutefor Environment and Development, London.

Moore, P., Ganz, D., Tan, L.C., Enters, T. and Durst, P.B. (eds.) 2002. Communities in flames:proceedings of an international conference on community involvement in fire management. RAPPublication 2002/25, FAO, Bangkok.


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Nambiar, E.K.S. and Brown, A.G. (eds.) 1997. Management of soil, nutrients and water in tropicalplantation forests. Australian Center for International Agricultural Research Monograph 43,Australian Center for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.

Soerianegara, I. and Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (eds.). 1993. Timber trees: major commercial species. PlantResources of Southeast Asia No. 5 (1). Pudoc Scientific Publishers, Wageningen.

Acknowledgements

Useful comments and suggestions by Thomas Enters and Jim Carle of earlier drafts are gratefullyacknowledged. Material for this booklet is also drawn from views expressed by participants at aworkshop to discuss the history of alternative forms of reforestation and future approaches in thisfield. Thanks also to Sharon Brown, Tint Lwin Thaung and APAFRI staff in this respect. Last but notleast, special mention and appreciation must be made on David Lamb’s invaluable work in compilingand researching data for this publication.

Picture Credits

David Lamb, Steve Elliot, S. Appanah, Ang Lai Hoe and Ani Adiwinata Nawir.


Documents

Helping forests take cover - FAO Logincoin.fao.org/coin-static/cms/media/9/13171069612400/2005_13.pdf · use of fire --- these are some of the main ... but also non-timber forest