Helminths – Roundworms, Tapeworms, FlukesThe Heart of Healing, Part 2 Secrets of Clinical Success: Obstacles To Cure with Dr. Jack Tips 1 Helminths – Roundworms, Tapeworms, Flukes

The Heart of Healing, Part 2 Secrets of Clinical Success: Obstacles To Cure with Dr. Jack Tips 1

Helminths – Roundworms, Tapeworms, Flukes

Acanthocepha la (gr. Acanthus — thorn Kephale — head) is a phylum of parasitic worms, characterised by the presence of an evertable proboscis, armed with spines, which it uses to pierce and hold the gut wall of its host. Acanthocephalans typically have complex life cycles, involving a number of hosts, including invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, birds, and mammals. About 1150 species have been described. VRM-1, VRM-2, VRM-3, WO

Ascarias is is a human disease caused by the parasitic roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides. Perhaps as many as one quarter of the world's people are infected[1], and ascariasis is particularly prevalent in tropical regions and in areas of poor hygiene. Other species of the genus Ascaris are parasitic and can cause disease in domestic animals. Infection occurs through ingestion of food contaminated with fecal matter containing Ascaris eggs. The larvae hatch, burrow through the intestine, reach the lungs, and finally migrate up the respiratory tract. From there they are then reswallowed and mature in the intestine, growing up to 30 cm (12 in.) in length and anchoring themselves to the intestinal wall. Infections are usually asymptomatic, especially if the number of worms is small. They may

however be accompanied by inflammation, fever, and diarrhea, and serious problems may develop if the worms migrate to other parts of the body. VRM-1, VRM-2 . WO

Cestoda is the class of parasitic flatworms, called cestodes or tapeworms, that live in the digestive tract of vertebrates as adults and often in the bodies of various animals as juveniles. In a tapeworm infection, adult worms absorb food predigested by the host, so the worms have no need for a digestive tract or a mouth. Large tapeworms are made almost entirely of reproductive structures with a small "head" for attachment. Symptoms vary widely, depending on the species causing the infection. Symptoms may include upper abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, and loss of appetite. However,

infestations are usually asymptomatic. Worm segments or eggs may be found in the stool of an infected person. Tapeworms can grow 15 to 30 feet (10 metres) in length.[1] The largest tapeworms grow up to 59 feet (18 metres)[1]. Most tapeworms enter humans through infected food, the same way they enter pets. Tapeworms harm their host by stealing vital nutrients, causing malnutrition and, if left untreated, can cause intestinal blockages. VRM-1, WO

The Clonorchis s i nensis is a human liver fluke in the class Trematoda, Phylum Platyhelminthes. This parasite lives in the liver of humans, and is found mainly in the common bile duct and gall bladder, feeding on bile. These animals, which are believed to be the third most prevalent worm parasite in the world, are endemic to Japan, China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, and Southeast Asia, currently infecting an estimated 30,000,000 humans. The egg of a Clonorchis sinensis (commonly: human liver fluke, which contains the miracidium that develops into the adult form, floats in freshwater until it is eaten by a snail.

Once inside of the snail body, the miracidium hatches from the egg, and parasitically grows inside of the snail. The miracidium develops into a sporocyst, which in turn house the asexual reproduction of redia, the next stage. The redia themselves house the asexual reproduction of free-swimming cercaria. This system of asexual reproduction allows for an


exponential multiplication of cercaria individuals from one miracidium. This aids the Clonorchis in reproduction, because it enables the miracidium to captilatize on one chance occasion of passively being eaten by a snail before the egg dies.

Once the redia mature, having grown inside the snail body until this point, they actively bore out of the snail body into the freshwater environment. There, instead of waiting to be consumed by a host (as is the case in their egg stage), they seek out a fish. Boring their way into the fish's body, they again become parasites of their new hosts.

Once inside of the fish muscle, the cercaria create a protective metacercarial cyst with which to encapsulate their bodies. This protective cyst proves useful when the fish muscle is consumed by a human. The acid-resistant cyst enables the metacercaria to avoid being digested by the human gastric acids, and allows the metacercaria to reach the small intestine unharmed. Reaching the small intestines, the metacercaria navigate toward the human liver, which becomes its final habitat. Clonorchis feed on human bile created by the liver. In the human liver, the mature Clonorchis reaches its stage of sexual reproduction. The hemaphroditic adults produce eggs every 1–30 seconds, resulting in the rapid multiplication of inhabitants in the liver.

Dwelling in the bile ducts, Clonorchis induces an inflammatory reaction, epithelial hyperplasia and sometimes even adenocarcinoma of the bile ducts (cholangiocarcinoma), the incidence of which is high in fluke-infested areas. One adverse effect of Clonorchis is the possibility for the adult metacercaria to consume all bile created in the liver, which would inhibit the host human from digesting, especially fats. Another possibility is obstruction of the bile duct by the parasite or its eggs, leading to biliary obstruction and cholangitis (specifically oriental cholangitis). VRM-4

Dracuncul ias is , more commonly known as Gu inea worm d isease (GWD), is an infection caused by the parasite Dracunculus medinensis (also known as "Guinea worm"). Dracunculus comes from the Latin "little dragon". enter sources of drinking water and unwittingly allow the worm to release larvae into the water. These larvae are ingested by microscopic fresh-water arthropods known as copepods ("water fleas", especially


of the genus Cyclops). Inside the copepods, the larvae develop into the infective stage in 10–14 days. In turn, humans may then become infected by drinking water containing infected copepods. Once inside the body, the stomach acid digests the water flea, but not the guinea worm larvae sheltered inside. These larvae find their way to the small intestine, and then pass into the body cavity. During the next 10–14 months, the female copulates with a male guinea worm. The small male (1.2–2.9 centimeters, 0.5-1.1 inches, long) dies and is absorbed into the larger female. The female develops into its full length of 60–100 centimeters (2–3 feet) long and a narrow width similar to that of a cooked spaghetti noodle. Having mated, the adult female is packed with thousands of tiny larvae. The worm migrates to the area of the body from which it will emerge, which, in more than 90% of all cases, is on one of the lower limbs. A blister develops on the skin at the site where the worm will emerge. This blister causes a very painful burning sensation, and, within 24 to 72 hours of its appearance, will rupture, exposing one end of the emergent worm. To relieve the burning sensation, infected persons often immerse the affected limb in water. When the blister, which shortly becomes an ulcer or open sore, is submerged in water, the adult female releases a milky white liquid, containing hundreds of thousands of guinea worm larvae, into the water. Over the next several days, the female worm is capable of releasing more larvae whenever it comes in contact with water. These larvae contaminate the water supply and are eaten by copepods, thereby repeating the lifecycle of the disease, as described above. VRM-4

The best known is the human pinworm, also known as the threadworms Enterobius vermicularis and the more recently discovered Enterobius gregorii. The adult pinworm male is 1–4 mm in length, while the adult female is 8–13 mm and possess the long, pin-shaped posterior end for which the worm is named. The human pinworm is commonly found in children. The pinworm lives in the lower part of the small intestine, and the upper part of

the colon. It is found worldwide and causes the common infection enterobiasis in humans. Unlike many other intestinal parasites, the pinworm does not usually enter the bloodstream or any other organs besides the intestines. Only in rare cases disoriented pinworms can be found in the vagina, and even more rarely in the uterus, fallopian tubes, liver and peritoneum; but the worms cannot survive long in these places. After mating, the male dies. The female migrates to the anus and emerges, usually during the night, to deposit about 10,000 to 20,000 eggs in the perianal area (around the anus). She then secretes a substance that causes a very strong itching sensation, inciting the host to scratch the area and thus transfer some of the eggs to the fingers. Eggs can also be transferred to cloth, toys and the bathtub. Once ingested orally, the larvae hatch and migrate back to the intestine, growing to maturity in 30-45 days. The eggs can survive from 2 to 3 weeks on their own outside of the human body. It is also in some cases where the larva will hatch around the skin of the anus and travel back inside the anus, up the rectum and back into the intestines where it matures. Except for itching, pinworm infestation does not usually cause any damage to the body. Sleep disturbance may arise from the itching or crawling sensations. Some case reports suggest that severe infestation may be associated with an increased risk for appendicitis. There is also some evidence of an association between enterobiasis and diminished zinc levels. Diagnosis is often made clinically by observing the female worm (or many worms) in the peri-anal region, but can also be made using the "scotch-tape" test, in the course of which the sticky side of a strip of cellophane tape is pressed against the peri-anal skin, then examined under a microscope for pinworm eggs. VRM-1, Mpr. VRM-2


Lymphat ic F i la r ias is is a parasitic and infectious tropical disease, caused by three thread-like parasitic filarial worms, Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and Brugia timori, all transmitted by mosquitoes. It is extremely rare in Western countries. Loa loa is another filarial parasite of humans, transmitted by the deer fly. The most spectacular symptom of lymphatic filariasis is elephantiasis—thickening of the skin and underlying tissues—which was the first disease discovered to be transmitted by insects. Elephantiasis is caused when the parasites lodge in the lymphatic system. Elephantiasis affects mainly the lower extremities, whereas ears, mucus membranes, and amputation stumps are rarely affected; however, it depends on the species of filaria. W. bancrofti can affect the legs, arms, vulva, breasts, while Brugia timori rarely affects the genitals. Infection by Onchocerca volvulus and the migration of its microfilariae through the cornea is a major cause of blindness (Onchocerciasis). VRM-2, VRM-4, ARTA

The hookworm is a parasitic nematode worm that lives in the small intestine of its host, which may be a mammal such as a dog, cat, or human. Two species of hookworms commonly infect humans, Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus. Necator americanus predominates in the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, China and Indonesia, while A. duodenale predominates in the Middle East, North Africa, India and (formerly) in southern Europe. Hookworms are thought to infect 800 million

people worldwide. The A. braziliense and A. tubaeforme species infect cats, while A. caninum infects dogs. Uncinaria stenocephala infects both dogs and cats. Hookworms are much smaller than the large roundworm, Ascaris lumbricoides, and the complications of tissue migration and mechanical obstruction so frequently observed with roundworm infestation are less frequent in hookworm infestation. The most significant risk of hookworm infection is anemia, secondary to loss of iron (and protein) in the gut. The worms suck blood voraciously and damage the mucosa. However, the blood loss in the stools is occult blood loss (not visibly apparent). Anky lostomiasi s is the disease caused by hookworms. It is caused when hookworms, present in


large numbers, produce an iron deficiency anemia by voraciously sucking blood from the host's intestinal walls. Hookworm is a leading cause of maternal and child morbidity in the developing countries of the tropics and subtropics. In susceptible children hookworms cause intellectual, cognitive and growth retardation, intrauterine growth retardation, prematurity, and low birth weight among newborns born to infected mothers. Hookworm infection is rarely fatal, but anemia can be significant in the heavily infected individual. VRM-1

Onchocerc ias is or r iver bl indness is the world's second leading infectious cause of blindness. It is caused by Onchocerca volvulus, a Parasitic worm that can live for up to fourteen years in the human body. The life cycle of O. volvulus begins when a parasitised female Black fly of the genus Simulium takes a blood meal. Saliva containing stage three O. volvulus larvae passes into the blood of the host. From here the larvae migrate to the subcutaneous tissue where they form nodules and then mature into adult worms over a period of six to twelve months. After maturation, the smaller adult males migrate from nodules to subcutaneous tissue where they mate with the larger adult females, producing between 1000 and 3000 eggs per day. The normal adult worm lifespan is up to 15 years. The eggs mature internally to form stage one microfilariae, which are released from the female's body one at a time and remain in the subcutaneous tissue. VRM-4, VRM-2, WO

These stage one microfilariae are taken up by black flies upon a blood meal, in which they mature over the


course of one to three weeks to stage three larvae, thereby completing the life cycle. Humans are the only definitive host for O. Volvulus. The normal microfilariae lifespan is 1-2 years.

Sch istosomiasi s or b i lha rz ia is a parasitic disease caused by several species of flatworm. The acute form of schistosomiasis is sometimes known as snai l fever and cutaneous schistosomiasis is sometimes commonly called swimmer's itch. The disease affects many people in developing countries, and in certain African communities and east Asia, the process of overcoming schistosomiasis is an important rite of passage. Although it has a low mortality rate, schistosomiasis can be very debilitating. Schistosomiasis is known as B i lharz ia or bi lh arz ios is in many countries, after Theodor Bilharz, who first described the cause of

urinary schistosomiasis in 1851, although the first doctor who described entirely the disease cycle was Pirajá da Silva in 1908. An often chronic illness that results from infection of the blood with a parasitic flatworm (schistosome), it causes debilitation and causes liver and intestinal damage. It is most commonly found in Asia, Africa, and South America, especially in areas with water that is contaminated with fresh water snails, which contain the parasite. VRM-1, WO

Strongy lo ides s tercoral i s is the scientific name of a human parasitic roundworm causing the disease of strongyloidiasis.

Strongyloides stercoralis is a nematode, 2.5 mm-long, that is a parasite of humans. The adult parasitic stage lives in tunnels in the mucosa of the small intestine. The genus Strongyloides contains 53 species and S. stercoralis is the type species. S. stercoralis has been reported in other primates and occasionally in dogs. However, it seems that the species in dogs is

typically not S. stercoralis, but another species S. canis. Non-human primates are more commonly infected with S. fuelleborni and S. cebus although S. stercoralis has been reported in captive primates. Other species of Strongyloides naturally parasitic in humans, but with restricted distributions, are S. fuelleborni in central Africa and S. kellyi in Papua New Guinea. VRM-1, WO

!Trich ine l la is the genus of parasitic roundworms of the phylum Nematoda that cause trichinosis. Members of this genus are often called tr ich inel la or tr ich ina worms . A characteristic of nematoda are one-way digestive tract, and a pseudoceolom (body cavity made up of only an ectoderm and endoderm). The species Trich inel l a sp ira l is is an important parasite, occurring in rats, pigs, and humans, and is responsible for the disease trichinosis. It is sometimes referred to as the "pork worm" due to it being found commonly in pork products that are undercooked. The small adult worms mature in the intestine of an intermediate host such as a pig. Each adult female produces batches of live larvae, which bore through the intestinal wall, enter the blood and lymphatic system, and are carried to striated muscle tissue. Once in the muscle, they encyst, or become enclosed in a capsule. Larvae encysted in the muscles remain viable for some time. When the muscle tissue is eaten by a human, the cysts are digested in the stomach; the

released larvae migrate to the intestine to begin a new life cycle. Female trichina worms live about six weeks and in that time may release larvae. The migration and encystment of larvae can cause fever, pain, and even death. One of the classic signs of Trichinella spiralis infection is a combination of splinter hemorrhages (not to be confused with those of bacterial endocarditis) and periorbital edema (eye swelling). Trichina are classified in the phylum Nematoda.. VRM-4, WO


The human whipworm (Tr ichur is t r ichiura or Tr ichocephalus tr ichi ur i s), is a roundworm, which causes trichuriasis when it infects a human large intestine. The name whipworm refers to the shape of the worm; they look like whips with wider "handles" at the posterior end. Symptoms include

•Light infestations are frequently asymptomatic.

•Heavy infestations may have bloody diarrhea.

• Long-standing blood loss may lead to iron-deficiency anemia.

• Rectal prolapse is possible in severe cases.

Infection occurs through accidental ingestion of eggs and is more common in warmer areas. The eggs hatch in the small intestine, and then move into the wall of the small intestine and develop. On reaching adulthood, the thinner end (the front of the worm) burrows into the large intestine and the thicker end hangs into the lumen and mates with nearby worms. The females can grow to 50 mm (2 inches) long. Neither the male nor the female has much of a visible tail past the anus. Whipworm infestation is detectable by stool examination, which can detect eggs and charcot-leyden crystals. Mebendazole is 90% effective in the first dose, and albendazole may also be offered as an anti-parasitic agent. Adding iron to the bloodstream helps solve the iron deficiency and rectal prolapse. Whipworm commonly infects patients also infected with Giardia, Entamoeba histolytica, Ascaris lumbricoides, and hookworms. Infection can be avoided by proper disposal of human feces, not eating dirt, and not eating crops fertilized with night soil. VRM-1, WO

Funj i

Ringworm, also known as "Tinea", is a contagious fungal infection of the skin, and can exist anywhere on the body. Contrary to its name, ringworm is not caused by a worm, but generally is a reddish to brownish raised or bumpy patch of skin that may be lighter in the center, giving the appearance of a 'ring'. Fungi are tiny organisms that survive by eating plant or animal material. The ringworm fungi feed on keratin, the material found in the outer layer of skin, hair, and nails. These fungi thrive best on skin that is moist, hot, and hidden from the light. When this infection is found on the feet, it is commonly called athlete's foot; when it is found in the groin it is

commonly called jock itch; and when it is found on the body it is still called ringworm. Up to 20 percent of the population has one of these infections at any given moment. Ringworm is very common, especially among children, and may be spread by skin-to-skin contact, as well as via contact with contaminated items such as hairbrushes. Ringworm spreads readily, as those infected are contagious even before they show symptoms of the disease. Participants in contact sports such as wrestling have a risk of contracting the fungal infection through skin-to-skin contact. Ringworm is mildly contagious. Ringworm is also a common infection in domestic animals, especially farm animals, dogs and cats. Humans can contract ringworm from these animals as humans are in close contact with them. Chickens may also be a source, due to the dirty conditions in which many poultry must live in which ringworm may thrive. Ringworm can also be caught from other humans, both by direct contact and by prolonged contact with flakes of shed skin (from sharing clothes or from house dust, for instance). To catch ringworm, you have to be exposed to it and you have to be susceptible. Some people are much more susceptible than others. Those with eczema or other skin problems get ringworm more easily because the protective barrier of the skin's outer layer is less intact. Children are more susceptible before puberty. Some people are genetically predisposed, and can get it easily throughout life. SC, WO, TR, #4 (Fung Dx), ENZEE.

Protis ts


Balant id ium col i is a species of ciliate protozoan. This parasite is the only member of this family known to be pathogenic to humans. Hosts include pigs, wild boars, rats, primates (including humans), horses, cattle and guinea pigs. Infection is transmitted within or between these species by fecal-oral transmission. Pigs are the most significant reservoir hosts, though they show few if any symptoms. Cysts are the infective stage, responsible for transmission of balantidiasis. The host usually acquires cysts through ingestion of contaminated food or water. Following ingestion, excystation occurs in the small intestine, and the trophozoites colonize the large intestine. Both cysts and trophozoites are identifiable by a large, "sausage

shaped" macronucleus. The trophozoites reside in the lumen of the large intestine, where they replicate by transverse binary fission, during which conjugation may occur. Some trophozoites invade the wall of the colon using proteolytic enzymes and multiply; some of these return to the lumen. In the lumen Trophozoites may disintegrate or undergo encystation. Encystation is trigerred by dehydration of the intestinal contents and usually occurs in the distal large intestine, but may also occur outside of the host in feces. Symptoms can be local due to involvement of the intestinal mucosa, or systemic in nature and include diarrhea. VRM-3, WO

Giard ia lambl i a (synonymous with Lambl ia in test i nal i s and Giard ia duodenal i s) is a flagellated protozoan parasite that colonises and reproduces in the small intestine, causing giardiasis. The giardia parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive disc, and reproduces via binary fission[1]. Giardiasis does not disseminate haematogenously, nor does it spread to other parts of the gastro-intestinal tract, but remains confined to the lumen of the small intestine[2]. Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine, and are anaerobes. Giardia infection can occur through ingestion of dormant cysts in contaminated water, or by the faecal-oral route (through poor hygiene practices). The Giardia cyst can survive for weeks to months in cold water[3], and therefore can be present in contaminated wells and water systems, and even clean-looking mountain streams, as well as city reservoirs, as the Giardia cysts are resistant to conventional water treatment methods, such as chlorination and ozonolysis.[3] Zoonotic transmission is also possible, and therefore Giardia infection is a concern

for people camping in the wilderness or swimming in contaminated streams or lakes, especially the artificial lakes formed by beaver dams (hence the popular name for giardiasis, "Beaver Fever").

As well as water-borne sources, faecal-oral transmission can also occur, for example in day care centres, where children may have poorer hygiene practices. Those who work with children are also at risk of being infected, as are family members of infected individuals. Not all Giardia infections are symptomatic, so some people can unknowingly serve as carriers of the parasite.The life cycle begins with a noninfective cyst being excreted with faeces of an infected individual. Once out in the environment, the cyst becomes infective. A distinguishing characteristic of the cyst is 4 nuclei and a retracted cytoplasm. Once ingested by a host, the trophozoite emerges to an active state of feeding and motility. After the feeding stage, the trophozoite undergoes asexual replication through longitudinal binary fission. The resulting trophozoites and cysts then pass through the digestive system in the faeces. While the trophozoites may be found in the faeces, only the cysts are capable of surviving outside of the host. Colonisation of the gut results in inflammation and villous atrophy, reducing the gut's absorptive capability. In humans, infection is symptomatic only about 50% of the time, and protocol for treating asymptomatic individuals is controversial.[3] Symptoms of infection include (in order of frequency) diarrhea, malaise, excessive gas (often flatuance or a foul or sulphuric-tasting belch, which has been known to be so nauseating in taste that it can cause the infected person to vomit), steatorrhoea (pale, foul smelling, greasy stools), epigastric pain, bloating, nausea, diminished interest in food, possible (but rare) vomiting which is often violent, and weight loss.[3] Pus, mucus and blood are not commonly present in the stool. In healthy individuals, the condition is usually self-limiting, although the infection can be prolonged in patients who are immunocompromised, or who have decreased gastric acid secretion.[3] People with recurring Giardia infections, particularly those with a lack of IgA, may develop chronic disease. VRM-3, WO


Tr ichomonas vagi nal i s , an anaerobic, parasitic flagellated protozoan, is the causative agent of trichomoniasis, and is the most common pathogenic protozoan infection of humans in industrialized countries.[1] The WHO has estimated that 180 million infections are acquired annually worldwide. The estimates for North America alone are between 5 and 8 million new infections each year, with an estimated rate of asymptomatic cases as high as 50%. T. vaginalis also has many enzymes that catalyze a number of reactions making the organism relevant to the study of protein function. T.

vaginalis lacks mitochondria and other necessary enzymes and cytochromes to conduct oxidative phosphorylation. T. vaginalis obtains nutrients by transport through the cell membrane and by phagocytosis. The organism is able to maintain energy requirements by the use of a small amount of enzymes to provide energy via glycolysis of glucose to glycerol and succinate in the cytoplasm, followed by further conversion of pyruvate and malate to hydrogen and acetate in an organelle called the hydrogenosome. SC (douche), VRM-3

Naegler ia fowler i is a free living amoeba typically found in warm fresh water, from 25–35 degrees Celsius (77–95 degrees Fahrenheit) in an amoeboid or temporary flagellate stage. It belongs to a group called the Percolozoa or Heterolobosea. N. fowleri invades and attacks the human nervous system; although this occurs rarely. such an infection will always result in the death of the victim. The infection amount will indefinitely increase as global warming intensifies, since the amoeba flourishes in warm waters. VRM-3, ARTA, VRM-4

Entamoeba histo lyt ica is an anaerobic parasitic protozoan, part of the genus Entamoeba. It infects predominantly humans and other primates. It is estimated that about 50 million people are infected with the parasite worldwide. Diverse mammals such as dogs and cats can become infected but are not thought to contribute significantly to transmission. The active (trophozoite) stage exists only in the host and in fresh loose feces; cysts survive outside the host in water, soils and on foods, especially under moist conditions on the latter. When cysts are swallowed they cause

infections by excysting (releasing the trophozoite stage) in the digestive tract. E. histolytica, as its name suggests (histo–lytic = tissue destroying), causes disease; infection can lead to amoebic dysentery or amoebic liver abscess. Symptoms can include fulminating dysentery, diarrhea, weight loss, fatigue, abdominal pain, and amebomas. The amoeba can actually 'bore' into the intestinal wall, causing lesions and intestinal symptoms, and it may reach the blood stream. From there, it can reach different vital organs of the human body, usually the liver, but sometimes the lungs, brain, spleen, etc. A common outcome of this invasion of tissues is a liver abscess, which can be fatal if untreated. Ingested red blood cells are sometimes seen in the amoeba cell cytoplasm. VRM-3

The kinetoplast ids are a group of flagellate protozoa, including a number of parasites responsible for serious diseases in humans and other animals, as well as various forms found in soil and aquatic environments. They are included in the Euglenozoa, and are distinguished from other such forms mainly by the presence of a kinetoplast, a DNA-containing granule located within the single mitochondrion and associated with the flagellar bases.

Most forms have a leading and trailing flagellum, the latter of which may or may not be attached to the side of the cell and is often used to glide along or attach to surfaces. The cytostome is often bordered by a ridge or rostrum. Bodo is a typical genus, including various common free-living species which feed on bacteria. Others include Cryptobia and Trypanoplasma. There is also one family of kinetoplastids, the trypanosomes, which only have a single emergent flagellum, including several genera which


are exclusively parasitic.

Trypanosomes have reduced or absent cytostomes, feeding entirely through absorption, and smaller kinetoplasts than other forms. They typically have complex life-cycles involving more than one host, and go through various morphological stages. The most distinctive of these is the trypanosome stage, where the flagellum runs along the length of the cell and is connected to it by an undulating membrane. Diseases caused by trypanosomes include sleeping sickness and Chagas disease, from species of Trypanosoma, and leishmaniasis, from species of Leishmania. VRM-3, WO,

The Apicomplexa are a large group of protists, characterized by the presence of a unique organelle called an apical complex. They are unicellular, spore-forming, and exclusively parasites of animals. Motile structures such as flagella or pseudopods are absent except in certain gamete stages. This is a diverse group including organisms such as coccidia, gregarines, piroplasms, haemogregarines, and malarias; some diseases caused by apicomplexan organisms include: Babesiosis (Babesia), Malaria (Plasmodium), Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium) Coccidian diseases including: Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium parvum)Cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora cayetanensis),, Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii) Most members have a complex life-cycle, involving both asexual and sexual reproduction. Typically, a

host is infected by ingesting cysts, which divide to produce sporozoites that enter its cells. Eventually, the cells burst, releasing merozoites which infect new cells. This may occur several times, until gamonts are produced, forming gametes that fuse to create new cysts. There are many variations on this basic pattern, however, and many Apicomplexa have more than one host. The apical complex includes vesicles called rhoptries and micronemes, which open at the anterior of the cell. These secrete enzymes that allow the parasite to enter other cells. Cats-A-Tonic , VRM-3, WO, VRM-2

SP IROCHETE

Lyme di sease, or borrel io s is , is an emerging infectious disease caused by spirochete bacteria from the genus Borrelia.. The vector of infection is typically the bite of an infected black-legged or deer tick, but other carriers (including other ticks in the genus Ixodes) have been implicated.. Borrelia burgdorferi is the predominant cause of Lyme disease in the US and Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii are in Europe.The disease presentation varies widely, and may include a rash and flu-like symptoms in its initial stage, then musculoskeletal, arthritic, neurologic, psychiatric and cardiac manifestations. In a majority of cases, symptoms can be eliminated with antibiotics, especially if treatment begins early in the course of illness. Late or inadequate treatment often leads to "late stage" Lyme disease that is disabling and difficult to treat. Controversy over diagnosis, testing and treatment has led to two different

standards of care. Cats -A-Tonic , ENZEE, SENG, MELA, GOLD, VIVI , VRM-4

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Helminths – Roundworms, Tapeworms, FlukesThe Heart of Healing, Part 2 Secrets of Clinical Success: Obstacles To Cure with Dr. Jack Tips 1 Helminths – Roundworms, Tapeworms, Flukes