11101701 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING （环境工程）

Hazardous Waste

Treatment and Disposal

(An examination of the present hazardous waste management options worldwide and in China)

by

ADELEKE Olukunle Francis (奥陆克) kadeleke@yahoo.com

School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering

Shanghai University

October 2002

ABSTRACT This paper examines the existing hazardous waste management options in the developed countries of United States and the European Union and tries to enumerate the present situation of waste treatment and disposal in both Hong Kong and Mainland China. A comprehensive approach of waste management was used within the framework of available legislations, facilities provision and regulations. Available data on the existing generated quantities of hazardous waste was also provided in each case and the methods by which these hazardous wastes were handled were enumerated. The problems militating against effective hazardous waste management in China were also listed and the some of the efforts being made by the Chinese government to tackle the problems were mentions. Personal suggestions were also made on the way forward for effective and efficient hazardous waste management solution in China. 1.0 HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT WORLDWIDE – AN OVERVIEW How to deal with the increasing volume of hazardous waste worldwide has been one of the most raging issues in the last three decades. Hazardous waste generation is not only limited to the developed countries, but it is also a major headache for the rapidly developing countries of Asia like China, India, etc. and even underdeveloped countries. The only difference is that the level of awareness is much higher in the develop nations of the world than in the developing counties. Also, the characteristic, type and quantity of hazardous waste generated vary with the level of development. A big problem however lies in determining the actual quantity of hazardous waste annually generated worldwide because of inconsistency of released data by reporting countries and overseas body and indeed lack of correct data in many of the developing and third world countries. For example, the total untreated hazardous waste annually generated in China varies from as high as 30 million tons (foreign bodies and agencies) to as low as 2 to 5 million tons (Chinese govt. sources). Also, a major difference lies in the definition as to what constitutes hazardous waste. In the US prior to 1997, hazardous waste generated annually in USA is often over 200 million tons which makes it look astronomical compared with other OECD countries. This is because over 90% of the reported hazardous waste is wastewater, which is not often included in the calculations for other countries. After the US EPA changed the reporting requirement the annually hazardous waste volume is now about 40 million tons (US EPA, 2001). The dynamics between evolution of a regulatory program and the development of treatment and disposal capacity for hazardous waste is very complex. Without stringent

regulations and enforcement, there is little incentive to develop (or use) state-of-art hazardous waste disposal facilities. But, without such facilities, it is hard to comply with stringent management requirements. When a regulatory program precedes infrastructure, countries must take interim measures – such as storage, co-disposal, or export – to dispose of its hazardous wastes (Probst and Beierle, 1999). So, among the developed countries of the world, the major stages in developing a program can be summarized as follows: 1. Identifying the problem and enacting legislation 2. Designating a lead agency 3. Promulgating rules and regulations 4. Developing treatment and disposal capacity 5. Creating a mature compliance enforcement program. Some of the hazardous waste management practices as practiced by some developed countries within the context of the stages listed above are discussed in this section. 1.1 HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE USA In the USA prior to the passage of the Resource Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976, hazardous waste was simply buried or dumped without any concern for potential environmental or health risks. Such uncontrolled sites included open dumps, landfills, bulk storage containers, and surface impoundments. Legislation The US Congress enacted the RCRA in 1976 to monitor hazardous waste from point of generation to ultimate disposal, a “cradle-to-grave” management system. The goals of RCRA are: 1. To protect human health and the environment from the potential impact of hazardous

wastes. 2. To conserve energy and resources. And, 3. To reduce the quantity of hazardous waste produced in the first place. The RCRA considers waste as hazardous if they “cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious, irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness; or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported or disposed of, or otherwise managed.” The US EPA defines hazardous materials as having one or more of these characteristics;

ignitability, corrosiveness, reactivity (or explosiveness) and toxicity. Another means of determining whether a waste is on the list of federal hazardous wastes. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980 popularly known as “Superfund” was established as a response by Congress to public pressure to clean up hazardous waste dumps and protect the public against danger of such wastes. It sets apart US$1.6 billion trust fund that allows the EPA to respond to immediate and long-term releases of hazardous substance that endanger public health or the environment. The money was based on new taxies levied on chemical and petroleum industries. Generation and Tracking Hazardous waste generators are divided into three categories; large-quantity generators (LQG), small-quantity generators and exempt small-quantity generators. All generators are required to keep records of the quantities and types of wastes they produce. Every two years, EPA collects information from the RCRA-regulated facilities on the quantity of hazardous waste generated and managed. The biennial reports must be submitted for facilities that qualify as large-quantity generators (LQGs) of hazardous waste, and for treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) facilities that manage hazardous wastes. The reports are useful for determining U.S. trends in hazardous waste generation and management. Prior to 1997, wastewaters represented the majority of reported generated wastes. For example, of the 214 million tons of hazardous waste generated in the United Estates in 1995, 202 millions tons (94%) were wastewaters. To ease the reporting burden, EPA changed the reporting requirements in 1997 so that only those wastewaters managed by underground injection needed to be reported. This reporting change significantly impacted the quantity of reported wastes, and made it impossible to compare the 1997 data with earlier reports to determine trends. However, the reporting requirements remained the same for 1999, so 1997 and 1999 data can be compared. According to EPA’s June 2001 report entitled National Biennial RCRA Hazardous Waste Report (Based on 1999 Data), a total of 20,083 LQGs produced 40 million tons of hazardous waste in the United States during 1999. This represents a decrease of 233 in the number of LQGs and a decrease of 0.65 million tons or 1.5% in the quantity of waste generated, as compared to 1997 data.

Treatment and Disposal The EPA fosters a pollution-prevention hierarchy that emphasizes reducing the amount of hazardous waste produced. This involve the following strategy: 1. Reduce the amount of pollution at source. 2. Recycle Waste wherever possible. 3. Treat wastes to reduce their hazard or volume. 4. Dispose of waste on land or incinerate them as last resort. RCRA hazardous waste management information is obtained from data submitted biennially by active, permitted RCRA treatment, storage or disposal facilities (TSDs). A total of 1,575 permitted TSD facilities submitted 1999 biennial reports. However, 1,049 of these facilities reported storage only and the quantity of wastes managed at these storage-only facilities were not included in the report. According to the 1999 report, 526 facilities treated or disposed nearly 26.3 million tons of hazardous waste in 1999. When compared with the 1997 report, the number of TSDs decreased by 450 and the total quantity of hazardous waste managed decreased by 11.4 million tons or 30%. In 1999, land disposal accounted for 69% of the national total. Land disposal method include : Deep well/Underground Injection 16.0 million tons Landfill 1.4 million tons Surface impoundment 0.705 million tons Land treatment/Application/Farming 0.03 million tons Thermal treatment accounted for 11% of the total. Thermal treatment units include: Energy Recovery (for reuse as fuel) 1.5 million tons Incineration 1.5 million tons Recovery operations accounted for 8% of the total. This includes: Fuel Blending 1.1 million tons Metals Recovery (for reuse) 0.72 million tons Solvents Recovery 0.368 million tons Other Recovery 0.152 million tons The remaining wastes (11%) were managed in other treatment and disposal units,

including: Stabilization 1.3 million tons Sludge Treatment 0.048 million tons Others 1.4 million tons A bar chart for the major treatment and disposal methods used for hazardous waste in the United States in 1999 is shown below in Figure 1.

18.135

3 2.34 2.748

0

5

10

15

20

Qty (million tons)

Waste Treatment and disposal Methods in the USA, 1999

Land disposal

Thermal Treatment

Recovery Operations

Other treatments

Fig. 1: Hazardous Waste Treatment and disposal Methods in the USA, 1999 1.2 HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN EUROPE Although hazardous waste forms only a small fraction of the total waste generated in Europe, it presents a potential risk to human health and environment if not disposed of safely. It is therefore one of the priority waste streams in EU policy (Environmental Signals, 2002). Legislation The Hazardous Waste Directive (91/689/EEC) defines and provide the framework for the management of hazardous waste although individual member countries also have

their own regulating laws earlier enacted. Furthermore, a European Council Decision defines the various hazardous waste types in European waste catalogue (2000/532/CE, amended by 2001/118/CE). The introduction in late 1994 of hazardous waste list in the European Union is the first attempt to establish a common classification system for the EU. In general, the new list include more waste types than previous lists. According to new European Landfill Directive, from 16 July 2002, certain types of hazardous wastes will be banned from all landfill sites in the EEA countries. These include any corrosive, explosive, oxidizing and flammable wastes, plus all liquid forms of hazardous waste and some clinical wastes. Hazardous wastes are identified on the European Waste Classifications Hazardous Waste List, and include such substances as industrial wastes containing heavy metals, asbestos, solvents and waste oil (SCIENTEC 2001). Generation The reported quantities of hazardous waste generated in some selected European Countries are shown in Table 1. Table 1: Reported quantities of Hazardous Waste Country Year Tons Country Year TonsAustria 1990

1995 317 000577 000

Luxembourg 1994 1995

36 312180 596

Denmark 1990 1995

116 000252 000

Netherlands 1994 1995

895 000955 000

Germany 1990 1993

13 079 0009 093 000

UK 1990 1994

2 310 0002 080 000

Ireland 1992 1995

143 600273,637

Catalonia 1990 1994

674 400831 439

France 1990 7 000 000 Spain 1994 8 300 000Source : OECD 1997.

Treatment and Disposal In contrast to United States practice, the disposal of hazardous waste in Europe has, historically, favored destruction and treatment rather than landfill. Europe is thus well ahead of the United States in this important environmental area. Although recovery, landfill and incineration are the dominant options for hazardous waste management, other methods (physicochemical or biological treatment, permanent storage) are widely used in countries such as Luxembourg, Austria, Italy and The Netherlands. About 1.4 million of the 36 million tons of hazardous wastes generated in European Environmental Agency (EEA) member countries (equivalent to 4%) is not treated in the country of origin, but is exported to other EU countries, OECD countries or non-OECD countries. However, export of hazardous waste for recovery to non-OECD countries is prohibited from 1998 in line with the Basel Convention of 1995 (Environmental Signals, 2002). About 75% of the exported hazardous waste from the EU and Norway is exported for recovery and about 20% for disposal. Portugal, Spain, Luxembourg and The Netherlands export a large part for disposal. Fig. 2 shows which kind of treatment exported hazardous Waste from the EU has received.

Treatment of exported hazardous waste

14%

6%

3%

7%

8%

16%

37%

9%

Recycling/reclamation of inorganic material

Recycling/reclamation of solvents and organic substances

Regeneration of acids/bases, reuses of oil

Land treatment to benefit agriculture

Storage of waste etc.

Fuel/other energy recovery

Recycling/reclamation of metals

other recovery

Fig. 2: Treatment of hazardous waste according to EU Framework Directive A summary of the available treatment and disposal method in some European countries are described. Denmark A good example of integrated system for hazardous waste disposal is the Kommunekemi or “community chemical” plant in Denmark located near Nyborg. That country’s centralized hazardous waste treatment incineration operation in the model for similar facilities in other European countries. In 1972, Denmark enacted the Disposal of Oil and Chemical Waste Act, which gave the

Minister of Environment the power to regulate waste disposal throughout the country. Under this legislative umbrella, the National Agency of Environmental Protection enacted regulations designed to prevent pollution caused by hazardous oil and chemical wastes. These regulations cover all types of storage, transportation, and disposal of hazardous waste. To implement this program, in the late 1970s Denmark established 21 inter-municipal transfer station, which feed waste material to Kommunekemi, a publicly owned hazardous waste treatment plant located in Nyborg. The transfer stations, which are under the jurisdiction of their local municipalities, segregate both household and industrial wastes. Kommunekemi’s treatment techniques are based upon rotary kiln incineration and various types of physical and chemical treatment processes. The heat from the incineration process is used to generate steam to provide heating for the inhabitants of Nyborg. There is also a nearby secure ultimate landfill that is used for disposal of Kommunekemi’s incineration ash and treatment residues. The residues are relatively nontoxic and are in immobile form. Similar integrated arrangements exist in Germany and Sweden. England and Wales The Environment Agency tracks special or hazardous waste from origin to final treatment using consignment notes. Currently the legislation does not cover household wastes such as batteries and cleaning fluids which have similar properties to other industrial wastes classified as hazardous. The government is also considering extending the regulations to hazardous waste coming from agriculture, mines and quarries. By 2004 a ruling will be enforced that will ban "co-disposal" in the same landfill site of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes. Managers of landfill sites will be required to decide whether they want to continue to handle either hazardous or non-hazardous materials, not both. In 2000, approximately 6.1 million tons of hazardous waste was produced in England and Wales, of which 43 percent - 2.6 million tons - was landfilled, and only 18 percent was recycled or re-used. Currently there are three hazardous waste incinerators in the UK, in Southampton, Pontypool and Ellesmere Port. The Hazardous Waste Incineration Directive, merged with the new Waste Incineration Directive, sets air emissions standards for hazardous waste incinerators. There are also a small number of chemical incinerators on sites that produce chemicals, some drum reconditioning facilities and cement or lime kilns that incinerate hazardous waste with other fuels (SCIENTEC, 2001).

2.O HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN GREATER CHINA Although, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Mainland China are at different stages of dealing with hazardous wastes, there does appear to be common recognition of the growing dangers of uncontrolled hazardous waste disposal and transfer. All three have promulgated hazardous waste disposal and tracking legislation (Taiwan notably just passed a law to begin work on hazardous waste remediation problems). Because of limited land space on Taiwan, incinerators—which often are used to generate energy—have been the predominant disposal method of hazardous waste. While Mainland China has the land space, most provinces have balked at opening hazardous waste facilities. Hong Kong is unique in Greater China in that the government has made considerable investments to develop integrated waste management facilities (WWICS, June 2002).

Waste Management in Hong Kong

Due to its smaller size and strong economy Hong Kong has the most developed system for dealing with hazardous waste within Greater China. Admittedly, Hong Kong is not burdened with as much hazardous waste as Mainland China and Taiwan, manufacturing industries, the main contributor of harmful waste, now make up only 10 percent of the city's GDP due to industries moving across the border to Guangdong province. Also, in addition to the decreasing numbers of manufacturers, Hong Kong has no petrol-chemical industries, usually the most prolific of hazardous waste polluters. Nonetheless, because light industrial, commercial, and residential buildings are often close together, waste control issues are very important in Hong Kong.

Hong Kong's approach to dealing with hazardous waste is nearly two decades in the making and the government followed the lead of the United States and European countries in designing a three-pronged approach: (1) promulgating legislation, (2) creating enforcement mechanisms, and (3) constructing treatment facilities. The first step in reducing hazardous waste in Hong Kong was to pass significant, meaningful legislation, the core components of which are:

• Required registration of all chemical waste producers; • Licensing and training of chemical waste collectors; and, • Monitoring of waste transportation.

Perhaps even more important than legislation has been enforcement that gives these laws real teeth—after a time—consuming process, the Hong Kong government successfully installed an enforcement team, charged with the task of enforcing proper labeling, storage and discharges regulations. To deal with the newly collected hazardous wastes, it was imperative to build a state-of-the-art treatment facility. Commissioned in 1993, the

integrated treatment facility employs U.S. Environmental Protection Agency methods for testing and conducts monthly monitoring of dioxin. While the Hong Kong government owns the centralized hazardous waste processing facility a private company—Enviropace Limited, operates it. Enviropace already has been assisting some Mainland Chinese cities with developing hazardous waste processing facilities.

Hazardous Waste Management in Mainland China

In China today, the sound management of hazardous waste is far from being established. The strategy, policies, regulations and guidelines at the national level are still in study and formulation stages (Li and others, 2002). At the local level, only a few municipalities have very limited experience with hazardous waste management. The current solution to hazardous waste management in China is that of manufacturing enterprises constructing their own facilities to dispose of wastes they generate. Only a few of these facilities have provided their services to the public, and these services, where they exist, are mostly uncontrolled.

Waste Generation in China

According to the results of the Declaring and and Regulation Project initiated in 1995, the amount of hazardous waste disposed in China in 1995 was 2.553 million tons. This represents only 9.8% of the total generation (Li and others, 2002). This shows that the amount of hazardous waste generated in China far exceeds the country's capacity to treat, store and dispose of it safely.

Official statistics show that the country discharged 2 million tons of untreated hazardous waste in 2000. The pollutants included used electric cells, chemical fluid, organic solutions, electroplating liquid, solid chemical waste, preservatives and materials from surgical operations (Xinhuanet 2002).

Laws and Regulations On April 1, 1996, China issued the Law on the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid Wastes. China also revised its criminal code in 1997 to expressly penalize unauthorized waste imports. This regulation was effective as of 1 October 1997. The National Catalogue of Hazardous Waste, which identified what, can be classified as hazardous waste came into effect in July 1998. The Regulation on Hazardous Waste Transportation Manifest Management (Hazardous Waste Manifest) came into effect on 1

October 1999. The Hazardous Waste Manifest is based largely on the results of the implementation of the Shanghai Hazardous Waste Management Regulations. Among the additional legislation is the Chemical Management law, drafted by the Chemical Registration Center (CRC) of SEPA, which focus on hazardous chemical management. The Risk Assessment Baseline of Soil Environmental Quality for Industrial Enterprises has been promulgated and effective from 1 August 1999. The law, while not compulsory and considered to be weak is regarded as the first step towards regulated site clean up similar to the US “Superfund” legislation. Enforcement of Hazardous Waste Regulations Responsibility for the overall management of hazardous waste and the enforcement of related regulations lies with the local and national Environmental Protection Bureaus (EPBs) under SEPA. Authorized EPBs issue licenses to hazardous waste disposal and treatment sites, which are verified as qualified to handle such waste. National and local environmental research institutes, environmental research institutes under various industrial ministries and a number of technology development institutes are all involved in research and development of hazardous waste disposal and treatment. Disposal and Treatment options in China The predominant technologies in hazardous waste management in China are landfilling, solidification, recycling and incineration. However, no landfill sites meet international standards for the safe disposal of hazardous wastes have been constructed except Hongmei Hazardous Waste Landfill site in Shenzhen and the Industrial Hazardous Waste Landfill in Shenyang. Also very recently (2002), the Jiading Hazardous Waste Landfill site in Shanghai - its first industrial hazardous waste disposal facility - was completed. Shanghai is by far the most advanced city in China regarding treatment and regulation of hazardous waste. Because of the relative wealth and experience of the Shanghai EPB, it has been able to undertake several incineration and landfill projects. This, however, remains the exception in China. Only some other large cities such as Beijing and Shenyang have been able to begin large modern incineration projects, and this is due largely to assistance from the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank. Other cities such as Tianjin, Guangzhou and Chongqing all have plans for modern facilities, although they are at different stages of development.

Most of the enterprises, which have constructed facilities to dispose and treat their own wastes, are operating at a low technology and capacity, and this easily results in secondary pollution of the environment. Some examples of the existing treatment and disposal facilities in China are given below (Stover, 2000): Key Hazardous Waste Facilities in Mainland China Beijing 1. BHWMC is managing a US$7 million ADB loan to import foreign incinerators and

builds landfills of up to 10,000 tons/yr, the project is moving slowly. 2. Yanshan Petrochemical Co. operates a 6,000 ton/yr Japanese incineration equipment

mainly for its own use. 3. Linyun Env. Co. operates 1,500 ton/yr incineration systems since 1996, licensed by

Shunyi EPB. 4. Sanyi Env. Co.has operated a 2,000 ton/yr EPB licensed Australian incinerator since

1997. 5. Beijing Hongshi Dope Company has a facility for incinerating Residue with a

capacity of 2.75 ton/hr. 6. Beijing Tianwei Pump Oil Limited Company has a treatment facility for waste

emulsion with a capacity of 2.0 ton/hr. Shanghai 1. The Government-funded Jiading Waigang landfill for combustion residue,

non-degradable substance and other HW was just completed in 2002. It is expected to be open for business soon.

2. No.2 Plant of Chemical Engineering owned by Shanghai Petro-chemical Company has an incinerator with a capacity of 2.11 ton/hr.

3. The SHMWC operated landfill located in Nanhui County has a capacity of 10,000 ton/yr from 1996-2000.

4. Jinshen Cement Kiln has been licensed by SHMWC with a reported capacity of 19,000 ton/yr. It was originally a World Bank pilot project and includes foreign-upgraded equipment.

5. A feasibility study is underway for a 50,000 ton/yr incinerator using foreign equipment.

6. About 20 other TSD facilities has been licensed by the SHWMC for hazardous waste recyling, treatment or disposal. Processes include incineration, solidification of heavy metal contaminated sludge, distillation for waste solvents, demulsification and priority metal recovery.

Shenyang 1. The Shenyang Environmental Research Institute has a 7,500 ton/yr. Incinerator

imported from the US mainly used for PCB and other chlorine-containing wastes. 2. A World Bank project with the components for HW disposal, Industrial wastewater

monitoring, Environmental Training Center and Environmental Information system was supported by a US$ 10million loan. Run by the Municipal government, the HW landfill is designed to accept 20,000 ton/yr. beginning in 2000.

Shenzhen A 50,000 ton/yr. Landfill designed by Qinghua University and licensed by the EPB is operating. Guangzhou Plans for a 50,000 ton/yr incinerator to be built by Municipal Government with imported foreign equipment are currently being discussed is at the feasibility stage. Tianjin 1. A feasibility study has been completed by the EPB for a 50,000 ton/yr incinerator

using foreign technology and equipment partially financed by the Swedish Intl. Development Agency.

2. The Vivendi Group, a company based in France and most famous for its bottled mineral water, is currently constructing what it claims is China's first large-scale treatment and disposal center for various toxic, harmful and hazardous wastes. The facility is modeled after 27 similar facilities developed by the Vivendi Group worldwide and will integrate incineration technology with recovery of usable materials from waste products and will also offer safe burial of hazardous wastes. Vivendi and its two Chinese partners broke ground on the US$12 million project on September 18, 2001 in Tianjin and expect it to be up and running in June 2003. (China Brief – November 2001).

Dalian A 30,000 ton/yr incinerator of domestic equipment is part of the Dalian hazardous Waste Treatment Plant that also has some recycling and landfilling capacity.

Chengdu 1. Jintang filiale, Chengdu Seamless Steel Pipe Plant has a centrifugal separator for

waste sulfate acid with a capacity of 1.0 ton/hr. 2. Chengdu Hazardous Waste Transfer Center is expanding its work by constructing a

large-scale hazardous waste treatment center, which will be complete by 2005. Once complete, this new facility will be able to treat 100,000 of the 140,000 tons of hazardous waste generated annually in Chengdu.

Problems with Hazardous Waste Management in China (ECSP 1998). • Industrial growth in China, especially in the chemical, mining, and metal industries, has generated increasing quantities of hazardous waste. Estimates on the amount of hazardous waste in China vary widely, but the most reliable numbers indicate that there is 600 million tons of waste in China, of which approximately 5-10 percent is hazardous. There are also approximately 6.4 billion tons of abandoned waste piles over 56,000 hectares in China. • The amount of hazardous waste in China is in excess of the capacity to treat, store and dispose of it safely, leading to accidents that threaten human health and the environment. There is a greater risk to human health from hazardous waste in China than there is in developed countries due to the close proximity of people and agriculture to waste sinks. • Many waste generators in China are simply unaware of the hazards associated with improper waste management. • China has little financial resources for waste management, exacerbating an already troublesome problem. • Waste is considered a secondary problem to air and water pollution in China. Waste problems therefore fall short in competition for limited financial resources. • The cleanup costs for areas polluted with hazardous waste in China are already very high, ranging from RMB 9-30 million.

3.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUGGESTIONS The governments in China at the central, provincial and municipal levels have recently been making more effort to improve the present level of hazardous waste management as can be seen from the number of hazardous waste facilities presently at the construction or planning stages. A Workshop for Formulating the National Action Plan for hazardous waste was held at Tsinghua University in 1998, which proposes a cascade solution, which involves the participation of enterprises, local (provincial and municipal) governments, and the Central government. Also, according to SEPA, some 19.5 billion yuan (US$ 2.4 billion) is to be spent to build eight regional treatment plants and 113 smaller hazardous waste disposal facilities around the country over the next few years. Indeed, the Chinese government has set 2005 as the date by which all China’s hazardous waste will be properly treated and disposed of (Xinhuanet 2002). However, in order to achieve the objective of the Herculean task of safe and efficient disposal of China’s hazardous waste, some suggestions are given below: 1. Government at the various levels should create the right climate for international

investment in hazardous waste management to ease some of the financial burden on the government.

2. Regional integrated systems as practiced in Europe, although more expensive, should

be considered over landfill since there is still no 100% leach-free landfill technology now and much land space can be saved. Although China has a large expanse of land, but the huge population also requires better land planning policy.

3. More emphasis should be placed on waste minimization, which is not only risk-free

and economical, but promotes the principle of sustainable development. This can be done by the manufacture of higher-quality products with longer life span e.g. batteries, fluorescent tubes and electronics; recycling of materials; and finding alternative to the production of non recyclable potential hazardous waste generating products.

4. On-site treatment of waste by large-quantity generators should be encouraged. The

residues, which should be substantially, less in volume and toxicity can then be disposed of in regional hazardous waste landfills.

5. As an interim measure, consideration should be given to the exportation of those

hazardous waste with recyclable potential to countries with available technologies.

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