WoodlandFish and Wildlife

MISC0535

Habitat Management forTurkeys on Small Woodlands

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Seeing flocks of wild turkeysalong forest roads and inadjacent small fields is

increasingly common throughoutmuch of the forested areas of Oregonand Washington. Many forest landowners can long remember turkeysshowing up at livestock feedingstations in winter, hearing the loudgobbling of the males echoingacross forest land during the springbreeding season, or seeing theirfamiliar scratchings in soil on theforest floor. Some landowners evenconsider them pests when the bigbirds tear up gardens near homes.Other landowners have yet to seeor hear turkeys, even though theybelieve they have suitable habitat.What many don’t realize is that wildturkeys are relatively recent addi-tions to the wildlife of this region.

HISTORYWild turkeys are native to North

America, but they did not originallyoccur in Oregon or Washington.Of the five recognized subspeciesof turkeys common to the UnitedStates, three were introduced tothe Pacific Northwest primarily toestablish populations for hunting.

Original releases are believed tohave begun more than 80 yearsago in Washington and 100 yearsago in Oregon, but these earlyattempts largely failed to establishwidespread self-maintaining popu-lations. Pen-reared birds were usedin these first release attempts andas a result, the birds were not welladapted to survival in the wild.

Beginning in 1960 the Washing-ton Department of Fish and Wildlife(WDFW, formerly the Departmentof Game) released small numbersof wild turkeys near the ColumbiaRiver gorge in Klickitat Countyand about a dozen birds near theStevens County town of Rice innortheastern Washington. Thesebirds were of the Merriam’s sub-species native to the open Ponderosapine forest lands of the intermountainwest. In the late 1980s the WDFWbegan an aggressive effort to estab-lish populations in other areas ofeastern Washington with birds ofthe Rio Grande subspecies from thesouthwestern United States. At thesame time, the Eastern wild turkey,the most common subspecies foundeast of the Mississippi River, wasstocked in several locations insouthwest Washington.

Oregon entered into a wildturkey management program atabout the same time as Washington.The Oregon Department of Fishand Wildlife (ODFW) began withreleases of the Merriam’s subspeciesinto northeast and north centralOregon in 1961. These releaseswere deemed to be successful andself-sustaining populations wereestablished in those areas. Bolstered

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by this initial success, releases ofthe Rio Grande subspecies weremade into southwest Oregon in1975 and again during the early1980s. Starting in the mid-1980s,Oregon began a very aggressivetrap-and-transplant program. Usingbirds trapped from the wild withinOregon and from other states aswell, the Rio Grande subspecieswas released in suitable habitatthroughout the state.

From releases and continuedtrapping and transplanting fromestablished flocks, viable populationsof the three subspecies have beenestablished throughout Washingtonand Oregon. By the end of thetwentieth century, populationswere well into the tens of thou-sands for the Rio Grande (mostcommon subspecies) and Merriam’ssubspecies in the two states. East-ern subspecies populations weresubstantially smaller but growingin southwestern Washington. Bythe turn of the century, numberswere high enough and overallpopulations healthy enough toallow liberal hunting seasons inboth states. Though various sub-species have been introduced intoappropriate habitats, the strainsmay not be pure because mixinghas likely occurred.

Competition. Concern has beenraised that introduced wild turkeysmay compete with native wildlifeto the detriment of either the localfauna or flora common to this area.No literature or concrete evidenceexists indicating competition orharm occurring in the environmentsinto which they have been released.However, the results of introductioncontinue to be monitored for effectson native flora and fauna.

Range distribution of wild turkeysin Washington and Oregon

Clatsop Rio Grande Turkey

Merriam’s TurkeyColumbia

TillamookWashington

Yamhill

Polk

Lincoln

Lane

DouglasCoos

Curry

JosephineJackson

Klamath

LakeHarney

Malheur

GrantBaker

Union

WallowUmatilla

MorrowGilliam

Sherman

Waco

WheelerJefferson

DeschutesCrook

HoodRiver

Multnomah

Clackamas

Marion

LinnBenton

Island

WahkiakumSkamania

Whatcom

Skagit

Snohomish

King

Clallam

Jefferson

GraysHarbor Mason

ThurstonPierce

Pacific Lewis

Clark

Okanogan

Kittitas

Yakima

Klickitat

Chelan

Douglas

Grant

Benton

Ferry

Lincoln

Adams

Franklin

Walla Walla

Columbia

Garfield

Asotin

Whitman

Spokane

Stevens

PendOreille

San Juan

Cowlitz

Rio Grande Turkey

Merriam’s Turkey

Eastern Turkey

Secondary range

Kitsap

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LIFE HISTORY

All three subspecies share manycommon characteristics. The henstypically weigh from 7–9 poundstheir first year and from about10–13 pounds when mature. Thegobblers or toms (males) vary insize from about 12 pounds at oneyear of age (referred to as “jakes”)to over 20 pounds in older ageclasses. There are several physicaldifferences between the sexes andage classes. Turkey gender can alsobe identified by their droppings(feces). Gobbler droppings areabout the size of the little fingerwith a slight crook at one end. Hendroppings are smaller and shapedlike a corkscrew. Tom turkeysdevelop a modified feather growthcalled a beard. The feathers of thebeard resemble coarse hairs andgrow from the middle of theirbreast, generally becoming longerwith age. Hens occasionally growa beard but it is usually quite small.Turkeys have excellent senses ofboth hearing and sight. They arestrong and fast runners and are alsostrong, fast flyers although theirflights are usually of short durationcompared to other wild birds oftheir size.

The dominant gobblers, thosetwo years and older, mate with asmany hens as they can claim in thespring. Some hens can begin matingat the age of one year. The court-ship ritual is colorful with wildtoms displaying in much the samemanner as their domestic kin. Aftermating, the hens disperse and beginlaying their clutch of eggs in asimple nest on the ground, usuallyin the forest with low vegetationsurrounding the nest site. Mostsuccessful nests are in areas withconsiderable brushy habitats.Typically, forest stands favored byturkeys are somewhat open, suchas those that have been thinned butwith woody debris left in place.Clutches take about two weeks tocomplete. Clutch size has a broadrange but typically contains 10–12eggs. Hatching occurs after 26–28days of incubation. Developmentof the poults (young turkeys) israpid. The youngsters follow the henand begin feeding within a day ofhatching, begin short flights withintwo weeks, and are roosting in treesat night by three weeks of age.

There is both safety and dangerin numbers. Turkeys usually formflocks of hens and young of the yearduring the summer and following

winter. Mature toms often formsmall separate bachelor flocks andthen begin mingling with the breed-ing age hens during late winter andinto the spring breeding season.A flock of sharp-eyed turkeys, allwatching for danger, makes it veryhard for an individual predator tomount a successful attack. Mostcommon predators are coyotes,great-horned owls, bobcats, andraccoons. Bobcats seem to beespecially adept at taking nestinghens. However, predation is rarelya serious issue for a populationunless turkey numbers are depressedand escape and hiding cover isinadequate.

Turkeys are susceptible tooccasional infectious diseases andparasites that can spread rapidlyin birds in close contact with eachother. While most of these healthproblems rarely cause severe prob-lems except in the young or whennutrition is poor, a few diseases canbe lethal, causing serious problemsto flocks or even local populations.Of great concern are pathogens thatspread from domestic fowl (includ-ing recent remains of dead birds)to wild turkeys. These diseases maybe spread by direct contact withinfected chickens and turkeys, their

Male Female

The sex of some wild turkeys can be determined by the shape of their droppings.

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Sex and age of wild turkeys

Hen Gobbleror Tom

Middle toe under41/2 inches long

Middle toe over41/2 inches long

Outer wing feathers Breast feathers

Adult Immature Adult ImmatureTom Hen

Tom (black tip)

Tail feathers

Hen (buff tip)

Mature Tom(adult)

Immature Tom(juvenile)Tom Hen

Spur

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droppings that are spread on fields,and by infected food. Thus, a realdanger exists for turkey flocks thatmay feed or rest in and aroundfarmsteads and feedlots. Parasiticdiseases such as blackhead andcoccidiosis are especially harmfulto wild turkeys. These diseases caneasily spread from the above notedsources to wild birds where theymay ravage a flock. A few speciesof mold that sometimes grow onold agricultural grain and causeaflatoxin may impact turkeys.These often are found on wastegrain in livestock feed lots or inold grain used to feed birds.

Wild turkeys have lived for morethan 12 years in captivity. Life inthe wild is more challenging; afive-year old wild turkey is an old-timer and one approaching 10 yearsof age is a very rare and lucky bird.

HABITATREQUIREMENTS

Depending on the subspeciesand location, turkeys use a varietyof habitats for their food, shelter,and cover requirements. All threesubspecies in the Pacific Northwestuse two habitat features in variousquantities and arrays. These featuresare trees and grasslands. Neithercontinuous forest canopies noropen treeless landscapes alone aresuitable habitat. Trees and associatedunderstory vegetation supply fooditems as well as escape cover andnight time roost sites. Non-forestedopenings, including agriculturalfields and recent clear cuts, supplyfood in the form of green herbaceousmatter, insects, seeds, and fruits.Amount and timing of use of these

different habitat types dependson time of year. Winter finds birdsusing forested areas for the shelterthey afford as well as the food theysupply. During summer and earlyfall, agricultural field borders andgrassy areas near forested environ-ments supply more food items toturkeys.

The Rio Grande subspeciesof wild turkey uses the most openenvironments and will forage somedistance away from forests. Easternwild turkeys seldom venture far fromthe protection of forest habitat, andforage along the edges and in smallpastures, crop fields, and recent clearcuts. The Merriam’s subspeciesselect agricultural fields and mead-ows more often for foraging, butusually stay close to forested envi-ronments so escape cover is nearby.

Nesting. Turkeys nest on theground in a variety of locationsbut a few characteristics are almostalways present at the more success-ful nest sites. Overhead cover (treecanopy) and a relatively denselower canopy are usually present,as well as very dense ground coverup to about one foot in height. Nestsare often built against a guardobject such as a tree and/or solidbrushy backdrop for protectionfrom predators approaching frombehind. Hens like to have goodvisibility above the ground coveron three sides. Successful nest sitessupply shelter from the elementsand are well hidden from predatorswhile offering a view to the sharp-eyed brooding hen. Only the henincubates the eggs and raises theyoung. After hatching, the henleads the brood away from the nestsite and extensive foraging begins,fueling rapid growth.

Food Requirements. Foodrequirements and foraging areaschange with the seasons and ageof the birds. Turkeys are quite ver-satile and very adaptive when itcomes to eating. The list of fooditems they have been known toconsume is vast. However, a fewfood types really stand out and arevery important seasonally. Thesefoods include mast (such as nutsand acorns); grasses and a long listof other herbaceous plants; insects;and some agricultural grains suchas wheat, oats, barley, and corn.Seeds of some conifers such asPonderosa pine and occasionallyDouglas-fir are important dietcomponents, as well.

Spring—Hens with broodsmust have grassland environmentsfor successful survival of young.These grasslands must have a readysupply of insects during the firstfew weeks of life for good muscleand bone development of the young.These areas need to be large enoughso that hens and poults can foragethroughout the day. A hen and herbrood may cover 75 acres in aweek foraging for insects and up to250 acres during the course of thesummer. Although the vegetationmust be tall enough so that sufficientfood and hiding cover is available,the hens also must be able to spotpredators above the grass. Therefore,the best brood habitat containsvegetation about one to two feet inheight. Native grasslands, ungrazedor lightly grazed pastures, andsome hayfields readily supply theseneeds. Open woodlands, as in olderPonderosa pine forests with grassand herbaceous understory, arereadily used when available. OlderDouglas-fir forests on the west

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side, especially those that havebeen logged with multiple thinningentries that have left a more openunderstory, also provide goodbrood-rearing habitat. Recent clearcuts that have numerous grassyopenings are also used extensively,especially within the range of theEastern wild turkey.

Summer and Autumn—As thesummer progresses, broods as wellas hens and toms feed heavily onseeds, grasses and related species,green herbaceous plants, soft andhard mast (berries, nuts, and hardseeds), and agricultural grains.There is decreasing reliance oninsects. Late summer and autumnseasons find the birds relying agreat deal on mast (both soft andhard); grasses and other greenherbaceous plants; and seeds ofconifer trees, especially Ponderosapine. Where oaks are found, acornsare an important food item. Softmast forms an increasing part ofturkey diet at this time of the year,produced by shrubs includingserviceberry, hawthorn, buffaloberry,mountain ash, wild rose, poisonoak, elderberry, currant, salal, andOregon grape. Insects are stillconsumed, especially prior to frost.At this time of year, flocks of RioGrande and Meriam’s wild turkeysmay be seen foraging on grass-hoppers in the irrigated hay fieldsof eastern Washington and Oregon.All three subspecies readily feedon agricultural grains (corn, oats,wheat, barley, and legumes),especially after the fields havebeen harvested, although theywill also feed on standing grains.

Winter—Winter can be a toughtime for wild turkeys if prolongedperiods of inclement weather occur.

Waste grain is still an importantfood item where it can be found ifthe snow is not too deep for turkeysto forage. Greens are consumed asthey are found, especially aroundsprings, seeps, and riparian zones.Springs and seeps can be particularlyimportant during periods of heavysnowfall as the flowing water maykeep some of the ground free ofsnow and ice. Greens may becomemore lush around these watersources, and some invertebrates(and small vertebrates as well)are found and consumed by wildturkeys. Mast is very important inthe winter. Hard mast and seedsof pine, fir, and oak as well aspersistent soft mast from most ofour native shrubs (even if shriveledand/or frozen) are readily consumed.

To secure shelter, turkeys mayspend more time in forested environ-ments during harsh winter weather.Therefore, food items found inforested areas (listed above) takeon greater significance in the winter.Healthy adult turkeys are capable

of scratching through relativelydeep snow and brush for food items.Although they may survive extendedperiods with little or no food (upto two weeks if sufficient shelteris available), productivity and over-all survival may decline. Qualityand quantity of foods, especiallyin winter, are very important tomaintaining populations.

During winter, livestock feedlots and farm and ranch headquartersoften have large quantities of wastegrain, hay, and other farmsteadfoods available that attract flocksof turkeys. Additionally, some land-owners may intentionally scattergrain near the farmstead to attractturkeys. While some flocks mayspend relatively long periods oftime feeding in these settings, thiscan expose them to several diseasesand parasites that may prove fatal.Additionally, they may become soaccustomed to acquiring feedaround buildings that they losetheir fear of people and humanhabitations, and this behavior can

Mature Tom courting.

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lead to increased mortality aroundproperties that are less friendly.People who want to give a helpinghand to wild turkeys are betteroff forcing the turkeys to foragewithin suitable forest and adjacentfield habitats.

However, there are certain situa-tions where supplemental feedingin winter may actually increase theturkeys’ survival. These situationsmight occur during prolonged peri-ods of deep snow (over 1 foot indepth) when the birds are not ableto forage through the snow and ice.After one week of these conditionswhere continued cold weather andsnows are predicted, winter feedingmay be considered for use in for-ested habitats. People wanting tofeed during these conditions shouldcontact local state wildlife man-agement biologists to discuss theacceptability of feeding and beprepared to use only fresh, cleangrain to reduce possible fungalpoisonings.

Water. In moist environmentsand during periods of adequate rain-fall, turkeys satisfy much of theirwater needs from the foods theyconsume. During extended periodsof little or no rainfall, they may

seek open water on an as-neededbasis. Streams, rivers, ponds, wet-lands, springs, seeps, and evenditches and roadside depressionsmay supply their water needs atthat time.

Roosting. Although turkeysnest and forage on the ground, theyprefer to roost in groups and usuallyfly to large branches in trees fornight shelter. Isolated trees arerarely used for roosting. A singletree in a stand may be used by alarge number of birds if it has suffi-cient height and large-diameterhorizontal branches capable ofsupporting the weight of numerousbirds. Roost trees are typicallylarger in height, canopy coverage,diameter, and basal area than adja-cent trees in a stand. Douglas-firare most often selected for roostingon the westside. Ponderosa pinetrees are used most often in easternWashington and Oregon. Oregonoak is used where it occurs. Standsthat are best for roosting are shelteredfrom prevailing winds and are usu-ally multi-layered, mature mixedconifer forest. In one study thetimber in these stands averaged 148cubic feet per acre and had greatercanopy coverage and height thanstands not selected for roosting.

MANAGEMENTRECOMMENDATIONS

In general, a mix of forest andopen areas must be maintained inappropriate condition for wild tur-keys. Depending on the locale andthe subspecies of turkey, varioussizes, densities, and distribution ofthese habitats should be maintainedor developed. Even in the absence

of active management, there aresome general practices that shouldbe avoided.

Do Not:• Feed wild turkeys (except

during prolonged periods ofextreme winter weather wheresnow covering is more than1 foot in depth) or attempt toattract them to farm and ranchoperations that have domesticfowl and/or livestock feedingoperations.

• Confine livestock in small foreststands, so that desirable habitatfeatures will be protected fromovergrazing and trampling.

• Attempt to stock turkeys onyour own (always contact theappropriate state fish and wild-life agency for trapping andtransplanting wild turkeys).

• Eliminate mast-producingshrubs and trees (these areusually referred to as “brush”)in established forest stands andplantations.

There are many managementpractices focused on turkey food,shelter, and cover that can be imple-mented to protect, enhance, orcreate habitat in forests and adja-cent non-forested areas. Remember,the goal is to create that mix ofwoodland and open areas thatsupply the grass and shrub habitatturkeys feed in, along with adequatecover. Such areas will includesufficient nesting and brood rearinghabitat as well as forested escapecover and roosting trees. In theprocess of enhancing an area for

Immature Tom

wild turkeys, many native speciesof wildlife that nest, den, hide,or forage on the forest floor andadjacent openings or in maturenative timber will also benefit.

Forest Habitat1. For roosting, some mature

timber should be maintained thathas low exposure to prevailingwinds. Ponderosa pine shoulddominate on the east side of theCascades and Douglas-fir on thewest side. Where Oregon whiteoak occurs, these trees shouldbe maintained. Maintenance ofestablished Oregon white oak mayrequire removing conifers that areoverlapping oak crowns, as thisspecies is very shade intolerant.

2. Young dense stands should bethinned to allow sunlight tostrike the forest floor. This willstimulate the growth and devel-opment of grasses, forbs, andshrubs that can provide turkeyforaging habitat. Thinning willalso release residual trees andallow increased height anddiameter growth. Where possible,implement a variable-densitythinning regime in stands slatedfor a thinning treatment. Thisinvolves thinning some patcheswithin the stand more heavily(even clear cutting) and somepatches very lightly or not at all.Variable-density thinned patchesshould total at least one-fourthof the stand with the remainderthinned with a standard forestrythinning regime. This manage-ment mixture promotes grass,forb, and shrub development inthe heavily-thinned patches andnesting and escape cover in the

lightly thinned or unthinnedpatches. Within turkey habitat,a patch is described as at least100 feet in diameter. Ideally,a patch should be at least onestandard tree height in diameter.Heavy thinning means leavingno more than 40% canopy closurewhen the thinning operationis completed. An alternativeto heavy thinning is to use agroup selection cut or clear cutto create a forest opening. Inextensively forested landscapeswhere more than 80% of thelandscape is actively managed,clear cuts or heavy thinning thatpromotes understory developmentcan be applied to be severalacres with the remainder of theunit thinned in the normal pat-tern. From another perspective,in mature Ponderosa pine foreststhat are to be logged, it wouldbe beneficial for turkeys tomaintain a tree basal area ofabout 87 square feet per acre.In Eastern wild turkey habitat ofwestern Oregon and Washington,clear cuts should not exceed 30acres in size. If a few residualmature trees still exist in theseunits, they should be maintainedfor turkey roosting and for coneproduction.

3. Young plantation managementfor wild turkeys is challenging.Many native shrubs and groundcovering vegetation competewith shade-intolerant coniferseedlings and are typicallyremoved to stimulate the growthof the conifers. Much of thisground cover constitutes turkeyfood, nest, and brood habitat.Where possible, maintain the

mast-producing trees and shrubs,as well as grasses. Where com-petition with conifer seedlingsis a major concern, retentionof grasses, forbs, and shrubsmay best be accomplished alongedges, in riparian zones, aroundsprings and seeps, around andwithin green tree retentionpatches, and on or adjacentto landings and skid trails.

4. Light grazing by domesticlivestock can be tolerated andcan assist in keeping some foreststands from becoming too densefor turkeys. However, in areaswhere nesting occurs, cattleshould be kept off during nestingseason. Livestock should not bepermanently confined to forestedareas as the continual tramplingand grazing destroys nests andfood resources.

5. One of the best practices thatcan be implemented is plantingturkey food. Large disturbedareas such as logging landings,skid roads, burned slash piles,turnarounds, and sites wherelivestock have exposed forestsoils can be sown with a forageseed mix. Mixtures that containat least one variety of legume(clover) are excellent. Severalmixtures are available thatcontain multiple clover species,as well as annual and perennialgrasses. These will usually needto be mixed by agriculture seedcompanies or may be availablethrough state fish and wildlifeagencies or nonprofit organiza-tions including the NationalWild Turkey Federation and theRocky Mountain Elk Foundation.

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WOODLAND FISH & WILDLIFE

If mast-producing shrubs andsmall deciduous trees are absentthey may be planted. Some spe-cies that contribute to optimumturkey habitat include service-berry, chokecherry, hawthorn,wild rose, snowberry, kinnikinnik,elderberry, mountain ash, sumac,wild plum, and currants. Buffalo-berry is also a good east sidespecies. Many of these nativespecies occur on the west sideand should be maintained orplanted. Mast-producing groundcovers that may be plantedinclude Oregon grape and salal.

6. Water management—Springsand seeps are excellent compo-nents of turkey habitat. Theyare not only used as a source ofseasonal water, but for providinginsects and other invertebrates,vertebrates, and greens duringthe dry months and well into the

winter when much of their for-aging habitat is covered withdeep snow. These sites should beprotected from livestock grazing.Small seeps can be excavated toform small pools or the outflowblocked to capture surface water.Created pools do not need to bedeep; less than 1 foot of depth issufficient. A primary consider-ation is making sure that at leastone side of the pool has a gentleslope (at least a 1:3 depth toslope ratio). This will ensure thatsmall animals will not becometrapped and drown. Native veg-etation including wetland plantsshould be maintained around theborders, but one side should bekept relatively open for ingressand egress by turkeys and otherwildlife. Nonnative invasiveplants such as reed canary grassneed to be controlled. Wherelivestock are watered, including

from tanks, overflow can becaptured away from the tanksor other devices and treated thesame as springs and seeps.

Non-forested Habitats7. Turkeys forage extensively

in non-forested environments,especially the Rio Grande andMerriam’s subspecies. Grassesshould be allowed to mature insome areas, such as around fieldborders adjacent to forest stands.This will require grazing man-agement. In hay fields and grainfields, a strip of unmanaged hayor grain from 10–60 feet widecan be left adjacent to forestsfor summer brood rearing andwinter food.

8. Pasture management mayinvolve temporarily excludingcattle from edges to allowgrasses to seed out for turkeybrood rearing and fall-to-winterfeeding. Overseeding andfertilizing pastures that needrenovating, and the controlof noxious weeds will improveturkey foraging habitat.

9. Pasture enhancement—In verylarge pastures or where numerouspastures form a treeless block(160 acres or more), windbreakscan be planted for escape coverand travel corridors and to supplyadditional foraging habitat. Wind-breaks should be a minimum ofthree rows in width with somemast-producing shrubs includedalong the edges. Planted treesand shrubs should be protectedfrom livestock at least until theyare well established.

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Sources of Information

National Wild Turkey Federation—Wildlifebulletins. Visit www.NWTF.org.

Washington Department of Fish andWildlife. Priority Habitats and Species—Volume IV–Birds. Olympia, WA.

Hewitt, Oliver, ed. 1967. The Wild Turkeyand its Management. The Wildlife Society.Washington D.C.

Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife3406 Cherry Ave. N.E.Salem, OR 97303

Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife600 Capitol Way NorthOlympia, WA 98501-1091

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Modern forest, farm, andranch management has alteredmany native environments. In thisprocess, a new niche has beencreated that is rapidly being filled

by wild turkey subspecies fromother regions of the United States.With some understanding of theirbiological requirements, appropriatemanagement of this new addition

to our local fauna can allow wildturkeys to prosper for the enjoymentof landowners, wildlife observers,and sportsmen for generations tocome.

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Titles available in the Woodland Fish & Wildlife series:

Is There a Place for Fish and Wildlife in Your Woodland? ........................................... MISC0132

Riparian Areas: Fish and Wildlife Havens .................................................................... MISC0133

Managing Small Woodlands for Grouse....................................................................... MISC0141

Wood Ducks on Small Woodlands ............................................................................... MISC0142

Managing Ponderosa Pine Woodlands for Fish and Wildlife ....................................... MISC0158

Managing Small Woodlands for Cavity-Nesting Birds .................................................. MISC0160

Trout in Small Woodlands ............................................................................................ MISC0161

Managing Small Woodlands for Elk ............................................................................. MISC0164

Coastal Douglas-fir Forests and Wildlife ...................................................................... MISC0168

Hawk, Eagle and Osprey Management on Small Woodlands...................................... MISC0169

Wetlands as Varied as our Region ............................................................................... MISC0179

Wildlife on White Oak Woodlands ................................................................................ MISC0180

Quail on Small Woodlands ........................................................................................... MISC0187

Managing Deer on Small Woodlands ........................................................................... MISC0189

Beaver, Muskrat, and Nutria on Small Woodlands ....................................................... MISC0196

Managing Forest Habitats for Neotropical Migrant Songbirds...................................... MISC0198

Habitat Management for Bats on Small Woodlands..................................................... MISC0226

Managing Western Juniper for Wildlife ......................................................................... MISC0286

Wildlife in Broadleaf Forests of Oregon and Washington ............................................. MISC0534

These publications may be ordered from Washington State University Extension Bulletin Office,(800) 723-1763 or online http://pubs.wsu.edu/. You may also download copies at:

http://www.WoodlandfishandWildlife.org.

WOODLAND FISH & WILDLIFE

The Woodland Fish and Wildlife Project is a cooperativeeffort among the World Forestry Center, Oregon StateDepartment of Forestry, Oregon Department of Fish andWildlife, Washington State Department of Natural Resources,University of Washington College of Forest Resources,Oregon State University Extension Service, Washington StateUniversity Extension, Oregon Association of ConservationDistricts, Oregon Small Woodlands Association, WashingtonFarm Forestry Association, Washington Department ofFish and Wildlife, USDA Natural Resources ConservationService, USDA Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service,and the Western Forestry and Conservation Association.

A Woodland Fish and Wildlife Project Publication

The Woodland Fish and Wildlife Project was initiatedto provide information on fish and wildlife management toprivate woodland owners and managers. It is the intent of theorganizations involved in this project to produce publicationsthat will serve as practical guides to woodland owners.

Each publication is intended to be complete in itself. Usersmay find it convenient to collect all publications in this seriesin a three ring binder to form a permanent reference file.Woodland Fish and Wildlife Project publications range froman overview of fish and wildlife opportunities on woodlandproperties to specific publications concerning techniques formanaging individual species.

Reprinting of this publication, in whole or in part, is allowed with written permission of Woodland Fish and Wildlife.

ByJim Bottorff, Washington Department of Natural Resources.

Valuable information and suggestions were provided by: Steve Denney, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife;Dave Ware, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife; Dr. John Crawford, Oregon State University;

and the National Wild Turkey Federation.

College of Agricultural, Human, and Natural Resource Sciences

WSU Extension bulletins contain material written and produced for public distribution. Alternate formats of our educationalmaterials are available upon request for persons with disabilities. Please contact the Information Department, College ofAgricultural, Human, and Natural Resource Sciences, Washington State University for more information.

You may order copies of this and other publications from the WSU Bulletin office, 1-800-723-1763, or online http://pubs.wsu.edu

Issued by Washington State University Extension and the U.S. Department of Agriculture in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 andJune 30, 1914. Extension programs and policies are consistent with federal and state laws and regulations on nondiscriminationregarding race, sex, religion, age, color, creed, national or ethnic origin; physical, mental or sensory disability; marital status,sexual orientation, and status as a Vietnam-era or disabled veteran. Evidence of noncompliance may be reported through yourlocal Extension office. Trade names have been used to simplify information; no endorsement is intended. Published February2005. Subject codes 400, 440. MISC0535

WOODLAND FISH & WILDLIFE

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