Group Decision Support and Groupware Technologies

Group Decision Support and Groupware Technologies

A Bit of History

• The existence of support mechanisms for MDM activities predates the technology (Churchill’s cabinet war room and its wall of maps).

• The 1960s and 70s saw the addition of slide projectors and overheads.

• The computer was the next logical step in the 1970s and 80s.

• Today there are entire facilities (UA and Claremont) devoted to MDM activities

Group Decision Making

Holsapple suggests we use the term multiparticipant decision maker (MDM)

• A group is the MDM structure where multiple decision makers completely interact

• A team is the MDM structure where members advise one decision maker but do not interact

• A committee is the MDM structure with a single decision maker and member interaction

Hierarchical Classification of MDM Structures

Decision Decision StructureStructure

CollaborativeCollaborative Non-Collaborative

GroupGroup TeamTeam IndividualIndividual

ConsensusConsensus MajorityMajorityCommitteeCommittee

ConsensusConsensus MajorityMajority

ImplementationImplementation

Communication among non-decision-makers is relevant

Communication among non-decision-makers is irrelevant

Formal ParticipantsMultiple Decision-makers

Formal ParticipantsSingle Decision-maker

No formal sourcesSingle Decision-maker

All must agree Stated % must agree

All must agree Stated % must agree

Collective communication

between participants& Decision-maker

Interactive communication between non-decision-

maker participants

Results directly from decision Results directly from recommendation

Basic MDM Structures

GroupGroupMultiple DMs with

complete interaction

TeamTeamSingle DM with no

participant interaction

CommitteeCommitteeSingle DM with complete

participant interaction

Basic Communication Network Structures

Wheel Network Circle Network

Completely Connected Network

Chain Network

Principal Characteristics of Network Structures

Highly Centralized – Wheel, Chain Efficient for routine and recurring decisions They tend to strengthen the leadership position of the central members They tend to result in a stable set of interaction among the participants They tend to produce lower levels of satisfaction among the participants

Highly Decentralized – Circle, Completely Connected They tend to produce higher levels of satisfaction among the

participants They facilitate non-routine or nonrecurring decisions They promote innovative and creative solutions

Group Behaviors and Norms

• MDMs establish norms that guide the decision-making process

• A norm specifies what group members are expected to do under given circumstances

• Norm “sending” can be through examples, peer review or sanctioning

Factors Used in Determining Decision Structure

The importance of the quality of the decision The extent to which the DM possesses the knowledge and

expertise to make the decision The extent to which potential participants have the necessary

information The degree of structuredness of the problem context The degree to which acceptance or commitment is critical to

successful implementation The probability of acceptance The degree of motivation among the participants to achieve

organizational goals The degree of potential conflict among the participants

Matrix for MDM Structure Selection

FactorsIndividual Team Committee Group

High Importance DM Expertise Participant Expertise High Structuredness Acceptance Critical Acceptance Probable Participant Motivation Potential for Conflict

The Problem With Groups

• Size: in general, member satisfaction and cohesiveness decreases with group size. In large groups, subgroups or internal coalitions tend to form.

• Groupthink: in large groups, people tend to think in ways that achieve unanimity instead of creativity.

Other Sociological Issues

• Conflict: the desire to be seen as a good team member can lead to conflict avoidance.

• Anonymity: one method used to control sources of conflict is to allow members to participate anonymously.

• Gender Issues: males and females tend to place different values on different skills, but this may be a strength in an MDM setting.

Negotiating and Deciding

• The decision may involve multiple viewpoints, thus creating the need for negotiation.

• The design of the support mechanism for the MDM must accommodate the activities of negotiation.

• These activities include equitable access to information and support for a wide variety of communication structures.

Effects Related to MDM Size

Participant interaction tends to decrease with increase in size

Affective or emotional relationships tend to decrease with increase in size

Central, dominant leadership tends to increase with size

Conflict is resolved with political rather than analytical solutions as size increases

Potential Consequences of Groupthink

Tends to preclude a complete and open-minded analysis of opportunities in the development of objectives

Inhibits a meaningful search for information and tends to bias any searches toward a self-fulfilling selectivity

Limits the participants’ ability to impartially appraise alternatives

Often results in a complete failure to consider possibilities associated with cost of failure which, in turn, tends to result in choice selections that are more risky than is warranted by the payoff.

Tends to eliminate the formation of contingency or fallback positions

MDM Support Technology Variables

Personal Factors

AttitudeAbilitiesIndividual motivesBackground

Situational Factors

Reasons for group membershipStage in group developmentExisting social networksBackground

Group structure

Work group normsPower relationshipsStatus relationshipsGroup cohesivenessDensity (group size, room size, interpersonal distance)AnonymityFacilitator

Contextual Variables

Technological support

DegreeType

Task characteristics

ComplexityNatureDegree of uncertainty

I. Situational Factors

Depth of analysisParticipationConsensus reachingTime to reach the decision

II. Communication Characteristics

Clarification effortsEfficiency of the communicationExchange of informationNonverbal communicationTask-oriented communication

III. Interpersonal characteristics

CooperationDomination of a few members

IV. Structure imposed by the technology

I. Characteristics of the decision

QualityVariability of quality over timeBreadth

II. Implementation of the decision

CostEaseCommitment of participants

III. Attitude of participants toward decision

AcceptanceComprehensionSatisfactionConfidence

I. Attitude toward group process

SatisfactionWillingness to work with participants in the future

Group Process

Task-related Outcomes

Group-related Outcomes

MDM Support Technology Categorization

DSSDSS

Objectives of MDM Support Technologies

• Process support mechanisms focus on facilitating interaction

• Process structure mechanisms govern the communication activities

• Task support mechanisms can select, organize or derive information

• Task structure mechanisms provide access to techniques that filter, combine and analyze knowledge relevant to the task

Sources of Gains in MDM Activities

Collective has greater knowledge than any single participant

Allows for synergistic results otherwise not obtainable Interaction stimulates the generation of knowledge or

information otherwise unavailable Participants can improve individual performance

through learning from others Improved evaluation over individual decision-making

structure

Sources of Losses in MDM Activities

Relative allocation of speaking time is reduced with MDM size Can result in idea production blocking Can produce information overload much faster Participants may not be able to remember all the contributions of

others Pressures resulting in conformity can be exacerbated Can increase evaluation apprehension in participants Allows for “free-riding” or social loafing of lazy or non-participative

individuals Can promote cognitive inertia or groupthink Increases opportunity for socialization over goal focus Increases decision context coordination activities Can allow for partial task or knowledge analysis

Classes/Types of MDM Support Technology

Classification by feature – DeSanctis and Gallupe proposed a three-level scheme based on the features offered:

– Level 1: primarily intended to facilitate communication among members

– Level 2 : designed to reduce uncertainty

– Level 3: help regulate the decision process

DeSanctis and Gallupe MDM System Classification

MDMLevel Participant Needs System Feature

1Red

uceCommunication

Barriers

- message passing among participants- access to data files during meeting- simultaneous display of ideas, graphs,

votes, etc. to all participants- relaxation of inhibitions to contribute- control for free-riders- organization and analysis of ideas and

votes- preference quantification- agenda planning- schedule coordination

- Electronic messaging- Computer networking- Large shared viewing screen or public

display window- Anonymous contribution- Active solicitation of ideas- Summarization and tabulation- Rating/ranking scales- Agenda templates- Continuous display of progress

2Reduce

Uncertainty andNoise

- problem structuring and solutionscheduling

- uncertainty analysis- analysis of resource allocation problems- data analysis- preference analysis- structured guidance of deliberations

- Automated planning methods (PERT, etc.)- Decision tables, trees, etc.- LP and optimization modeling- Statistical tools- Subjective probability methods- MDM coordination methods (nominal, etc.)

3RegulateDecision

Processes

- enforcement of formal decisionprocedures

- increased clarity of options for decisionprocedures

- structuring and filtering of messages toadhere to rules

- development of deliberation governancerules

- Automated procedure mechanisms- Automated advisor for providing advice

regarding various approaches- Structuring and filter agents

- Rule set construction and inferencemechanisms

Supporting Groupwork with Computerized Systems

Classes/Types of MDM Support Technology (cont.)

Classification by technology – Kraemer and King focused on the technology applied:– Electronic Boardroom– Teleconference Room– Group Network– Information Center– Collaboration Lab– Decision Room

Kraemer and King MDM Classification by Technology

MDM TypeFacility andHardware Software

SpecificConsiderations

Electronic Boardroom Conference room withcomputer-controlledaudiovisual wide-screenprojection capabilities

Application for storage andretrieval of previouslyprepared presentations

Same time-same placesynchronous interaction.Requires audiovisualtechnician to be present

Teleconference Room Conference room withcomputer-controlledaudiovisual transmissionbetween locations

Application to control digitaltransmission of audio,video, and data

Same time-different placesynchronous interaction.Requires teleconferencingtechnician to be present

Group Network Separate office facilitiesconnected via a computernetwork

Applications to allow foreither real-time orasynchronous desktopconferencing and exchangeof video, audio, and data

Same time or different time-different place interactionwith one participant servingas coordinator or chair

Information Center Conference room with videoprojector for wide-screenviewing. Individualcomputers with displayterminals

Applications for databasemanagement, statisticalanalysis, graphicsgeneration, and wordprocessing

Same time-same placeinteraction. Requiresspecialists in modeling andspecific application softwareto be present

Collaboration Laboratory Conference room withelectronic whiteboard andnetworked computers

Applications forcollaborative interaction andinformation exchange

Same or different time-same place interaction.Requires MDM processfacilitator to be present

Decision Room Conference room with videoprojector for wide screenviewing and networkedcomputers

Applications to supportbrainstorming, topiccommentary, voting,modeling, decision analysis,collaborative interaction anddata exchange

Same or different time-same place interaction.Requires MDM processfacilitator to be present

Decision Room MDM Support Functions

Electronic brainstorming Topic commentary Issue analysis Voting and preference indication Policy formation Stakeholder analysis Organization of ideas Evaluation of alternatives Survey and Questionnaire creation and administration Multiple format file readers Participant dictionary Enterprise analysis of decision outcome on organization MDM session management

Groupware

• Software designed to support collaboration, including capturing and storing the information exchanged

• Current market leaders are Lotus Notes and Domino, Microsoft Exchange, Novell GroupWise and Oracle Office

• Individual tools inside the software suite include a meeting manager (Lotus Sametime) and message exchange (Lotus Notes Mail)

A Lotus Sametime Meeting Center Screen

A Typical Lotus Notes Messaging Screen Layout

Groupware Classification

Ellis, et al proposed a classification system based on type of support it provides:

1. Messaging systems

2. Conferencing systems

3. Collaborative authoring systems

4. Group DSS

5. Coordination systems

6. Intelligent agent systems

Forces Driving Groupware Development

Some of the major factors include:– Increased productivity– Reduced number of meetings– Increased automation of routine workflow– Need for better global coordination– Availability of widespread networks

Coleman and Khanna list 10 other factors.

Forces In Favor of Groupware Adoption

Increased cost control Increased productivity Improved customer service Support for total quality management (TQM) activities Reduced number of meetings Increased automation of routine workflow processes Desire to extend the organization to include both supplier and customer Need to integrate geophysically dislocated teams Increased competitive advantage through faster time to market Need for better global coordination Creation of services that differentiate the organization Leveraging of professional expertise and knowledge Availability of widespread network infrastructures (i.e., Internet, WWW) Improved price/performance ratios of both hardware and software necessary Increased use of ad hoc teams

Common MDM Coordination Methods

Nominal Group TechniqueDelphi TechniqueArbitrationIssue-based Information SystemNemawashi

Nominal Group Technique

1. Each participant writes down ideas about what the decision should be.

2. In turn, each participant presents his or her ideas, which are recorded on a whiteboard. No discussion occurs here.

3. After all ideas are presented, participants may question others.

4. Each participant votes on each idea.

Delphi Technique

• Essentially the same as nominal group technique except the participants never meet.

• A survey instrument is used to collect initial input from members.

• A second survey is sent with a summary of the collective results.

• These steps repeat until either a consensus or majority view is reached.

Arbitration

• Most appropriate when the members of the MDM represent opposing factors.

• Participants agree that if mutually agreeable alternatives are not found, an outside arbitrator will get involved.

• The arbitrator then selects the alternative he or she deems most appropriate.

Issue-Based Information System (IBIS)

• A structured argumentation method.• An IBIS is represented as a graph with nodes

and links.• The IBIS begins with selection of a root issue

node, then the various position nodes are linked to the root.

• These position nodes are then evaluated based on the arguments attached to them.

Nemawashi (widely used in Japan)

1. One or more members of the MDM are designated as coordinators. The coordinators then select remaining participants.

2. Coordinators construct a choice set and then experts rate the choices.

3. Coordinator selects a choice based on results in 2.

Nemawashi (cont.)

4. The alternative is circulated; the coordinator seeks consensus through persuasion and negotiation.

5. If consensus is reached, coordinators circulate a document that each MDM member signs off on.

The Virtual Workplace

• Many worldwide organizations are trading real estate for collaborative technology.

• Work is becoming a thing you do rather than a place you go.

• The biggest changes brought about by the virtual workplace may be cultural or sociological rather than technological.

Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation

Organizing a GSS session—Face-to-face, same time/same place electronic meetings generally follow a common progression

1. The group leader meets with the facilitator to plan the meeting—select the software tools and develop an agenda

2. The participants meet in the decision room, the leader poses a question or problem to the group

3. The participants type their ideas or comments (i.e., brainstorm), and the results are displayed publicly


• Organizing a GSS session4. The facilitator, using idea organization

software, searches for common themes, topics, and ideas and organizes them into rough categories, the results are publicly displayed

5. The leader starts a discussion, the participants prioritize the ideas

6. The top 5 or 10 topics are sent to idea-generation software following a discussion; the process can be repeated or a final vote can be taken



• GSS success factors – Organizational commitment– An executive sponsor– An operating sponsor– User involvement and training– A user-seductive interface


• GSS success factors – Crafting a collaborative culture—three steps

toward creating a work environment that supports collaboration 1. Know what you want

2. Determine resource constraints

3. Determine what technologies can be used to overcome resource constraints


• Implementation issues for online collaboration

– To connect business partners, an organization needs an effective collaborative environment; provided by groupware suites

– The need to connect collaborative tools with file management products on an organization's intranet

– Automatic language translation – Protocols are needed for easy integration of

different applications and to standardize communication

Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis

• Voice over IP (VoIP) (Internet telephony)

Communication systems that transmit voice calls over Internet Protocol-based networks


• Voice over IP (VoIP)– Benefits of VoIP for business

• Allows CIOs to explore different deployment options for company’s communications needs

• Lowers total cost of ownership • Lowers operational costs • Reduces hardware requirements on the server

side for certain applications• Provides a holistic approach to security • Helps streamline workflows• Enables optimized conferencing tools to

replace business travel


• Voice over IP (VoIP)– Benefits of VoIP for users

• Eliminates unwanted interruptions and unproductive actions by intelligently filtering communications

• Speed decision making by providing access to real-time presence information,

• Initiates ad hoc conferencing/collaboration sessions

• Enables participation in conferencing sessions quickly and easily via a variety of mobile devices


• Collaborative workflow – Wiki

A piece of server software available in a Web site that allows users to freely create and edit Web page content using any Web browser

– Wikilog

A blog that allows everyone to participate as a peer; any one may add, delete, or change content


• Collaboration hubs

The central point of control for an e-market. A single c-hub, representing one e-market owner, can host multiple collaboration spaces (c-spaces) in which trading partners use c-enablers to exchange data with the c-hub


• Collaborative networks – In a collaborative network, partners at any

point in the network can interact with each other, bypassing traditional partners

• Corporate (enterprise) portal

A gateway for entering a corporate Web site, enabling communication, collaboration, and access to company information

Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning, and Project Management

• Collaborative design and product development

– During product development, engineering and design drawings can be shared over a secure network among the contract firm, testing facility, marketing firm, and downstream manufacturing and service companies


• Collaborative planning, forecasting, and replenishment (CPFR)Project in which suppliers and retailers collaborate in their planning and demand forecasting to optimize the flow of materials along the supply chain

• Vendor-managed inventory (VMI)The practice of retailers making suppliers responsible for determining when to order and how much to order



• Project management – Developing large-scale projects requires

collaboration of a large number of units and individuals inside and outside an organization

– Effective and efficient communication and collaboration is a must

Creativity, Idea Generation, and Computerized Support

• Creativity – Personality-related creativity traits include:

• Inventiveness• Independence• Individuality• Enthusiasm• Flexibility


• Creativity – Creativity can be learned and improved”

• Some specific creativity measures in brainstorming:– The quantitative (number of ideas) – The qualitative (quality of ideas) components

• Stimulation by other creative people in the environment can push a group forward

• Stimulation can come directly from exciting ideas developed as a consequence of association among creative people

• Stimulation may even come from friction among employees


• Idea generation through electronic brainstorming

– Idea generation

The process by which people generate ideas, usually supported by software; for example, developing alternative solutions to a problem

– With collaborative computing-support tools, the individuals do all the thinking, and the software system encourages them to proceed


• Creativity-enhancing software – Computer programs that exhibit creative

behavior – Electronic idea generation for problem solving – Software that facilitates human creativity

Documents

Group Decision Support and Groupware Technologies