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Green branding effects on attitude: functional versus emotional positioning strategies Patrick Hartmann, Vanessa Apaolaza Iba ´n ˜ez and F. Javier Forcada Sainz Departamento de Economı ´a de la Empresa y Financiacio ´n, Universidad del Paı ´s Vasco, Bilbao, Spain Abstract Purpose – Proposes a set of strategic options for green brand positioning, based either on functional brand attributes or on emotional benefits. The aim of the study is to test the suggested green positioning strategies against one another, assessing their effect on perceived brand positioning and brand attitude. Design/methodology/approach – A theoretical model of the dimensionality and attitudinal effects of green brand positioning was developed. Both suggested alternatives to green brand positioning, along with a combined functional and emotional strategy, were tested in an experimental online setting. The hypothesized model was tested in the scope of exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modelling. Findings – Results indicate an overall positive influence of green brand positioning on brand attitude. Further findings suggest distinct functional and emotional dimensions of green brand positioning with the interaction of both dimensions in the formation of brand attitude. Highest perceptual effects were achieved through a green positioning strategy that combined functional attributes with emotional benefits. Research limitations/implications – The measures used, while providing good reliability and validity, have their limitations, especially in the case of the emotional dimension of green brand associations. Future research should concentrate on the further development of the constructs used in the study, particularly that of the emotional dimension of green brand associations and replicate the study under “real-life” conditions within different product categories and with a representative sample. Practical implications – A well implemented green positioning strategy can lead to a more favourable perception of the brand, giving support to the green marketing approach in general. This study supports significant attitude effects of both functional and emotional green positioning strategies. Thus, brand managers should deliver emotional benefits through the brand, at the same time making sure that target groups perceive real environmental benefits. Originality/value – Although green marketing has been an important research topic for more than three decades, hardly any research has been conducted that focuses specifically on green branding. This paper analyses the dimensionality of green brand positioning, offers green branding insight and suggests strategic tools for brand managers. Keywords Brands, Product positioning, Green marketing Paper type Research paper Introduction Green marketing has been an important academic research topic for at least three decades (Kassarjian, 1971; Kinnear et al., 1974; Coddington, 1993; Meffert and The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-4503.htm The authors wish to thank Susannah Persak for her comments and suggestions regarding the technical review of the article. Green branding effects on attitude 9 Marketing Intelligence & Planning Vol. 23 No. 1, 2005 pp. 9-29 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-4503 DOI 10.1108/02634500510577447

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Page 1: Green Branding

Green branding effects onattitude: functional versus

emotional positioning strategiesPatrick Hartmann, Vanessa Apaolaza Ibanez and

F. Javier Forcada SainzDepartamento de Economıa de la Empresa y Financiacion,

Universidad del Paıs Vasco, Bilbao, Spain

Abstract

Purpose – Proposes a set of strategic options for green brand positioning, based either on functionalbrand attributes or on emotional benefits. The aim of the study is to test the suggested greenpositioning strategies against one another, assessing their effect on perceived brand positioning andbrand attitude.

Design/methodology/approach – A theoretical model of the dimensionality and attitudinal effectsof green brand positioning was developed. Both suggested alternatives to green brand positioning,along with a combined functional and emotional strategy, were tested in an experimental onlinesetting. The hypothesized model was tested in the scope of exploratory factor analysis and structuralequation modelling.

Findings – Results indicate an overall positive influence of green brand positioning on brandattitude. Further findings suggest distinct functional and emotional dimensions of green brandpositioning with the interaction of both dimensions in the formation of brand attitude. Highestperceptual effects were achieved through a green positioning strategy that combined functionalattributes with emotional benefits.

Research limitations/implications – The measures used, while providing good reliability andvalidity, have their limitations, especially in the case of the emotional dimension of green brandassociations. Future research should concentrate on the further development of the constructs used inthe study, particularly that of the emotional dimension of green brand associations and replicate thestudy under “real-life” conditions within different product categories and with a representative sample.

Practical implications – A well implemented green positioning strategy can lead to a morefavourable perception of the brand, giving support to the green marketing approach in general. Thisstudy supports significant attitude effects of both functional and emotional green positioningstrategies. Thus, brand managers should deliver emotional benefits through the brand, at the sametime making sure that target groups perceive real environmental benefits.

Originality/value – Although green marketing has been an important research topic for more thanthree decades, hardly any research has been conducted that focuses specifically on green branding.This paper analyses the dimensionality of green brand positioning, offers green branding insight andsuggests strategic tools for brand managers.

Keywords Brands, Product positioning, Green marketing

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionGreen marketing has been an important academic research topic for at least threedecades (Kassarjian, 1971; Kinnear et al., 1974; Coddington, 1993; Meffert and

The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-4503.htm

The authors wish to thank Susannah Persak for her comments and suggestions regarding thetechnical review of the article.

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Marketing Intelligence & PlanningVol. 23 No. 1, 2005

pp. 9-29q Emerald Group Publishing Limited

0263-4503DOI 10.1108/02634500510577447

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Kirchgeorg, 1993; Hopfenbeck, 1993; Ottman, 1994; Peattie, 1995; Polonsky andMintu-Wimsatt, 1995; Schlegelmilch et al., 1996; Bigne, 1997; Fuller, 1999; Kalafatiset al., 1999; Calomarde, 2000; Fraj and Martınez, 2002), but few studies have focusedspecifically on green branding. At present, there is little doubt about the strategicimportance of a well-defined brand identity as a prerequisite for delivering brand value(Aaker and Joachimsthaler, 2000; de Chernatony and Dall’Olmo Riley, 1998). A greenbrand identity is defined by a specific set of brand attributes and benefits related to thereduced environmental impact of the brand and its perception as beingenvironmentally sound. A well-implemented green brand identity should providebenefits to environmentally conscious consumers. While there are some studies on theperceived value of environmentally sound product attributes (Roozen and DePelsmacker, 1998), the role of emotional benefits in the case of green brands is stilllargely unassessed.

Brand positioning is regarded a key tool for brand implementation in competitivemarkets (Aaker, 1996; Hooley et al., 1998; Kotler, 2000). This paper proposes a set ofstrategic options for green brand positioning, available to marketing planners andbrand managers, which are based either on functional brand attributes or emotionalbenefits. The review of the literature on the subject of green marketing reveals differentopinions regarding the adequacy of either cognitive or emotionally oriented persuasionstrategies. The aim of this study is to test green positioning strategies by settingfunctional attributes and emotional benefits against each other, assessing their effecton perceived brand positioning and brand attitude. The research design is anexperiment in a setting that allowed for the selective and controlled exposure ofparticipants to advertising stimuli designed to implement different brand positioningstrategies.

Green brand positioningAlthough there is general agreement on the strategic relevance of positioning inmodern marketing management, the concept of “positioning” itself still lacks acoherent definition (Aaker and Shansby, 1982; Blankson and Kalafatis, 1999). Brandpositioning has been analysed both from a strategic standpoint (Ries and Trout, 1986;Park et al., 1989; Hooley et al., 1998) and an analytical perspective (Hauser andKoppelman, 1979; Caroll and Green, 1997; Hair et al., 1998). Kalafatis et al. (2000)conceive of positioning as an iterative process, consisting of deliberate and proactiveactions aimed at the definition of distinct consumer perceptions. Aaker andJoachimsthaler (2000) define brand positioning as the part of the brand identity andvalue proposition that is to be actively communicated to the target audience.Consequently, brand positioning is based on the interaction of all marketing tools, withan accentuated role for marketing communications because of its relevance in theprocess of shaping distinct consumer perceptions.

Thus, positioning a brand as a “green brand” entails an active communicationand differentiation of the brand from its competitors through its environmentallysound attributes. Ecologically sustainable products will not be commerciallysuccessful if green brand attributes are not effectively communicated (Pickett et al.,1995). Coddington (1993) and Meffert and Kirchgeorg (1993) suggest that greenpositioning as an essential factor in the success of green branding strategies.Following classification schemes of generic positioning strategies (Aaker, 1996;

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Tomczak et al., 1997), a brand can be positioned by functional attributes and/or byemotional benefits. Green brand positioning strategies are here classified asfunctional or emotional.

A green positioning strategy based on functional brand attributes aims to buildbrand associations by delivering information on environmentally sound productattributes. This positioning strategy should be based on relevant environmentaladvantages of the product compared to competing conventional products, and mayrefer to production processes, product use and/or product elimination (Meffert andKirchgeorg, 1993; Peattie, 1995). A car brand, for example, may be consideredenvironmentally sound if the models in question cause significantly lower emissionsthan competors’. Several studies address the value perception of selectedenvironmental product attributes (Roozen and De Pelsmacker, 1998).

However, the success of a brand strategy which positions the product exclusivelyby its functional attributes may be limited by the fact that the reduction of a product’senvironmental impact generally does not deliver individual benefits to its buyer.Therefore, the perceived customer benefit may be insufficient as a motivating factor forbrand purchase (Belz and Dyllik, 1996). For most products, a consumer wouldexperience functional benefits (i.e. improvement of environmental quality) only in caseof generalized environmentally sound consumer behaviour. Furthermore, functionalpositioning strategies can have some general disadvantages: they can often be easilyimitated, they assume rational buyer decisions and they may reduce the flexibility ofbrand differentiation (Kroeber-Riel, 1991; Aaker, 1996).

As an alternative or complementary strategy, green positioning can be based on atleast three conceptually different types of emotional brand benefits:

(1) A feeling of well-being (“warm glow”) associated with acting in an altruisticway (Ritov and Kahnemann, 1997). Environmentally conscious consumersexperience personal satisfaction by contributing to the improvement of the“common good” environment.

(2) Auto-expression benefits through the socially visible consumption of greenbrands (Belz and Dyllik, 1996). Environmentally conscious consumersexperience personal satisfaction by exhibiting their environmentalconsciousness to others.

(3) Nature-related benefits stemming from sensations and feelings normallyexperienced through contact with nature. These are the result of a sensation of“emotional affinity towards nature,”, e.g. “loving nature” or “feeling one withnature” (Kals et al., 1999). Most people experience feelings of wellbeing or evenhappinesswhen they are in contact with natural environments. Pastcommunication campaigns for GM-Opel, BP and the Spanish power utilityIberdrola have embedded the brand in pleasant imagery of naturalenvironments, aiming to evoke vicarious nature experiences as emotionalbrand benefits.

Attitudinal effects of green brand positioningMost of the research on attitude formation and change can be understood in light ofpersuasion process paradigms such as the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of Pettyand Cacioppo (1983) or, more recently, the affect-reason-involvement model (ARI)

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proposed by Buck et al. (1995, 2000). Both of these distinguish between at least twoconceptually different types of persuasion processes: central and peripheral modes ofpersuasion in the case of the first model, and rational and emotional processes in thesecond. In both models, a higher involvement of the subject subsequently leads to ahigher amount of cognitive elaboration. Additionally, in the ARI model a strongeremotional involvement leads to a deeper emotional elaboration.

According to ELM, attitude formation through the central route takes place under ahigh amount of cognitive elaboration. Attitude formation or change is a result of aperson’s diligent and rational consideration of information that is central to the object(Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). On the contrary, attitude formation through the peripheralroute – that is, in the absence or reduction of cognitive elaboration of information –occurs either through simple inference processes (Mitchell and Olson, 1981) or as aresult of feelings associated with the brand. A brand can be associated with emotionalcontents through conditioning processes in consequence of exposure to emotionalbrand advertising (Burke and Edell, 1987).

Numerous authors emphasise the efficiency of cognitive persuasion strategies ingreen marketing, assuming the consumer’s high involvement regarding environmentalissues as a consequence of a growing environmental consciousness (Kinnear et al.,1974; Cope and Winward, 1991; Hopfenbeck, 1993; Swenson and Wells, 1997; Fuller,1999). As Ottman (1994, p. 78) points out: “Clearly, we need a more informed public[regarding environmental topics] which is better equipped to make rational purchasingand policy decisions about products, packaging, and manufacturing processes”. Thecognitive orientation of most green marketing research is based on studies showing asignificant influence of environmental knowledge and consciousness on consumers’environmental attitudes (Hines et al., 1987; Stone et al., 1995). Consequently, manyauthors recommend the use of rational persuasion strategies that implement brandpositioning by supplying detailed information on environmental product benefits,capable of satisfying the consumer’s informational needs (Peattie, 1995).

However there is no general agreement on this question. Several studies show only alimited influence of cognitive factors, such as environmental knowledge, whiledemonstrating a significant influence of affective factors on environmental purchasebehaviour (Monhemius, 1993; Davis, 1993, Smith et al., 1994; Finger, 1994).Consequently, these authors recommend affective persuasion strategies. AsCoddington (1993) points out, green brand positioning also implies satisfyingemotional needs and building an affective relationship with the customer.

A further controversy refers to attitude effects of green branding strategies in ageneral way. Most studies show a growing environmental consciousness amongconsumers, leading to generalized positive attitude effects on brands that are perceivedas environmentally sound (Bech-Larsen, 1996; Eagly and Kulesa, 1997; Swenson andWells, 1997; Benito Gomez et al., 1999). Nevertheless, some studies show that in certainsituations consumer attitudes can be less positive towards green brands as aconsequence of a perceived trade-off between functional performance of the brand andits environmental impact (Coddington, 1993; Schlegelmilch et al., 1996; Fuller, 1999).

Hypotheses and research questionPersuasion models such as the ELM or ARI model imply that two conceptuallydistinct processes in the perception of green brand attributes lead to the formation of

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brand attitudes: the cognitive evaluation of functional brand attributes and theemotional reaction to emotional brand benefits. Both cognitive and emotional brandassociations can be analyzed and represented as associative networks (Keller, 1993;Calder and Gruder, 1989) or by means of brand positioning models and perceptualmapping techniques (Hauser and Koppelman, 1979; Caroll and Green, 1997; Hair et al.,1998). The dimensions of perceived brand positioning are generally extracted throughexploratory and/or confirmatory factor analysis (e.g. Kalafatis et al., 2000; Bhat andReddy, 1998).

The proposition of a two-dimensional functional/emotional green brand positioningmodel is consistent with the revised models on persuasion and positioning (Figure 1).Functional and emotional brand associations should be expected to form distinctdimensions of the perceptual space in a model of perceived green brand positioning.While a rational persuasion strategy such as green brand positioning by functionalattributes should enhance the brand’s perception as environmentally sound in thefunctional dimension, an emotional green positioning strategy should lead to a shifttowards the emotional dimension of green brand associations:

H1. Perceived green brand positioning is formed by two distinct dimensions,representing the perception of either functional environmentally soundproduct attributes or emotional benefits related to the environment.

Two further research propositions concern the controversy on attitudinal effects ofgreen positioning strategies. First, the direction (positive/negative) of the effect ofgreen positioning on brand attitude is addressed. Based on the results of most revisedstudies, a positive attitudinal effect of the perception of a brand as environmentallysound should be expected:

H2. Green brand positioning leads to a positive effect on brand attitude.

Secondly, the study addresses the further controversy regarding the adequateness ofeither rational or emotionally oriented persuasion strategies in green marketing. Thus,one research aim is to assess the respective influence of functional or emotional greenpositioning on brand attitude:

RQ. Which of the proposed green positioning strategies, i.e. green positioning byfunctional attributes or green positioning by emotional benefits, has thestrongest effect on brand attitude?

Figure 1.Hypothesised perceptualeffects of functional and

emotional green brandpositioning on brand

attitude

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MethodIn line with this study’s main objective of exploring and testing the dimensions ofgreen brand positioning and its effects on brand attitude, scale items were developed tomeasure a brand’s functional and emotional associations related to the environment.These were validated by testing the scales’ ability to discriminate betweenexperimental brands designed a priori to implement a specific, either functional oremotional, green brand positioning. They were applied in an experimental setting, toallow the controlled exposure of the participants to the experimental stimuli, as well asthe assessment of the specific effects of the experimental factor. The influence ofexternal factors, such as the environmental consciousness of the participants, wasrandomised.

Following the analysis method employed in recent studies of perceived positioning(e.g. Bhat and Reddy, 1998; Kalafatis et al., 2000), exploratory and confirmatory factoranalysis of the data were used to investigate the dimensionality of perceived greenbrand positioning. Attitudinal effects of extracted dimensions were assessed in thescope of a structural equation model, developed from the measurement model.

Experimental designThe study was conducted in four simultaneous on-line sessions in the computerlaboratory of a university. Participants were instructed to connect through theirindividual computer terminals to a specific website. They were then automaticallyexposed for 30 seconds to each of a series of five advertisements, consisting of a single,static image. Four of these stimuli were identical for the different experimental groupsand one was specific to each group, which formed the experimental factor. The fourrelated to known brands of small-sized cars; the fifth was specifically designed toimplement different positioning strategies of an experimental green car brand. Afterexposure, participants completed an on-screen on-line questionnaire. All questionscould be answered by using the mouse alone. Data were automatically collected in anon-line database.

The participants were 160 students in the final year of the Business Administrationdegree at a university in the Spanish Basque Country. They were randomly assigned tofour experimental groups. Participants were 56 per cent female and 44 per cent male,aged between 22 and 26. It is acknowledged that the use of student samples inmarketing research is controversial (Burnett and Dunne, 1986), but this experimentaldesign was realistically feasible only if that limitation was accepted. In fact, the sampleprofile is not entirely inappropriate, since the brands in the experiment are marketed inSpain to target groups with similar demographic characteristics.

Though brand positioning involves the whole of the marketing mix, anexperimental setting in which the sole contact with salient brand attributes takesplace through brand communications is not unrealistic. Even in real life conditions,consumers often develop brand perceptions and attitudes mainly or even exclusivelythrough advertising exposure. While it is true that this does not normally occur as aonce-only exposure to an advertisement, several studies addressing this issue havesuggested that advertising effects can be achieved with only one exposure (Kim et al.,1998; Gibson, 1996; Mandese 1995; Surmanek, 1995).

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Independent variablesEach group of participants was exposed to visual stimuli in the form of total of fiveprint advertisements, four of which were extracted from actual communicationcampaigns for the SEAT Arosa, Fiat Punto, Renault Clio and Opel Corsa. The fifth,group-specific advertisement was, in the case of the three experimental groups,purpose-designed to implement different green positioning strategies for thehypothetical Mercedes ATMO. For the control groups, it was an actual,conventional advertisement for the Mercedes A-Class.

The positioning strategies underlying the purpose-designed advertisement weredeveloped according to the concepts proposed in the theoretical part of this paper. TheMercedes brand was chosen because no initial green brand associations were to beexpected. Associations with the umbrella brand of Mercedes were unlikely to interferewith the purpose of the study, as perceptual and attitudinal effects of the experimentalbrand positioning were assessed relative to the perception of the Mercedes A-Classbrand in the control group.

The first of the experimental advertisements was based on a functional brandpositioning strategy, based on the attribute “zero emission through new fuel celltechnology”. The copy gave detailed information on how emissions are reduced. Therewere no further environmental or nature cues. The images were identical to those of theadvertisement implementing the conventional positioning of the “Mercedes A-Class”brand and had no emotional connotations. The second experimental advertisementwas designed to implement an emotional positioning strategy. There were no cues tofunctional environmentally sound attributes. The brand was embedded in pleasantimagery of nature scenery aimed to evoke feelings experienced in the actual situation,such as “breathing fresh mountain air” or “feeling as free as an eagle”. The thirdadvertisement combined both strategies, positioning the brand by its environmentallysound product attributes and by emotional benefits. The former were specified in thecopy and the latter evoked through images of nature (see Appendix 1).

Dependent measuresAs one major aim of the study was the construction of a positioning model, thedependent measures were designed to assess relevant brand associations of all of thecompeting brands included in the study. Brand perceptions were measured with twodifferent types of scale. The first part of the survey consisted of verbal statements andscales. Participants used five point scales, from 5 ¼ “very much” to 1 ¼ “not at all”, torate how strongly they would associate the brand with certain attributes or brandcharacteristics. Items included such characteristics as “safe” and “comfortable”. Thestatements “environmentally sound” and “air pollution” were meant to assess thefunctional dimension of the perception of the environmental soundness of each brand,while the remaining statements were relevant to other aspects of brand perception butnot central to the subject of the study (see Table I).

The second set of items consisted of a battery of visual stimuli that addressed theperception of emotional brand associations related to the brand’s environmentalsoundness. Their development was based on several studies that show a generallysuperior capacity of visuals in evoking an emotional response as compared to verbalcontent, especially in situations with a brief exposure (Holbrook and Moore, 1981;Childers and Houston, 1984; Childers et al., 1985; Louviere et al., 1987;

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Grunert-Beckmann and Askegaard, 1997). In this study, the purpose of visual scaledevelopment was limited to the measurement of emotions related to nature: that is,feelings of unity with the environment, motivated by “affinity to nature” (Kals et al.,1999). For the selection of the stimuli, 15 interviews were conducted with randomly

PCFA 1: verbal indicators PCFA 2: visual indicators

Factor ClassYoung

1 Environmental NatureYoung

2 UrbanAir

pollution

Verbal indicatorsComfortable 0.78 0.02 0.01High quality 0.87 20.06 0.09Safe 0.81 20.06 0.10Environmentally sound 0.33 0.03 0.77Modern 0.63 0.37 0.10Family car 0.59 20.40 20.04Freedom 0.27 0.71 0.11Young 20.38 0.78 0.04Powerful 0.81 0.05 20.04Sporty 0.35 0.46 20.20Urban 20.25 0.60 0.13Fun 0.09 0.76 0.08High class 0.86 20.05 0.13Party 20.18 0.79 20.02Air pollution 20.16 0.06 20.80Exclusive 0.78 20.15 0.15High tech 0.84 20.09 0.14Low fuel consumption 20.08 0.25 0.60Prestigious 0.85 20.18 0.11Accessibly priced 20.51 0.51 0.03

Visual indicatorsUrban 1 0.12 0.11 0.73 20.03Mountain 0.85 0.00 0.12 20.01Family 0.41 20.48 20.02 0.42Shoreline 0.86 0.14 0.09 0.04Young couple 0.39 0.12 0.47 0.11Friends 20.08 0.75 0.05 0.07Air pollution 20.10 0.20 20.03 0.77Urban 2 0.03 20.02 0.85 20.01Waterfall 0.77 0.04 0.10 20.01Urban 3 0.14 20.06 0.41 0.61Sport 1 0.19 0.75 0.16 0.07Urban 4 0.05 0.18 0.67 0.22Sport 2 0.17 0.83 0.08 0.04

Variance extracted 0.35 0.18 0.09 0.19 0.17 0.17 0.09Sample adequacy(Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) 0.915

Bartlett (Chi-square)12298.489(p ¼ 0:000)

a (Cronbach, 1951) 0.8619

Table I.Exploratory principalcomponent factoranalysis

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selected students who did not take part in the main study, to identify three from amonga selection of 12 images showing nature scenery which would best describe theirfeelings in contact with nature. The selected images were included in the questionnairetogether with the instruction to indicate on five-point scales, ranging from 1 ¼ “not atall” to 5 ¼ “completely”, how well they matched the eventual participants’ emotionsand feelings towards the brand in question. Additionally, “filler” pictures wereincluded in the item battery, which could lead to emotional associations such as “urbanfeelings” or “feeling young”, with the aim of distracting from the images related to theenvironment (see Appendix 2).

Attitude towards the brand was assessed as a construct of two indicators throughmeasures of overall evaluation of the brand and purchase intention, consistent withaccepted procedures in attitude research (Kim et al., 1998; Herr and Fazio, 1993; Allenet al., 1992; Petty et al., 1991; Mitchell, 1986). Participants first rated their overallimpression of each brand on a five-point scale from 1 ¼ “very unfavourable” to5 ¼ “very favourable” and then the likelihood of purchase of the brand, on a five-pointscale from 1 ¼ “definitely would not buy it” to 5 ¼ “would definitely buy it.”

ResultsPerceptual dimensions of green brand positioningPrincipal component factor analysis with varimax rotation was used to explore thestructure of perceived brand positioning. The results are shown in Table I. Sevenfactors were identified in a two-step analysis of first the verbal and later the visualitems, among them two related to green brand associations. Extracted factorsexplained 62 per cent of variance in both cases. Twenty verbal indicators weresubsumed into three factors and thirteen visual indicators to four. The results indicatethe existence of well-defined perceptual dimensions. The first factor extracted from theset of verbal brand associations explains 35 per cent of variance and represents anextended set of attributes including quality, power, comfort, safety, class andexclusivity. The second verbal factor (18 per cent of variance) is highly loaded on itemssuch as “young” and “fun”. Finally, the third factor (9 per cent of variance) explains thebrand associations “environmentally sound,” “air pollution” (high negative loading)and “low fuel consumption.” This factor represents the functional dimension ofenvironmentally sound brand perception.

The emotional dimension of green brand positioning, represented by the first factorextracted from the set of visual items, is also the factor with the highest contribution tothe overall amount of explained variance (19 per cent). The second factor (17 per cent ofvariance) refers to the emotional perception of the brand as “young” and “active,” whilethe third factor reflects the association of the brand with urban or metropolitanfeelings. The last extracted dimension is related to the emotional association of thebrand with air pollution.

Perceptual mapping of the participants’ perceived green brand positioningproduced the pattern in Figure 2. The green positioning strategy produced an overallperception of the experimental brand as more environmentally sound than the originalMercedes A-Class brand, confirming the significant perceptual effect of itsimplementation in the experiment (p ¼ 0:000). Furthermore, functional positioningresulted in a stronger cognitive perception of the brand as environmentally sound,while emotional positioning evoked an association with nature. At the same time, the

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functional strategy produced a perceptual shift, albeit comparatively weak, towardsthe emotional dimension, while an exclusively emotional positioning led to a slightlyaugmented perception of the brand in the functional dimension. The strongestperceptual effects relative to both dimensions were achieved with the combinedfunctional-emotional strategy.

Exploratory results were tested by confirmatory factor analysis (Arbuckle andWothke, 1999). Both of the latent dimensions of green brand positioning were formedby the items with highest factor loadings in the prior exploratory factor analysis. Thus,the functional factor was assessed by the indicators “environmentally sound” and “airpollution” (negative loading), while the emotional factor was constructed by visualindicators “mountain” and “shoreline” (both with factor loadings . 0:85 in theexploratory analysis). The visual indicator “waterfall”, with a lower factor loading of0.77, was not included in the analysis, since two indicators were considered sufficientto assess latent variables. Finally, the attitude construct was formed by indicators“overall evaluation” and “purchase intention” (see Table II).

Criteria for model adjustment (Hu and Bentler, 1995) indicate an adequate fit withx2¼9.18 (p ¼ 0:164; df ¼ 6) and Root Mean Square Residual ðRMRÞ ¼ 0:012. Both thegoodness of fit index (GFI ¼ 0:996) and the adjusted goodness of fit index(AGFI ¼ 0:987; Joreskog and Sorbom, 1984) are close to 1.0, as is the compared fitindex (CFI ¼ 0:998; Bentler, 1990), indicating good fit. Also the root mean square errorof approximation (RMSEA ¼ 0:026; Steiger and Lind, 1980), indicates good fit withvalues lower than 0.05 (Kaplan, 2000; Byrne, 2001).

Figure 2.Perceptual mapping:functional and emotionaldimension of green brandpositioning

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The dimensionality of green brand positioning and the attitude construct wasestablished following Anderson and Gerbing (1988). Factor loadings of all indicatorsare significant (p ¼ 0:000) and exceed the minimum recommended value of 0.5.Furthermore, the variance-extracted measures range from 0.61 to 0.76, exceeding thesquare of the correlation estimate in all cases and suggesting adequate discriminationand distinct factors. Also, variance extracted and construct reliability exceed therecommended thresholds of 0.5 and 0.7 respectively (Fornell and Larker, 1981; Hairet al., 1998).

FactorIndicator Environment (functional) Nature (emotional) Brand attitude

Environmentally sound 0.910.76

16.99*Air pollution 20.63

2 0.482 13.97*

Mountain 0.871.02

22.98*Shoreline 0.76

0.8220.46*

Overall evaluation 0.910.74

25.06*Purchase intention 0.83

0.9325.06*

CorrelationsNature (emotional) 0.424Brand attitude 0.352 0.504

Variance extracted 0.61 0.67 0.76Construct reliability 0.75 0.80 0.86

Model fitn 160Chi-square 9.18Df 6p 0.164Cmin/df 1.53RMR 0.012GFI 0.996AGFI 0.987CFI 0.998RMSEA 0.026

Note: * p ¼ 0:000

Table II.Confirmatory factoranalysis: regression

coefficients(standardized,

unstandardized, z-values),correlations, variance

extracted, constructreliability, model fit

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Attitudinal effectsAfter validation of the measurement model, structural equation analysis assessed theeffect of both extracted dimensions of brand positioning on the attitude construct.Since the model was developed modifying only two latent variable correlations toregression coefficients, the fit was equal to that of the measurement model indicated inTable II and can be considered acceptable.

Results of the structural analysis of the effects of both dimensions of green brandpositioning on the attitude construct, shown in Table III, indicate significant positiveinfluences (p ¼ 0:000). The comparison of causal influences of both latent constructsshows that the emotional dimension on brand attitude has a significantly higher effect.

DiscussionThis study analysed perceptual and attitudinal effects of the implementation ofalternative green brand positioning strategies in advertisements. Results ofexploratory and confirmative factor analysis seem to support the hypothesis of twodistinct dimensions of perceived green-brand positioning (H1). The positioninganalysis extracted distinct dimensions, representing either functional or emotionalgreen brand associations. The data presented indicate that, as expected, a functionalpositioning led to a heightened cognitive perception of the brand as environmentallysound, while an emotional positioning strategy had a significant effect on the brand’spositioning relative to the emotional dimension of green brand associations.Furthermore, structural equation analysis supported an overall positive effect ofgreen positioning on brand attitude (H2), since both dimensions have a significantpositive influence on the attitude construct.

Regarding the research question addressing the issue of functional versusemotional positioning strategies in green branding, results suggest a strongerinfluence of the emotional latent dimension of green positioning on brand attitude inthis specific case. However, it cannot simply be concluded that an exclusivelyemotional positioning will be the most effective positioning strategy in greenmarketing, because the effect of both dimensions on brand attitude was positive.Furthermore, the combined functional and emotional strategy led to the strongestperceptual shift towards both dimensions of the positioning model.

These findings, together with the relatively high correlation of both perceptualconstructs, indicate an interaction between cognitive and emotional processes in theformation of attitude toward green positioned brands. This is consistent with recent

Brand attitude

Environment (functional) 0.17*0.203.83

(p ¼ 0:000)Nature (emotional) 0.43*

0.518.89

(p ¼ 0:000)

Note: * Parameter difference: p ¼ 0:000 (CR ¼ 3:31)

Table III.Regression coefficients(standardized,unstandardized, z-values)

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research on brain functions, showing that cognitive and emotional mental processesare highly correlated in the formation of brand attitudes (Franzen and Bouwman,2001). Consequently, functional and emotional strategies should be consideredcomplementary rather than alternative, as Bhat and Reddy (1998) have argued is thecase with functional and “symbolic” brand positioning strategies. Thus, overall resultslead to the general conclusion that a combined strategy, which appeals to bothenvironmental consciousness and emotional benefits, will yield a stronger attitudinaleffect than either functional or emotional positioning strategies on their own.

Managerial implicationsThe findings of this study suggest that a well-implemented green positioning strategycan lead on the whole to a more favourable perception of the brand, thus givingsupport to the green marketing approach in general. However, there is still a certaincontroversy about which kind of green persuasion strategy would be the mosteffective. While most researchers in green marketing postulate functional positioningstrategies delivering detailed information on environmentally sound productattributes, this study supports significant attitude effects for both functional andemotional green positioning strategies.

An exclusively functional green brand positioning may fall short of deliveringindividual benefits to customers, assuming rational decision processes and limitedcapacity for brand differentiation. While emotional green branding has the potential toovercome these limitations, a purely emotional green position could lead to weakerattitude effects, caused presumably by a possible misinterpretation of vague greenclaims (Pickett et al., 1995). Therefore communication campaign planners should deliveremotional benefits through the brand, at the same time making sure that target groupsperceive real environmental benefits. Attitude formation most probably takes placethrough an intensive interaction of cognitive and emotional processes. Thus, the mosteffective brand strategy would be a green positioning, centred in the creation of emotionalbenefits sustained by information on environmentally sound functional attributes.

Results of the study also underline the effectiveness of brand communications in theimplementation of green positioning strategies. There is a variety of well researchedapproaches to the communicational implementation of emotional brand benefits, suchas transformational advertising (Aaker and Stayman, 1992) or emotional conditioning(Kroeber-Riel, 1984; Kim et al., 1998). Green branding communication strategies shouldbe aimed at associating the brand with pleasant, emotional imagery of nature, whilepresenting information on environmentally sound product attributes. Informationshould be presented succinctly, so as not to interfere with the emotional conditioningeffects of the advertisement (Kroeber-Riel, 1996). On the other hand, there is a generalagreement that brand communication constitutes only one component of a successfulpositioning strategy. There should be no doubt that a green brand positioning strategynot supported by relevant environmentally sound product attributes will fall short ofsuccess.

Future researchThe research study reported here was conducted under laboratory conditions withonce-only exposure to brand communications, and focused on one brand in one productcategory. The findings need to be confirmed for other brands and product categories in

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more real conditions. The measures used achieved good reliability and validity, buthave their limitations, especially in the case of the emotional dimension. Measures foremotional reactions were specifically developed for the purpose of the present study,and it is suggested that their potential outweighed the conceptual limitations. Theparticipants in the experiment were undergraduate students. The results arenevertheless indicative of the responses of the target market in question, but a largerand more varied sample is called for to reinforce the findings.

Future research might profitably concentrate on the further development of theconstructs used in the study, particularly the emotional dimension of green brandassociations. The method used could be combined with others, such as semanticdifferential scaling or biometric measures, which should in turn result in a betterassessment of variables. This will in turn result in improved understanding of therelationships between the considered constructs and other variables – particularlyinvolvement, which is considered a fundamental moderator of attitude formationprocesses in revised models. Involvement with environmental issues constitutes anessential factor in environmental behaviour. Future studies should aim to developstandardized instruments for measuring the perceptual and attitudinal effects ofalternative green positioning strategies, which finally should lead to the developmentof more competitive green branding initiatives.

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Further reading

Bagozzi, R.P. and Yi, Y. (1994), “Advanced topics in structural equation models”, in Bagozzi, R.P.(Ed.), Advanced Methods of Marketing Research, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 1-51.

Fishbein, M. and Middlestadt, S. (1995), “Noncognitive effects on attitude formation and change:fact or artifact?”, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 181-202.

Smith, S.M. and Haugtvedt, C.P. (1995), “Implications of understanding basic attitude changeprocesses and attitude structure for enhancing pro-environmental behaviors”, inPolonsky, M.J. and Mintu-Wimsatt, A.T. (Eds), Environmental Marketing: Strategies,Practice, Theory, and Research, The Haworth Press, New York, NY, pp. 155-76.

Wiener, J.L. and Doescher, T.A. (1991), “A framework for promoting cooperation”, Journal ofMarketing, Vol. 55, April, pp. 38-47.

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Appendix 1

Figure A1.Communicational

implementation of theexperimental green brand

positioning

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Appendix 2

Figure A2.Visual stimuli used for themeasurement of emotionalbrand associations

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Figure A2.

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