Grammar and Cognition. Talmy

8/13/2019 Grammar and Cognition. Talmy

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The Relation of Grammar to Cognit ion--a Synopsis

Leonard TalmyProgram in Cogni tive Science / Center for Human Informat ion Processing / UC San Diego

Abstract

A sentence (or other porti on of discourse) istaken t o evoke in the li st en er a meaning complex,here called a "cogniti ve representation". The lex-ical elements of the sentence, to si mpl if y, by andlarge specify the content of the cognitive represen-tation, while the grammatical elements specify itsstruc ture. Thus, looking systematically at theactual notions spe ci fi ed by grammatical elements cangive us a handle for ascerta ining the very makeup of(l~ nguis tic- ) cognitive structur ing. We accordinglyexamine a number of grammatically speci fi ed notions,observe the categor ies and systems in which theypattern, and speculate on broader cognitive connec-tions.

Some prov isi onal fi ndi ngs have already emerged.Grammatical specifications for structure are prepon-derantly relativistic or topological, and exclude thefi xed or met ri cal ly Euclidean. The categories inwhich grammatical notions pat ter n include:

pl ex it y perspecti val modest ate of boundedness level of synthesisstat e of dividedness level of exemplaritydegree of extensionality axial char acterist icspattern of di st ri but io n scene-breakup "

Grammatical sp eci fi cat ion of str uct uri ng appears tobe the same, in ce rtai n abstr act c har act eri sti cs, asthe structuring of visual perception.

O. Introduction

A sentence (or other p orti on of discourse) istaken to evoke in the li st ene r a part icu la r kind ofexperiential complex--here to be termed a "cognitiverepresentat ion" or "CR".I There appears to be a sig-nif ica nt way in which di ff ere nt portions of the lan-guage input speci fy, or code fo r, di ff er en t portionsof the CR. The major finding is t hat -- fo r a f i r stapproximation--the lexical fraction of a sentencecodes mainly f or the conten t, or substance, of a CR,while the grammatical fr ac ti on of a sentence codesmainly fo r the st ru cture of a CR. Determining thest ru cture wi th in a realm of phenomena has been a cen-tra l concern for analytic science, including l ingu is-t ics and psychology. Wi th grammar seen in the abovel ig ht , i t can be used in determining the struct ure ,of the language-related port ion of human cogn iti on,with possible connections to fur the r portions. Inparticular, Iookingsystematically at the actual not-ions specified by grammatical elements can give us ahandle for ascertaining the xery nakeup of (l ing ui s-t i c- ) cogniti ve s truc tur ing. ~ The beginnings of such

an endeavor are the aims of th is paper.Several ideas here r equ ire some immediate elab-

ora tio n. The di st in ct io n between lexi cal and gram-matical is made ent ir ely fo rm al ly -- i. e. , without anyreference to meaning--on the basis of the distinc-ti on between open-class and closed-class . 3 All open-class ele men ts -- i. e. , the stems of nouns, verbs, andadjecti ves4--a re considered le xi ca l. Everything elseis considered grammatical. Included here are al lclosed-class morphemes and wor ds- -i nf lect io ns, par-t i cl es , adpositons, conjunct ions, demonstratives,etc.--as well as syntactic constructions, grammaticalrelations~ categorial id ent it ie s, word order, andint onat ion. Termin ologically here, "grammaticalelement" wi ll be used to r ef er to any of these.

The nature of content and of st ru ct ur e, and thedi st in ct io n between them, are not understood wellenough to be addressed an al yt ic al ly in th is paper andmust be l e f t to our in t ui t iv e sense of the matter.5Taking them for gran ted, however, we can now morefinely characterize the linguistic-cognitive cross-relationships noted ear li er. While most of a CR'scontent is specified by the lexical fraction of asentence, the l exi cal it ems do usually specif y somestructural notions along with the contentful ones.The grammatical elements of a sen tence more unal loy-edly specify only st ruc tur al notions;~and specif y themmore determinately in the case of co nf li ct with alex ica l item, establ ishing perhaps the majority of aCR's str uctu re. 6

In other work in the present dir ect ion --n ota blyFil lmo re' s (e .g ., 1975, 1976)--concern has also beenwith ascertaining st ruc tr e, but the sentence elementsused as st art ing -poi nts have generally been lexi calitems with prominently inmixed str uctur al speci fic a-tio ns (l ik e buy and sel l)~ The present work, in pa rta complement to the o th er , takes advantage of gram-mar's great er directness and completeness:in speci-fying structure~

This paper is divided int o three sections. Inthe fi r s t , a sampling of grammatical elements is ex-amined for the notions th at they speci fy , bo th as anint rod uct ion to out method and fo r the aim of not ic -ing properti es common to such notions as wel l as pro-pe rt ie s excluded fro m them. In the second , we pre-sent a number of the categories in which grammaticallyspec if ied notions have been observed to patt ern. Inthe t h i r d , we speculate on broader cognitve connec-tions.

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1 . T h e N a t u r e o f G r a m m a t i c a l ly S p e c i f i e d N o t i o n s

In th i s se c t io n we examine a sma l l sampl ing ofg r a m m a ti c al e l e m e n ts f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r c om p on e ntn o t i o n s t h a t th e y s p e c i f y. T he s am p le w i l l g i v e ah e u r i s t i c i n d i c a t i o n o f t he ki n d s o f n o t io n s t h a t g e tg r a m m a t i c a l l y s p e c i f i e d a s w e l l a s o f k i n d s o f n o -t i o n s t h a t p o s s i b l y n e v e r d o . T he e x c l u d e d k i n d sw i l l b e s ee n a s r e a d i l y s p e c i f i a b l e b y l e x i c a l e l e -m e n t s. A f u r t h e r c o m p a ri so n b et we e n t h e c h a r a c t e r -i s t i c s o f g ra m m a t ic a l ly s p e c i f i e d n o t i o n s an d o fl e x i c a l l y s p e c i f i e d o n es i s th e n m a de . To i n d i c a t et h e m a j o r f i n d i n g a t t h e o u t s e t , i t s ee m s t h a t g ra m -m a t i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r s t r u c t u r e a re p r e p o n d e r-a n t l y r e l a t i v i s t i c o r t o p o l o g i c a l , a nd e x c lu d e t h ef i x e d o r m e t r i c a l l y E u c l id e a n .

Fo r a f i r s t s i m p l e c a s e , m a n y l a n gu a g e s h av e i n -f l e c t i o n s f o r th e n ou n ( E n g l i s h h as - B a nd - s )t h a t s p e c i f y t h e u n i p l e x o r th e m u l ti p Tex i n s t a n t i a -t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t s p e c i f i e d b y t h e no un . By c o n -t r a s t , n o l an g ua g es ap p e ar t o h av e i n f l e c t i o n s t h a ts p e c i f y t h e r ed n es s o r b l u e n e s s, e t c . - - i . e . , t h e p a r -t i c u l a r c o l o r - - o f t h e o b j e c t s p e c i f i e d b y a n ou n.I n t h e p r e c e d i n g , t h e u n d e r l i n e d a r e i n s t a n c e s o f" n o t i o n s " . T he f i r s t s e t a r e g r a m m a t i c a l ly s p e c i f i e da ~d c an be r e a d i l y s ee n t o p l a y a s t r u c t u r i n g r o l ein a CR. 7 The second se t are p erhaps n eve r founds p e c i f i e d b y g r a m m a ti c al e l e m e n t s , t h o u g h t h e y a r e

e v e r y w h e re f o un d s p e c i f i e d b y l e x i c a l e l e m e n ts [ s u c has ( r ed and b lue ) .Fo r a n o t h e r c as e w e c o n s i d e r a d e i c t i c l i k e t h e

E n g l i s h t h i s o r t h a t a s i n T h i s c h a i r i s b r o k e n . Ag r a m m a ti c al e l e m e n t o f t h i s t y p e s p e c i f i e ~ t h e lo c a -t i o n o f an i n d i c a t e d o b j e c t a s b e i n g , i n e f f e c t , o nt h e s p e a k e r - s i d e o r t h e n o n - s p e a k e r - s i d e o f a c o n c e p -t u a l p a r t i t i o n d ra w n t h r o u g h s p a ce ( o r t i m e o r o t h e rq u a l i t a t i v e d i m e ns io n ) . T h is i n t e g r a l s p e c i f i c a t i o nc an be a n a l y z e d as c o n t a i n i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g c om p on en tn o t i o n s ( e n c l o s e d by q u o t e s ) :

( I )a - b . a ' p a r t i t i o n ' t h a t d iv i d e s a s pa ce i n t o

' r e g i o n s ' / ' s i d e s 'c - e . t h e ' lo c a t e d n e s s ' (a p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n ) o f a

' p o i n t ' ( o r o b j e c t i d e a l i z a b l e a s a p o i n t )' w i t h i n ' a r e g i o nf - g . ( a s i d e t h a t i s t h e ) ' s am e ' a s o r ' d i f f e r e n t '

f romh - i . a ' c u r r e n t l y i n d i c a t e d ' o b j e c t an d a ' c u r r e n t l y

c o m m u n i c a t i n g ' e n t i t y

N o t i o ns t h a t m i g h t a t f i r s t b e a s c r i b e d t o s uc h d e i c qt i c s , s uc h a s o f d i s t a n c e o r p e r ha p s s i z e , p r o v e n o tt o b e , o n t h e e v i d e n c e o f s e n t e n c e - p a i r s l i k e ( 2 ) :

(2) a. This speck is smaller than that speck.b. Th is planet is smaller than tha t planet.

The CRs evoked by (2a ) and (b) d i f f e r g r ea t ly , in -v o l v i n g t i n y o b j e c t s m i l l i m e t e r s a p a r t o r h ug e o b j e c t s

p a rs e cs a p a r t . Ye t t h e s e n te n c e s d i f f e r o n l y l e x i c -a l l y , n o t g r a m m a t i c a l l y. H e nc e, t h e CRs ' n o t i o n s a st o t h e m a g n i t u d e o f s i z e o r d i s t a n c e c a n n o t b e t r a c e dt o th e d e i c t i c s ( o r t o o t h e r g r a m m a t ic a l e l e m e n t s ) i nt h e s e n te n c e s . T h us , t h e n o t i o n a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o fa t h i s o r a t h a t a p p e a r , i n p a r t , t o b e g e n u i n e l yt o p o l o g i c a l : t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p a r t i t i o n r e m a in sa c o n s t a n t , b u t i t s p o s i t i o n c a n v a r y u n l i m i t e d l y ( o r ,u s in g t o p o l o g y ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a b i l i t y a s " r u b b e r - s h e e tg e o m e t ry " , t h e p a r t i t i o n ' s d i s t a n c e a w a y c an bes t r e tc h e d i n d e f i n i t e l y ) w i t h o u t an y c o n s t r a i n t s im -p os ed b y t h e d e i c t i c s ' s p e c i f i c a t i o n s p e r s e . T h i s

f i n d i n g a b ou t t h e d e i c t i c s a l e r t s us t o n o t i c i n gw h e t h e r a ny g ra m m a t i ca l e l e m e n ts m a k e s p e c i f i c a t i o n sabout magn i tude . A spo t check th rough Eng l i sh andv a r i o u s o t h e r l an g u ag e s s u g g e st s t h a t - - w h i l e t h e r e aa p p a r e n tl ~ g ra m m at ic al s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r r e l a t i v em a g n i t u d e S - - t h e re a r e p o s s i b l y n e v e r a n y f o r a b s o l uo r q u a n t i f i e d m a g n i tu d e , w h e t h e r o f s i z e , d i s t a n c e ,o r o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s .

Fo r a t h i r d c a s e , we c o n s i d e r t h e t y p e o f a d p ot i o n t h a t s p e c i f i e s , f o r a m ov in g o b j e c t , c e r t a i nc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p a th a nd o f p o i n t - o r f r a m e - o f -r e f e r e n c e . A n e xa m ple o f t h i s t y p e i s E n g l i s h t h roa s u s e d , e . g . , i n :

(3 ) a . I wa lked th rough the wa te r.b . I w a l k e d t h r o u g h th e ti m e b e r ( i . e . , w o o d s ).

I n t h i s u s ag e , t h ro u g h s p e c i f i e s , b r o a d l y, ' m o t io na l o n g a l i n e t h a t i s w i t h i n a m e d i u m '. T he c om p onn o t i o n s c o n t a in e d h e r e i n c l u d e :

(4)a - e .

f .g.

h - i .

' m o t i o n ' - - i . e . , ' o n e - to - o n e c o rr e sp o n de n c es 'b et we e n ' a d j a c e n t ' p o i n t s o f ' s p a c e ' a nda d j a c e n t p o i n t s o f ' t i m e '

m o t i o n t h a t d e s c r i b e s a ' l i n e 't h e l o c a t e d n e s s o f a l i n e w i t h i n a 'm e diu m '

a m e d iu m , i . e . , a r e g i o n o f t h r e e - d im e n s i o n as pa ce s e t a p a r t b y t h e l o c a t e d n e s s w i t h i n o f ' m a t e r i a l ' t h a t i s i n a ' p a t t e r n o f d it r i b u t i o n ' , o f a c e r t a i n r a ng e o f c h a r a c t e( s t i l l t o b e d e t e r m in e d )

A g a i n , w i t h ( 3 a) a nd ( b ) d i f f e r i n g o n l y l e x i c a l l y ,n o t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r CRs c a n n ot be a t t r i b ut o t h r o u g h . T h us , n o t w i t h i n t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n a lp u r v u e o f t h a t e l e m e n t a r e : t h e ' k i n d n f s u b s ta n c ec o m p r i s i n g t h e m ed iu m a nd th e ' s e n s o r i m o t o r c h a r a c ti s t i c s ' a t t e n d a n t on e x e c u t i n g t h e m o t i o n - - a s , h e r et h o s e a t t e n d a n t o n w a d in g v s . w e a v i n g a m i d st o b s t a cWi th o t h e r s e n te n c e p a i r s l i k e

( 5 ) a / b . I c r a w l e d / r a n t h ro u g h t h e t i m b e r.

( 6 ) a / b , I z i g - z a g g e d / a r c e d th r o u g h t th e t i m b e r .i t c an be f u r t h e r d e t e r m i n ed t h a t ' r a t e o f m o t io n ' ' s h a p e / c o n t o u r o f l i n e a r p a t h ' a r e a l s o n o t s p e c i f i eby the g rammat ica l e lemen t .

As one s tep in a p rogram to a s ce r ta in any pro pt i e s c om m on t o g r a m m a t i c a l l y s p e c i f i e d n o t i o n s , t h en o t i o n s j u s t f o u n d a r e g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r i n Ta b l e IF o r h e u r i s t i c p u r p os e s , th e n o t i o n s a re v e r y p r o v ii o n a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e g ro u ps on t h e b a s is o ft h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t o p o l o g y. I n g ro u p ( a ) a r e t h en o t i o n s t h a t p r o p e r l y b e l o n g , o r a r e r e a d i l y d e f i n ai n th e a c t u a l m a t h e m a t i ca l s y s te m o f t o p o l o g y. I ng r o up ( b ) , t h e n o t i o n s m i g h t n o t be p a r t o f t o p o l o gp r o pe r b u t i n t u i t i v e l y s ee m l i k e t ho s e th a t a r e - -a nm i g h t b e i n c l u d a b l e i n a r e l a t e d m a t h e m a t ic a l s y st e

t h a t c o u l d be c o n s t r u c t e d . I n g r o up ( c ) a r e t h e not i o n s t h a t f a l l o u t s i d e o f a ny u s u al c o n c e p ti o n o f ma them at ica l sys tem. The number o f no t ion s in thef i r s t t w o g r ou p s co m bin ed i s 1 3 , w h i l e t h e t h i r d h6 - - a n i n d i c a t i o n o f a p r e p o n d e r a nt p r o p e n s i t y f o rg r a m m a t ic a l e l e m e n ts t o s p e c i f y q u a s i - t o p o l o g i c a l nt i o n s . T he r a t i o i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n i s in fa c t i m -p r o v e d i f w e c o n s i d e r t h a t e v e n s e v e r a l n o t i o n s i ng ro u p ( c ) - - t h e b o tt om t h r e e - - re s e m b l e t o p o l o g i c a l oi n t h e s en se o f in v o l v i n g r e l a t i v i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i pb e tw e e n q u a n t i t i e s r a t h e r t h an a b s o l u t e l y f i x e dq u a n t i t i e s .

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(7) Table 1: Some notions found to be specif iedby grammatical elements

a. topological b. topology-like

partitionregion/sidepointlinelocatednesswithinuniplexitymultiplexity

one-to-onecorrespondences

samed i f f e r e n tp a t t e rn o f d i s t r i b u t i o n

" a d j a c e n c y " o f p o i n t s( m o n o t o n i c i t y )

c . n o n - t o p o l o g i c a l

matterspacetimemotionmediumcurrently indicated/

communicating entity

For a complementary program of ascertaining anyproperties excluded from grammatical speci fication,the notions found above not'~to be specif ied by theelements investigated are li st ed in Table 2. Ratherthan topological, topology-like, or re la ti vi st ic ,these notions involve Euclidean-geometric concepts(e.g., set distance,:size, contour), quantified mea-sure, and various pa rt ic ula ri ti es of a quant ity- -insum, characteri stics that are absolute or fix ed.

(8) Table 2: Some notions seemingly never specifiedgrammatically

absolute/quantified magnitude kind of substance(of distance, size, etc. ) speed

shape/contour of line colorsensorimotor characteristics

The provisional conclusion to be drawn from thesefindings is tha t, i f grammatical specifications larg elycorrespond to ( li ng ui st ic -) cognitive struc turin g, thenthe nature of that structuring is largely relativ-i st i c or topological rather than fixed or absolute.

In a search for contrasts between grammatical andlexical specific ation, a difference t hat presentsitself at this point is that the relativism vs. abso-lutism res tri cti ons do not apply to the la tt er . Lex-ical items can specify topological and re la ti vi st icconcepts, as the very words li st ed in Table 1 at te stto. And they can also specify Euclidean or absoluteconcepts. Thus, fo r the notion of color in Table 2,there are such lex ica l items as red, b]ue; fo r con ~tour, there are ci rc le , str aigh t; for quantifiedmagnitude, there are inch, mile; fo r sensorimotorcharact eristi cs, there are wade, nimble, ef fo rt .

For a fu rt he r contrast between the grammaticaland the lexical type of spec if ica tion, we considerthe f ul l complement of both element-types in a singlewhole sentence, v iz. , tha t selected in (9):

(9) A ru st le r lassoed the steers.

We f i r s t l i s t the grammatical elements p~esent in thesentence~and the notions th at they specify :

(10)a. -edz

b. the:

c. a:

'occurring at a time before that ofthe present communication'

'has ready ide nti fi abi li ty for theaddressee'

'not before in discussion or otherwisereadily indentifiable for addressee'

d. -s: 'multip lex object'e. a.. .-~ : 'uniplex object'f. the grammatical category of "verb" for lasso:

'eventhood'g/h. the gram. category of "noun" for ru st le r/ stee r:

'objecthood' (one possible spec. of "N")i / j . the grammatical relations of "subject"/ "object"

for rustler/steer:~ t ~ 7 ~ - p a t i e n t ' (among possible specs.)

k. active voice:'point-of-view at the agent'

I. intonation, word-order, state of auKili aries :'the speaker-"knows" the situation

to be true and asserts i t '

The lexical items in the sentence can have th ei r spec-if ic at io ns characterized as follows:

( I I ) A complex of concepts involv ing :

a. rustler:

b. steer:

c. lasso:

property ownership, illegality, modeof activity

appearance, physical makeup, re la ti onto animal k~ngdom

institution of breeding for intendedpurposes, esp. human consumption

cer tain materials (a body and a lasso)in certain configurations

movement sequences of materials' partsconcomitant mental inten tion s, dire c-

tings , monitorings, etc.

In surveying the l i s t s , we can see these di f fe r-ences emerge: The grammatical elements are more num-erous and thei r speci fications seem simpler and morestr uct ural . Together, the ir specifications seem todetermaine the main organizational and communicationaldelineations of the CR evoked by the sentence. Thelexical elements are fewer in number, but t he ir specGifica tion s are more complex and seem to comprise mostof the content of the CR. The lexical specif icatio nsare complex in three ways: compared to a grammaticalspecif ica tio n, each has a) more tot al information,b) greater int ric acy of information, and c) more di f ~ferent types of information together.

These grammatical-lexical dif ferences can be setinto further relief by in turn varying one element-typewhile keeping the other constant. Thus, varyingonly the grammatical elements of (9), as is done in(12), seems to alter the organizational and communic-ational char acte rist ics of the scene but to leave it sbasic contents intact:

(1 2) Will the rus tlers lasso a steer?

Va r y in g o n l y ( 9 ) ' s l e x i c a l e le m e n t s, as i n ( 1 3 ) , s h i fus to a new scene a l t og e th er , and ye t t he e s se n t i a lb reakup o f the scene and o f the communica t ive se t t in gseem to remain the same:

(13) A machine can cel le d the s tamps.

2 . Ca tegor i es o f Gram mat ica l ly Sp ec i f i ed Not ions

The prece ding samp ling of gram matical elementsh as y i e l d e d a s e t o f n o t i o n s h e l p f u l t o w a r d d i s c o v e r incommon pr op er t ie s . But the set has been sma l l andhaphazard ly a r r iv ed a t . Wi th a b roader and more sys -t e m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n , p a t t e r n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n become v i d e n t . G r a m m a t ic a l ly s p e c i f i e d n o t i o n s ca n b e s e e nt o p a t t e r n i n c a t e g o r i e s , a nd t h e c a t e g o r i e s , ' i n t u r n ,

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i n i n t e g r a t e d s y st e m s . I n t h i s s e c t i o n we l o o k a tsome of these ca teg or ie s and sys tems .

T he g r a m m a ti ca l e l e m e n ts h e r e w i l l n o t b e t r e a t e di n i s o l a t i o n , b u t i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h l e x i c a l i te m s .T h a t i s , t h e g r a m m a t i c a l ly s p e c i f i e d s t r u c t u r a l n o~t i o n s w i l l b e c o n s i d e re d in i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h a t

p o r t i o n o f l e x i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n t h a t is a l so s t r u c -t u r a l . T h is i n t e r a c t i o n e n t a i l s c o g n i t i v e p r o c e ss i n g ,a nd d i f f e r e n t c as es o f s uc h p r o c e s s i n g w i l l b e c o n -s ide red a long the way.

The no te on me thodology shou ld be made th a t ourd i r e c t i o n o f a n a l y s i s h as b e e n f ro m g ra m m a t i ca l s p e c -i f i c a t i o n t o c a t e g o r y, n o t t h e r e v e r s e . T h a t i s , t h ec a t e g o r i e s c o n s i d e r e d b e l o w w e r e d i s c o v e r e d t o b er e l e v a n t t o t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o f v a r i o u s g r am m a t ic a le l e m e n t s . T h ey w e r e n o t p a r t o f s om e a p r i o r i c o n c e p -t u a l schema which then sought corroborative examples~

2 .1 Dimens ion / Kind of Qua nt i ty

The ca te gory of "d imen s ion" has two member no-t i o n s , ' s p a c e ' a nd I t i m e ' . T he k i n d o f " q u a n t i t y "t h a t e x i s t s i n s pa ce i s - - i n r e s p e c t i v e l y c o n t i n u o u so r d i s c r e t e fo r m - - ' m a t t e r ' o r ' o b j e c t s ' . T he k in do f q u a n t i t y e x i s t i n g i n t im e i s ' a c t i o n ' o r ' e v e n t s '( " a c t i o n " i s m e an t t o r e f e r t o a ny o b t a i n i n g c i rc u m -s ta n ce = n o t j u s t ( w i l l e d ) m o t i o n ) . I n t a b u l a r f o rm ,t h e s e n o t i o n s r e l a t e t h u s :

( 13 ) s pa ce : m a t t e r / o b j e c t st i m e : a c t i o n / e v e n t s

A n u m b e r o f g r a m m a t ic a l a nd l e x i c a l r e f e r e n t s a r es p e c i f i c w i t h r e g a r d t o o ne o r t h e o t h e r p o l e o f t h i sc a t e g o r y. Bu t s i n c e t h e c a t e g o r y c r o s s - c u t s t h e on est r e a t e d n e x t , w e w i l l n o t e x e m p l i fy i t h e r e b u t w i l le n d e a v or in t h e f o l l o w i n g t o p r e s e n t b o t h s p a ce a ndt ime examples s ide by s ide .

2 . 2 P l e x i t y

T he c a t e g o r y h e r e t o b e t e rm e d "p l e x i t y " i s aq u a n t i t y ' s s t a te o f a r t i c u l a t i o n i n to e q u i v a l e n t e l e -m e nts . W h e r e t h e q u a n t i t y c o n s i s t s o f o n l y o ne s uc he l e m e n t, i t i s " u n i p l e x " , a nd w h e re i t c o n s i s t s o fm o re t h an on e , i t i s " m u l t i p l e x " . W h en t h e q u a n t i t yi n v o lv e d i s m a t t e r, p l e x i t y i s , o f c ou r se , e q u i v a l e n tt o th e t r a d i t i o n a l c a t e g o r y o f " n um b e r" w i t h i t s c om -p o n en t n o t i o n s " s i n g u l a r " a n d " p l u r a l " . B u t t h e p r e -s e n t n o t i o n s a r e i n t e n d e d t o c a p t u r e t h e g e n e r a l i z a -t i o n f ro m m a t t e r o v e r t o a c t i o n , w h ic h th e t r a d i t i o n a lones do no t .9

S p e c i f i c a t i o n s a s t o p l e x i t y a r e ma de b y b o thle x i ca l i t ems and grammat ica l e lem ents , and the in -t e r p l a y b e tw e en t h e t w o w h e n t h e y a r e b o t h i n a s s o c i a -t i o n m u st b e n o t e d . E x a m p l e E n g l i s h l e x i c a l i te m st h a t b a s i c a l l y s p e c i f y a u n i p l e x r e f e r e n t a r e - - f o rm a t t e r a nd a c t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y - - b i r d a nd ( t o ) s i g h .They can occur wi t h g rammat ica l e lements tha t them-

s e lv e s s p e c i f y a u n i p l e x i t y, l i k e t ho s e u n d e r l in e din (14a ) (many languages have he re a more r e gu la r,ov e r t sys tem of marke r s than :Eng l i sh) . But they cana l s o o c c u r w i t h g r a m m a t i ca l e l e m e n ts t h a t s p e c i f y am u l t i p l e x i t y , a s i n ( 1 4 b) . I n t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n , su che le m e n ts ca n b e t h o u g h t t o t r i g g e r a p a r t i c u l a r c o g -n i t i v e o p e r a t i o n - - i n t h i s c a s e , o ne o f " m u l t i p l e x i n g " .B y t h i s o p e r a t i o n , a n o r i g i n a l s o l o r e f e r e n t i s , i ne f f e c t , c o p i e d o n t o v a r i o u s p o i n t s o f s p a c e o r t i m e .

(14) matter actiona. uniplex A bird flew in. He s i t (once).b. m~Itiplex Bird s flew in. He kept sighing.

The reverse of the preceding circumstances isalso to be found in language. Fi rs t, there are lex -ical items that in tr in si cal ly specify a multipl exity.English examples are fur nit ur e or timber ( i . e. , 'stan-ding t ree s') for matter and breathe fo r action, asused in (1 5a). And, too, there are grammatical ele-ments able to appear in association here, as in (15b),that signal an operation the reverse of multiplexin g--one tha t can be called '*uni t-excerpt ing". By th isoperation, a single one of the specified equivalentunit s is taken and set in the foreground of attention .

(15)

a . m u l t i p l e x

b.

m a t t e ra c t i o n

F u r n i t u r e o v e r t u r n e d i n t h e ' q u a k e .She b r e a t h e d w i t h o u t p a i n .

p i e c e o _ f _ f f u r n i t u r e o v e r t u r n e d . . .S h e t o o k a b r e a t h / b r e a t h e d i n . . .

T he g r a m m a ti c al e l e m e n ts t h a t a bo ve s i g n a l e d m u l t i -p l e x i n g - - - s and ke ep - ~ - - h a v e a d i r e c t l y m a n i fs u r f a c e f o rm . T he o ne s s i g n a l i n g u n i t - e x c e r p t i n g i n p a r t a b s t r a c t i n f o r m , a s r e p r e s e n t e d i n ( 1 6 ) :

( 1 6 ) m a t t e r a c t i o n(a) Nunit of + Vdummy-~-)--~[ + X]N

eg: a piece of furn itur e take a breath

o r : + P r t c l e ( e g: i n )

2 .3 Sta te o f Boundedness

A n o t h er c a t e g o r y o f a t t r i b u t e s s p e c i f i e d b o thg r a m m a t i c a l ly a nd l e x i c a l l y f o r a q u a n t i t y i s i t s" s t a t e o f b ou nd ed ne ss " W he n a q u a n t i t y i s s p e c i f i ea s "u n b o u n d e d ", i t i s c o n c e i v e d a s c o n t i n u i n g o n i nd e f i n i t e l y w i t h no n e ce s sa ry c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f f i nn es s i n t r i n s i c t o i t . W he n a q u a n t i t y i s s p e c i f i e das "bound ed" , i t i s conce ived a s demarca ted o ff a si n d i v i d u a t e d u n i t e n t i t y.

Among Eng l i sh examples o f lex ic a l i t ems , wa tea nd ( t o ) s l e e p s ee m b a s i c a l l y t o s p e c i f y u n bo un de d

q u a n t i t i e s , w h er ea s se a a nd ( t o ) d r e s s s e em b a s i c a l lt o s p e c i f y b o u n de d o n es . T he se s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r ed e m o n s t r a te d b y t h e w o r d s ' r e s p e c t i v e l y u n a c c e p t a b la nd a c c e p t a b l e o c c u r r e n c e w i t h t h e g r a m m a t ic a l e l e mi n N Pe x t e n t _ o f _ t ]m e , w h i c h s p e c i f i e s b o u n de d n e ss

( 1 7 ) m a t t e ra c t i o n

a . unbounded *We f le w ove r wa te r in I h r.* Sh e s l e p t i n 8 h r s .

b. bounded We f le w ove r a sea in I hr.She dressed in 8 mins.

N o w, t h e r e a r e g r am m a t i ca l e l e m e n ts s u i t a b l e fc o - o c c u r r e n c e w i t h u n b o u n d e d - ty p e l e x i c a l i te m s w ht h e r e w i t h , i n e f f e c t , t r i g g e r a c o g n i t i v e o p e r a t io

o f "bo un d @ ng ". By t h i s o p e r a t i o n , a p o r t i o n o f ths p e c i f i e d u nb ou nd e d q u a n t i t y i s d e m a rc a te d an d p l a ci n t h e fo r e g r o u n d o f a t t e n t i o n . E x a m p l es o f s uc hgrammat ica l e lements in Engl i sh a re :

(18) ma t te r ( a ) Nbounde d_quant i ty o f

a c t i o n f o r N e x t e n t _ o f _ ti m e +

Pa r t i c u l a r c as es o f t h e m i n u s e a r e :

(19) We f lew ov e r a bodz of wa te r in 1 h r.She s l e p t f o r 8 h r s .

17


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T he q u e s t i o n a r i s e s w h e t h er t h e r e v e r s e o f t h ep r e c e d i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s i s e v e r t o b e f o u n d i n l a n -guage. Entail ed would be the existence of grammat-ical elements that , when used with lexical itemsspecifying a bounded quantity, Would tr igger an oper-ation of "debounding". By th is, e.g., the referentof sea would be shifted to 'pelagic water' , and thato f - ~ t e a r , to take another lexical bounded case,would sh if t to 'lachrymal fl ui d' . I t seems li ke lythat such grammatical elements ex is t; the closestcandidate known to the author is the French suf fix-age, but this has a range of meanings and many oc-currence restric tions--and does not, e.g ., happen tocombine with the French words for "sea" or "tear" .10

2 . 4 S t a t e o f D i v i d e d n e s s

T he c a t e g o r y o f " s t a t e o f d i v i d e d n e s s " r e f e r s t oa q u a n t i t y ' s i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y. A q u a n t i t y is' ~ d i s c re t e " ( o r " p a r t i c u l a t e " ) i f t h e r e a r e b r ea k s i ni ts oo~i nui ty . Otherwise, the quantity i s "contin-uous". ~ Both lexical and grammatical elements aresensitive, in their specifications, to the distinc-tions of th is category. But the re appear to be nogrammatical elements that solely specify discretenessor continuity for a quanti ty, and al so none that s ig-nal an operation for reversing a quantity's lex~callyspecified state of dividedness, zz In consequence,there is d i f fi cu l ty in demonstrating thi s categoryex pl ic it ly by i t se l f , and so we defe r it s treatmentunti l the next section, where i t can be seen in in-teraction with the other categories.

2 . 1 - 2 . 4 T h e D i s p o s i t i o n o f a Q u a n t i t y

T he p r e c e d in g f o u r c a t e g o r i e s o f a t t r i b u t e s a l lp e r t a i n t o a q u a n t i t y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d , ta k e n t o -g e t h e r , c an b e c o n s i d e re d t o c o n s t i t u t e a s y st em o fa t t r i b u t e s t h a t m ay b e t er m ed a q u a n t i t y ' s " d i s p o s i -t i o n " . T he p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f th e s e v e ra la t t r i b u t e s w i l l b e t h e m ain o b j e c t o f a t t e n t i o n h e re .T h e s e , f i r s t l y, c an b e s c h e m a t iz e d a s i n ( 1 9 ) :

( 1 9 ) discrete continuous

e ~ 6 ~, /, ,,,%/

i l l i / i I f I"" " , , . r}I . a , 7 : I ~:::unboundedmultiplex

Q ~ . . . O


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ation as a point of t im e- -i .e . , as being point-dura-t i o n a l :

(25) Moving along on the tr ai ni ng c ourse,she climbed the fire-ladder at exactly midday.

This sh if t in the cognized ext ensi onal ity of the ewent can be thought to involve a cognitive process of

redu ctio n or of tak ing the long-range view . Thesh if t can also go in the other dire ct ion . The eventre fe re nt can be ide al iz ed as an unbounded ex te nt fromthe ef fe ct of grammatical elements li ke keep -i ng ,

-e r and - er , and as + S , as in (26) :(26) She kept climb ing highe r and high er up the

fire-ladder as we watched.

Here there would seem to have taken place a co gni ti veprocess of magnif icat ion or of taking the close-upview . In such a process, a pers pect ive is estab~lished whereby the existence of any exterior boundsfa ll s outside of view and att ent ion --o r, at most, areasymptotically approachable.

The preceding event referent was continuous,but a disc rete case can exh ib it the same sh if ts ofex te ns io na li ty . One such case, perhaps to be con-sidered as most ba si ca ll y of bounded ext ent , is shownwith that degree of ext ens io nal it y in (27a). But the

referent can also be idealized as a point, as in (27b)(i t is clear that the cows here did not all die at thesame moment, and ye t the spread of t h ei r death tim esis conceptually collapsed into such a single moment).Or, the re fe re nt can be id ea li ze d as an unbounded ex-tent, as in (27c):

(27) a. The cows a l l died in a month.b. When the cows a ll die d, we sold our far m.c. The cows kept dyi ng (and dyin g)

unti l the serum f i nal ly arr ived.

The a l ternative idealiza tions of extensionali tyjust seen as speci fiab le fo r an event referen t aregenerally also availa ble for an object ref eren t.Thus, e.g., the referent of (a) box can be specified

for id ea li za ti on as a point or as a bounded extent(o f area or volume). Some grammatical elements makingsuch specif ica tions~are i l l ust ra te d in (28) . Also se tfo rt h here are the homologies between these and theevent-specific elements:

2 8 )

point The box is 20 f t . away from the wa ll .I read the boo k 20 yr s. ago.

bounded ext ent The box is 2 f t . across.I read the book in 2 hrs.

(po int Within ) The bal l is in the box.bounded ex te nt She ar ri ve d as I was reading the book.

2.6 Pattern of Dis tri but ion

The pattern of distribution of matter throughi:space or of action through time is a further categoryof notions t hat can be both gramma tical ly and le xi c-al ly specified.16 For action through time--the onlydimension we wi l l be looking at now-- this categorytogether with the preceding one largely constitutethe tr adi ti on al category of aspect .

Several of the main patterns of distribution foracti on through time are shown sch emat ica lly in (29)

(the dots here, representing situatedness in comple-mentary states, should really be adjacent, but theyare sketched ap art wi th a connecting l in e to show thecrossing of sta te- int erf ace s). Shown, too, are ex-ample verbs whose basic di st ri bu ti ona l speci fica tionsare as in the corresponding schematic:

(29)

one-way one-way f u l l- steady- grad ientnon- rese tta ble cycle stat e

resettable ~

. . . . . .

die f al l flas h sleep widencarry

One can determine that these le xi ca l items have thespecifications indicated by noting the grammaticalelements wit h which they can and cannot occur (o r, toput the latter case in our terms: ...grammatical ele-ments toward whose spe cif ica tio ns they wil l notsh if t) . A fu ll demonstration is not in order here,but a few examples show the pr in ci pl e: The re se tt ab letype of a one-way event is distinguished from thenon-resettable type by its compatibility in sentences

li ke : He f el l 3 times , which the other lacks: *Hedied 3 times. This same one-way form is dis tin gui she dfrom a fu ll -c yc le form by it s ab il it y to appear insentences l i k e : He f e l l and then got up, which thel a t t e r cannot do: *The beacon fla she d and then wento f f .

We can now consider the cirsumstance where a verbof one type appears with grammatical elements of an-other type and shifts in certain of its specificationsof di st ri bu ti on . For an example we again take die ,whose basic specifications can be adjudged as point-durational one-way non-resettable--schematizable, nowmore pre ci sel y, as: ~ . This verb is used with i t sbasic specifications in a sentence like (30a).

(30) a. He die d as she looked on.

b. He was ( sl ow ly ) dyin g as she looked on.

But in a sentence like (30b), the grammatical ele-ment be + -in__ng_ induces a s h i f t . In e f f ec t , theinf ini te sim al inte rval between the two states involvedfor die -- vi z. , 'aliv eness' and 'deadness'--is spreadout, with the creation thereby of an extent-durationalgradient . This is the sh if t in the dis tr i but ion pat-ter n's str uctu ral type. But concomitantly, a sh if tin the basic con ten tfu l re fe re nt is engendered. In-stead of 'd yi ng ', the new gradient ref ers to 'mori-bun dit y'. The di st in ct io n becomes clear in notingth at one can have been dying wi th out having died ,and, correlatively, one can have died without havingbeen dying.17

2.7 Pers pect ival Mode

A spe cif ied ac tion (which, in our terms, can asequ all y be st at ic as inv olv e change) has been seen tohave it s own, perhaps most basic, patter n of di st ri -bution through time. But, as it tur ns' out , there canbe independent sp eci fic at ion for a mode of attendingto the action that has a distinct temporal patternof distribution, one that is either equal or unequalto the ac ti on 's . In what we sha ll now consi der,there are two types of such at te nt io na l or per-spectival mode viz.:

19


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8/11

t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t p a i r s o f g ra m m a ti ca l e le m e n tst h a t m a rk th e d i s t i n c t i o n f o r a n um b er o f d i s t i n c tt yp e s o f m u l t i p l e x i t y. A r a t h e r f u l l l i s t o f t he s ep a i r s is i l l u s t r a t e d i n (3 9 ) :(39)

a . Oys te r s have s iphon s /a s iphon . 41An oy s te r has s ipho ns /a s ipohon . L

b . A l l o y s t e r s h a ve s i p h o n s / a s i p h o n .E v e ry o y s t e r h as s ip h o n s / a s i p h o n .

c . A l l t h e m e m be rs r a i s e d t h e i r h a n d ( s ) .d . E a c h m e m be r r a i s e d h i s h a n d ( s ) .

d . M a n y m e m be rs r a i s e d t h e i r h a n d ( s ) .Many a member r a i s ed h is hand (s ) .

e . Som e m e m be rs h e r e a nd t h e r e r a i s e d t h e i r h a n d ( s ) .A m e m be r h e r e a nd t h e r e r a i s e d h i s h a n d ( s ) .

f . M e m be rs o ne a f t e r a n o t h e r r a i s e d t h e i r h a n d ( s ) .O ne m e m be r a f t e r a n o t h e r r a i s e d h i s h a n d ( s ) .

g . H a r d l y a ny m e m be rs r a i s e d t h e i r h a n d ( s ) .H a r d l y a me m be r r a i s e d h i s h a n d ( s ) .

h . No members r a i s ed th e i r han d(s ) .

No member (Not a member ) r a i s ed h is han d(s ) .

i . She held a gun in both hands.She he ld a gun in e i th e r hand . 23

2 .10 Othe r Ca te gor ie s and Processes

M o re n o t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s a nd c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e sh a ve be en w o r ke d up t h a n t h e r e i s o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r e -s e n t h e r e . S om e o f t h i s o t h e r m a t e r i a l i s t r e a t e di n an e a r l i e r w o r k , Ta lm y (1 9 7 7 ) (w h i c h i t s e l f l a c k ss om e o f t h e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d h e r e ) . Bu t w e w i l lb r i e f l y i n d i c a t e s om e o f t h e c o n c ep t s i n v o l v e d .

T he a d j e c t i v e s i n a p a i r l i k e s i c k / w e l l b eh av ed i f f e r e n t l y i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h g ra m m a ti ca l e l em e n tss p e c i f y i n g v e c t o r a l d e g r e e , a s s h o w n i n ( 4 0 ) . I n t h i s

t h e y p a r a l l e l t h e b e h a v i o r o f c e r t a i n s p a t i a l e x p r e s -s i o n s l i k e a t t h e b o r d e r / p a s t t h e b o r d e r :

( 40 ) H e' s s l l g h t l y ~s i c k / p a s t " t h e b o rd e r. '~

~ w e l l / * a t t h e b o r d er .

( ~ w e l l / a t t h e b o r d er . 5H e 's a l m o s t ~ ~

[ : s i c k / ' p a s t t he b o r d e r ~

T h i s b e h a v i o r c an b e a c c o u n te d f o r b y p o s i t i n g t h a ts uc h a d j e c t i v e s a r e n o t si m p l y " o p p o s i t e s " , b u t , r a -t h e r , i m p ly f o r s om e s e m a n ti c n o t i o n , e . g . , t h a t o f' h e a l t h ' , a p a r t i c u l a r a b s t r a c t to p o l o g i c a l a x i s o fw h ic h e ac h a d j e c t i v e l a b e l s a c e r t a i n p o r t i o n . T he

f o rm s h e r e se em i n p a r t i c u l a r t o i m p l y a l i n e b ou n de da t on e e n d ; w e l l r e f e r s t o th e e n d - p o i n t w h i l e s i c kr e f e r s t o t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e l i n e . T he se a r e t h el e x i c a l i te m s ' " a x i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " , i . e . , t h ep a r t i c u l a r ( t o p o l o g i c a l ) r e l a t i o n s ~ a ch h as t o a p a r -t i c u l a r s e m a n t ic a x i s a nd t o o t h e r i te m s a l ~ n g th es am e a x i s . Ce r t a i n g ra m m a t ic a l e l e m e n t s , l i k e t h o s eu n d e r l i n e d in ( 4 0 ) , a l s o s p e c i f y a x i a l c h a r a c t e r i s -t i c s . U s e d i n c o m p a t i b l y, t h e y c an c au se a s h i f t i na n a s s o c i a te d a d j e c t i v e ' s s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . T h us , i n( 4 1 ) , s i c k s ee m s t o l a b e l a n e n d - p o i n t , a nd o f ad i f f e r e n t a x i s a s w e l l , t h a t o f ' f e e l i n g b a d ' :

(41) ( A f t e r e a t i n g t h e s h r im p , h e f e l t w o r se a ndworse and) he was a lmos t s ick a t one po in t /

h e f i n a l l y g o t s i c k i n 5 h r s .

L e x i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s l i k e c o t t a g e a nd h o t e l r oo mm ay b e t a ke n t o h av e " a s s o c i a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " - -h e r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y, t ho s e o f ' p er m an e nt r e s i d e n c e 'a nd ' t e m p o r a r y l o d g i n g ' . T he se a t t r i b u t e s m ay m es ho r c o n f l i c t w i t h t he s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o f an o t he r e l e -m e nt i n t h e s am e s e n t e n c e, e . g . , w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n a la d v e r b h o m e , w h i c h s p e c i f i e s a p er m an en t r e s i d e n c e .I n t h e c e se o f c o n f l i c t , a s i n ( 4 2 b ) , t h e le x i c a l i te

i s o p e r a t e d o n b y a c o g n i t i v e p r o ce s s t h a t l e a v e s i t se s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t a c t b u t r e p la c e s i t s i n -c i d e n t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

(42) a . He drove home to h is co t ta ge in the suburbs .b. He drov e home to his ho te l room.

T he " s c e n e -b r e a k u p c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " o f a l e x i c a li te m l i k e s e rv e r e f e r t o i t s b a s ic s p e c i f i c a t i o n o fa d y a d i c e v e n t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , a s o c i a l e v e n t i n v o l -v i n g t h e t w o r o l e s o f ' h o s t ' a nd ' g u e s t ' , a s i s m a n if e s t e d i n ( 4 3 a ) . Bu t i n a s e n t e n c e l i k e ( 4 3 b ) , s u cha l e x i c a l i te m s h i f t s t o s p e c i f y i n g a m o na dic e v e n tc o m p a ra b le t o a b a s i c a l l y m o no dic l e x i c a l e x p r e s s i o nl i k e t h a t i n ( 4 3 c ). T h i s s h i f t i n (4 2 b) t a k es p l a c ei n ac co mm o da tio n o f t h e s u b j e c t - p l u s - r e f l e x i v e ' s

s i n g l e - r o l e s p e c i f i c a t i o n . ( lh o u g h t h i s g ra m m a ti ca le l e m e n t i s d e t e r m i n a t i v e i n s e t t i n g t h e r o le - n u m b e ra s m o n a d ic , t h e v e r b ' s i n f l u e n c e r e m a i n s : b l e n d ed i nh e r e i s t h e m e t a p h o r i c s u g g e s t i o n o f a d y a d , a s i fb o t h ' h o s t ' a nd ' g u e s t ' a r e t o b e f o u n d i n t h e " I " ) :

(43) a . The hos t s e rved me some de ss e r t f rom the k i tcb . I s e r v e d m y s e l f s o m e d e s s e r t f r o m t h e k i t c h e nc . I w e n t an d g o t s o m e d e s s e r t f ro m t h e k i t c h e n .

A m a j or a im i n c o g n i t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s m us t b e t oi n v e s t i g a t e t h e in t e r a c t i o n s b etw ee n l e ~ i c a l a ndg r am m a t ic a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r i s i n g i n a s i n g l e s e n t -ence . Inc luded he re a re the co gn i t iv e accommodat iont h a t t a k e p la c e w h er e t h e r e a r e c o n f l i c t i n g s p e c i f c -c a t i o n s . A n u m be r o f i n t e r a c t i o n s h av e b e e n p r o v i s i

a l l y i d e n t i f i e d , a nd f o u r se em d e f i n i t e l y e s t a b l i s h eo p e r a t i o n s , s h i f t s , b l e n d s ( o f t wo k i n d s : s u p er im p o sa nd i n t r o j e c t e d ) , a nd j u x t a p o s i t i o n s . T he l a s t t h r eo f t h e s e a r e t r e a t e d a t l e n g t h i n Ta l m y ( 1 9 7 7 ) .

2 . 11 N e s t i n g

T he o p e r a t i o n s a n d s h i f t s s ee n i n 2 . 1 - 2 . 6 n en o t t a k e p la c e s i n g l y . T he o u t p u t o f on e c an s e r v ea s t h e i n p u t t o a n o t h e r , u p t o a s m a ny a s f i v e h i e r -a r c h i c a l l e v e l s o f l n e s t i n g " . W h i le t h e r e a r e a n umb e r o f i n t e r e s t i n g e xa mp le s o f t h i s f o r d i f f e r e n tt y p es o f m a t t e r an d a c t i o n , w e w i l l g o d i r e c t l y t oi l l u s t r a t i n g o ne o f th e l o n g e s t c as e s ;(44)

a . The beacon f la sh ed (a s I g lanced ove r ) .b . The beacon kep t f la sh in g .c . The beacon f la sh ed 5 t imes in a row.d . T h e b e ac on k e p t f l a s h i n g 5 t i m e s a t a s t r e t c h .e . T h e b ea co n f l a s h e d 5 t i m e s a t a s t r e t c h f o r 3 h r

I n ( 4 4 a ) , t h e l e x i c a l v e r b f l a s h a p pe a rs w i t h i t sb a s ic s t r u c t u r a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n a s a p o i n t - d u r a t i o n a lf u l l - c y c l e u n i p l e x e v e n t . T h i s u n de rg o es t h e p ro c e so f m u l t i p l e x i n g , t o y i e l d t h e un bo un de d m u l t i p l e x i t yin (44 b) . This then unde rgops bounding in (44 c ) .T h is b o un de d m u l t i p l e x i t y i s t h e n ~ f i r s t p u t th r ou g h

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t h e p r o c e s s o f r e d u c t i o n t o b e c om e i d e a l i z e d a s ap o i n t , a n d t h i s i s i n t u r n m u l t i p l e x e d , y i e l d i n g( 4 4 d ). T h is ne w u nb ou nd ed m u l t i p l e x i t y i s f i n a l l yt h e n b o u n d e d i n ( 4 4 e ) . T he n e s t i n g o f s t r u c t u r a ls p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n t h i s l a s t s t a g e c an b e r e p r e s e n t e ds c h e m a t i c a l l y a s i n ( 4 5 ) :

3 . Fu r t h e r Co g n i t i v e Co n n e c t io n s

G r a m m a ti ca l ly s p e c i f i e d s t r u c t u r i n g a p p ea rs t obe s i m i l a r , i n c e r t a i n o f i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s an df u n c t i o n s , t o th e s t r u c t u r i n g i n o t h e r c o g n i t i v e d o -m a i ns , n o t a b l y t h a t o f v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n . I n p a r t i -c u l a r , t he c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f b ei ng q u a s i - t o p o l o g i c a lc a n be p o i n t e d t o , a nd t h r e e m a j o r f u n c t i o n s c an b ei d e n t i f i e d : c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , s y n o p ti c s, and c o n t i n u i t y .T he t h i n k i n g h e r e is n o t e q u a l l y f a r a l o n g o n a l l i;t h e s e m a t t e r s , b u t so m e th in g o f i t s d i r e c t i o n s c anb e i n d i c a t e d .

Grammat ica l sp ec i f i ca t io ns can be seen to con-s t i t u t e a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i t h re g a rd t o t h e v a s t v a r -i e t y o f le a r n e d , c o n c e i v e d , a nd p e r c e i v e d m a t e r i a l .T he y g a t h e r d i f f e r e n t p o r t i o n s o f t h e m a t e r i a l t o g e -t h e r i n t o s u b d i v i s i o n s d i s t i n c t f ro m e ac h o t h e r . B yt h i s , a ny p a r t i c u l a r c u r r e n t l y c o g n iz e d e l em e n t i s

a s s o c ia t e d w i t h i t s i m p l i c i t " s u b d i v i s io n - m a t e s " .A n i l l u s t r a t i v e c a se he r e a r e th e t w e n t y -o d d m o t io n -r e l a t e d p ~ e p o s i t i o n s i n E n g l i s h , s uc h a s t h r o u g h an di n t o , w h i c h t o g e t h e r s u b d i v i d e th e d o ma in o f ' p a t h sc o n s i d e re d w i t h r e s p e c t t o r e f e r e n c e - o b j e c t s ' T h i sdomain cove r s a g r ea t and va r ied r ange , bu t any pa r st i c u l a r " p a t h " f a l l s w i t h i n t h e p u rv u e o f o ne o r ano t h e r p r e p o s i t i o n , a s s o c i a t e d t h e r e w i t h o t h e r " p a t h s " .T he a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e o f t e n l a n g u a g e - s p e c i f i c a nd s om e -t im e s s ee m a r b i t r a r y o r i d i o s y n c h r a t i c . T h u s, as s ~e ne a r l i e r , c l a s s ed t o g e t h e r b y t h r ou g h a r e su ch d is s i m -i l a r c as es a s a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l i q u i d - p a r t i n g c o ur se( w a l k i n g t h r o u g h w a t e r ) a n d a z i g < z a g o b s t a c l e - a v o i d -i n g c o u r s e ( w a l k i n g th r o u g h t i m b e r ) . T he q u e s t i o na r i s e s w h y s uc h d i s t i n c t i o n s s h o u l d be e f f a c e d b ythe grammat ica l sys tem, wh i le they a re obse rved by

t h e l e x i c a l a n d o t h e r c o g n i t i v e s y s te m s . Why a r eg r a m m a ti c al e l e m e n t s - - s a y, s u c h p r e p o s t i o n s - - n o t al a r g e a nd o p e n c l a s s m a r ki ng i n d e f i n i t e l y m an y d i s ~ it i n c t i o n s ? O ne m ay s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e c o g n i t i v ef u n c t i o n o f s uch c l a s s i f i c a t i o n l i e s i n re n d e r i n gc o n t e n t f u l m a t e r i a l m a n i p u l a b l e - - i . e . , a m en ab le t ot r a n s m i s s i o n , s t o r a g e , a n d p r o c e s s i n g - - a n d t h a t i t sl a c k w o u l d r e n d e r c o n t e n t a n i n e f f e c t i v e a g g l o m e r a t i o n .

T he o r i g i n a l a s s u m p ti o n m a de i n t h i s p a p e r a b o u tg ra m m a ti ca l s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v e d t h e s y n o p t i c f u n c -t i o n . T h a t i s , t h e g r a m m a t ic a l e l e m e n t s o f an y p a r -t i c u l a r s e nt en c e t o g e t h e r s p e c i f y t h e s t r u c t u r e o ft h e c o g n i t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i 6 n e vo ke d by t h a t s e n te n c e .T h e i r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a c t as a s c a f f o l d i n g o r fr a m ew o rka c r o s s w h i c h c o n t e n t f u l m a t e r i a l c an b e s p l a y e d o rd r a p e d . I t c an b e s p e c u l a t e d t h a t s uc h s t r u c t u r e i s

n e c e ss a r y f o r a d i s p a r a t e q u a n t i ~ y o f c o n t e n t f u l m a t -e r i a l t o c o h e r e i n a n y s e n s i b l e w a y o r t o b e s i m u l -t a n e o u s l y c o g n i z e d a s a g e s t a l t .

I n th e c o u rs e o f d i s c o u r s e , a g r e a t w e l t e r o fn o t i o n s p a ss i n r a p i d s u c c e s s i o n . Bu t t h e r e a r e s e v -e r a l w a y s i n w h ic h a c o g n i t i v e c o n t i n u i t y i s m a in -t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h i s f l u x a nd a c o h e r e n t g e s t a l t i ss um m ate d o v e r ti m e . Fo r o n e , t h e r e a r e c o g n i t i v ep r o c e s se s w h er e by t h e s u c c e s s i v e n o t i o n s g e n e r a l l y c anb e s e n s i b l y c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r o r f i t i n t o a c o n c e p -t u a l m a t r i x . F o r a n o t h er , r h e t o r i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s- - a l l t h e y e s , b u t s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d s , an d a n um -

b e r o f s u b t l e r e le m e n ts n o t g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d f o rt h i s - - d i r e c t t h e i l l o c u t i o n a r y f l o w an d m a ke up t h e" l o g i c a l " t i s s u e o f t h e d i s c o u r s e . T h ro u gh t h i s , gm a t i c a l e l e m e n ts a p p e a r t o p l a y a d e t e r m i n a t i v e r o l eT h e i r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h a s t r u c t u r a l l e v e l wg r e a t e r t em p o r a l c o n s t a n c y a m i d s t m o re f l e e t i n g a s p -e c t s o f c o n t e n t .

T he se f or m s o f g r a m m a t i c a ll y s p e c i f i e d s t r u c t u rs ee m t o p a r a l l e l f or m s d i s c e r n a b l e i n t h e o p e r a t i o n v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n . 2 4 F i r s t , t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f an yp a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t i s m ed ia te d by i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w ir e l a t e d o b j e c t s i n a c l a s s i f i c a t o r y s ch em a .

Se c o n d l y, th e w e l t e r o f v i s u a l s e n s a t i o n s c o g n ia t any g iven moment fo r some whole scene i s r ende re dc o h e r e n t b y t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l d e l i n e a t i o nr u n n i n g t h ro u g h i t . One s p e c i a l i z e d f o r m o f t h i s id i s c e r n a b l e w h e n o ne i n t e n d s t o m o v e t h r o u g h a s p a c es a y, f r o m on e t o t h e o p p o s i t e c o r n e r o f a r e s t a u r a n tT he s e n s a ti o n s o f t a b l e s , c h a i r s , e t c , a r e , i n e f f e c tp e r c e i v e d in s i m p l i f i e d s p a t i a l a r ra n g em e n t s a s i f a n a e r i a l v i e w, a nd th e p l o t o f a c o u rs e o ne c o u l df o l l o w t h r o u g h t h a t i s s e n s e d .

T h i r d l y, i n t h e co u r s e o f m o t io n t h r o u g h s p ac eo v e r t i m e , t h e r e i s a g r e a t f l u x o f v i s u a l s e n s a t i o nr u s h i n g p a s t , b u t a s en se o f c o n t i n u i t y i s m a i n t a i n eb y t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f s t r u c t u r e r u n n i n g t h ro u g h t h es u c c e s s i v e s c en e s . Tw o l e v e l s o f " s c e n e - s t r u c t u r ec o n s ta n c y " a r e m a i n t a i n e d . I n t h e f i r s t , t h e p e r c e

d e l i n e a t i o n s a f f o r d g r e a t e r pe rm a ne nc e t h a n th e s e n sf l u x , b u t d o s l o w l y s h i f t . T h i s i s t h e l e v e l w h e rs a y, in w a l k in g p a s t a t a b l e , i t s p e r c e i v e d o u t l i n ei s m a in t a i n e d b u t s h i f t s g r a d u a l l y f r om a q u a d r i l a tt o a t r a p e z o i d a nd b ac k t o a q u a d r i l a t e r a l . A d e e pl e v e l o f g r e a t e r c o n st a n cy i s a l s o m a i n t a i n e d , f ro mw h i c h t h e t a b l e c o n t i n u e s t o b e p e r c e i v e d a s a r e c t ~a n g l e n o m a t t e r w h e r e o ne i s i n r e l a t i o n t o i t . Foa f i n a l p a r a l l e l w i t h g ra m m atic al s p e c i f i c a t i o n , t ht o p o l o g y - l i k e n a t u re o f v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n i s e v i d e nh e r e . F o r c e r t a i n a b s t r a c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a s cea nd i t s c o n t e n t s a r e m a i n t a in e d c o n s t a n t w h i l e o t h e rm ore m e t r i c a l a nd E u c l id e a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e f r e et o v a r y w i t h o u t r e l e v a n c e t h e r e t o .

4. Notes

1 . T he w o rd " e v o k e " i s u s ed b ec au se th e r e l a t i o n s h ii s no t d i r e c t . The CR is an eme rgent , compounded b~ a r i o u s c o g n i t i v e p r o ce s s e s o u t o f t h e s e n t e n ce e l e -m e n ts ' r e f e r e n t i a l m e a n in g s, u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e ps e n t s i t u a t i o n , g e n e r a l k no w le d g e, e t c .

O ur t er m " c o g n i t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " i s s i m i l a ri n p u r p o r t t o F i l l m o r e ' s ( 1 9 7 5 ) " s c e n e " b u t i s ch oso v e r t h a t m ore s p e c i f i c a l l y v i s u a l t e rm . T he l i n g ut i c a l l y evoked somplex can have much f rom o th e r senm o d a l i t i e s ( n o t a b l y s o m / k i n e s t h e t i c an d a u d i t o r y ) awe l l a s me ta -moda l a spe c ts .

2 . Co m p r eh e n si on , r a t h e r t h a n p r o d u c t i o n , i s t h e de c t i o n we l i m i t o u r s e lv e s t o i n t h e i n i t i a l e n d ea v

T h i s d i r e c t i o n w o u ld s ee m t o y i e l d m o r e i m m e d i a t e lyr e l i a b l e f i n d i n g s , s i n c e i t s s t a r t i n g p o i n t is w i t hm o re o v e r t l y m a n i f e s t , h e nc e h a n d l e a b l e , f o rm s l i k egrammat ica l e lements r a th e r than wi t h meanings ande x p e r i e n t i a l c o m p le x e s, w h ic h r e l y m ore o n i n t r o s p et i o n an d r e p o r t s o f i n t r o s p e c t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , ed i r e c t i o n d oe s i n v o l v e b o th t h e m a n i f e s t a n d t h e e xp e r i e n t i a l s i d e s o f la n g u ag e .

3 . T h is i s a c l a s s i c a l l i n g u i s t i c d i s t i n c t i o n . Ac l a s s i n w h i c h m or ph e me s a r e f o r m a l l y g a t h e r e d i s cs i d e r e d o p en i f i t i s q u i t e l a rg e a n d e a s i l y a ug m en

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a b l e r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r c la s s e s . A c l a s s i s c o n s i d e re dc l o se d i f i t i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll a nd f i x e d i n m e mb er-s h i p .

4 . A l s o i n c l u d a b l e h e re a r e " l e x i c a l c o m p le x es " l i k el o d g e a c o m p l a i n t o r z e r o i n o n. E x c lu d e d a r e a d v e r b s ,w h i c h s ee m i n a l l l a ng u a g e s t o d e r i v e f ro m t h e o t h e rt h r e e o p e n c l a s s e s r a t h e r t h a n f r o m a n y o p e n c l a s so f s p e c i f i c a l l y a d v e r b i a l s te m s.

5 . Since the te rm "s t r uc tu re " has b road usage , we

c an h e l p fo c u s i n o n t h e i n t e n d e d s e n se w i t h a l t e r -n a t i v e t er m s: " p r i n c i p l e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n " , " p a t t e r no f d e l i n e a t i o n s " , " s c he m a t ic f ra m e w o r k ".

6 . T he f a c t o f d u al l e x i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s t h a t c anl e ad t o c o n f l i c t i s a m o j or i s s u e t h a t w i l l b e t r e a t e db e lo w u n d e r s h i f t s . So m e g r a m m a t ic a l e l e m e n ts a l s oc r o s s th e l i n e a nd m a k e c o n t e n t f u l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a l o n gw i t h s t r u c t u r a l o n es . T h i s i s a m o re t a n g e n t i a l i s s u eth a t can be touched on he re . The c ros s ing r anges f romt h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f a s i n g l e c o n t e n t f u l n o t i o n t o t h eo r d e r l y i n t e r w e a v i n g o f c o n t e n t f u l a nd s t u r c t u r a ln o t i o n s . T h u s , u p o n . i n We r o d e / s a i l e d / r u s h e d u p on t h ee ne my i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e n o t i o n o f ' a t t a c k ' , s e e m in g lye q u i v a l e n t t o t h e p a ra p h ra s e ' i n t o a t t a c k u po n ' T hec l o s e d - c l a s s a d v e r b t o m o rr o w i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e

p h r a se ' d u r i n g t h e da y t h a t o c c u r s n e x t a f t e r t h e da ydu r ing which I am now sp ea k in g ' , an example of ano r g a n i z e d i n t e r l a c i n g .

7 . O ne c an n o t e , f o r e x a m p le , t h e e f f e c t o n o n e ' si n t e r n a l c o g n i t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n c o n s i d e ri n g f i r s tthe sen ten ce I looked a t the dog and then I looked a tt h e d o g s. T he a d d i t i o n o f t h e g r a m m a t ic a l e l e m e n t - sh as a m a j or e f f e c t o n th e d e l i n e a t i o n a l b re a ku p o f - -t p ~ u t i t v i s ~ a l l y - - t h e s ce n e b e f o r e t h e m i n d ' s e ye .

8 . Fo r e x a m p le , a u g m e n t a t i v e a nd d i m i n u t i v e i n f l e c -t i o n s , i n s o f a r a s t h e y r e f e r t o a c tu a l s i z e , s e em t os p e c i f y s i z e r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r t ha n th enorm fo r an ob jec t . And grammat ica l e lements spec -i f y i n g d i s t a n c e ( l i k e E n g l is h w ay a nd j u s t a p p e a r i n g ,

e . g . , b e f o r e up t h e r e ) a p p ea r t o s p e c i f y n o t i o n s o f' f a r ' a nd ' n e a r ' t h a t a r e r e l a t i v e t o t h e c u r r e n t ':s i t u a t i o n .

9 . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e r e a r e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t er m s" s e m e l fa c t iv e " a nd " i t e r a t i v e " r e f e r r i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,t o o n e a nd m o re t h a n on e i n s t a n t i a t i o n o f a n e v e n t . Bu tt h e r e i s n o r e a l e q u i v a l e n t t o n u m b e r : " a s p e c t " in -c l u d e s t o o m u ch e l s e a b o u t t h e t e m p o r al s t r u c t u r e o fa c t i o n . A nd i n a ny c a s e , no ne o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a lt e r m s r e f e r g e n e r a l l y t o b o t h t h e d i m e n s i o n s .

1 0. T he m e ch an is m a c t u a l l y r e s o r t e d t o b y b o t h E n g l i s ha nd F re n c h i n m a ny s uc h c a s e s, i n c l u d i n g t h a t o f t e a r ,i s t h e u se o f t h e p l u r a l , a s i n :

( i ) Te a r L f l o w e d t h r o u g h t h a t c h a n n e l i n H a d e s .

The re seems t6 be a sequence of c og ni t iy e ope r-a t io ns he re in g e t t in g f rom a bounded to an unboundedq u a n t i t y. S p e c u l a t i v e l y, t h e b o u nd e d q u a n t i t y isf i r s t t r e a t e d as a u n i p l e x e n t i t y, i t i s th e n m u l t i -p l e x e d , t h e r e s u l t a n t e n t i t i e s a r e c o n c e iv e d a s s p a-t i a l l y j u x t a p o s e d , a nd t h e i r b o u n d a ri e s a r e l a s t l ye f f a c e d .

11 . The pre sen t ca te gory may be prone to c onfu s ionw i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e . Co n t r i b u t o r y h e r e i s th enorma l meaning range of c on t in uou s , which as ea s i ly

c o v e r s ' b o u n d l e s s n e s s ' a s i t d o e s ' i n t e r n a l s e a m l e s s -ness ' However, the two ca t eg or ie s can va ry indepe n-d e n t l y. T h us , i n t h e p r e c e d in g s e c t i o n , t h e l e x i c a lexamples g iven fo r unboundedness, wa te r and s lee p , hap en e d a l s o t o b e i n t e r n a l l y c o n t i n u o u s ; b u t t h e s amdem onst ra t ion of unboundedness cou ld have been madew i t h i n t e r n a l l y d i s c r e t e e xa m ple s l i k e t i m b e r an d b r

1 2. T h e r e d o e x i s t c e r t a i n m e ch an is ms f o r s uc h r e v e r sT h u s , t a k i n g a n u n bo un de d c a s e , t h e c o n t i n u i t y - s p e c -i f y i n g w o rd w a t e r ca n b e s h i f t e d t o w a rd b e i n g c o g n i z

a s d i s c r e t e b y t h e l o c u t i o n p a r t i c l e s o f w a t e r , as i n( i ) Wa t e r / P a r t ic l e s o f w a t e r f i l l e d t h e v e s s e l .

However, th e gramm atical complex used here does no td i r e c t l y s p e c i f y th e s h i f t b u t , l i k e t h e o ne i n No tes ee ms t o i n v o l v e a s e v e r a l - a t a g e r o u t e o f c o g n i t i v eo p e r a t i o n s .

1 3 . Fo r s c h e m a t i z i n g a c t i o n a l o n g t h e o n e -d i m e n s i o n at i m e a x i s , a n a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e tw o - d i m e n s i o n a l A , BA, and B d iagrams would be necessa ry - -and can ber e a d i l y v i s u a l ~ z e d .

1 4. T he l e x i c a l t y pe s f o r s e v e r a l o f t h e s e i n t e r s e c -t i o n s , i t s h o u ld be n o t e d , do h av e t r a d i t i o n a l t e rm s

Thus , nomina l fo rms of the a , A , and B type s , r e sp ect i v e l y, h av e b e e n c a l l e d c o u n t n o un s , c o l l e c t i v e n o uand mass nouns . And ve rb a l fo rms of the a and B typer e s p e c t i v e l y, h av e b e e n c a l l e d p u n c tu a l a nd d u r a t i v eve rb s . The m a t r ix p re sen ted he re augments , sys tem a t-i z e s , a n d g e n e r a l i z e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n s .

1 5 . I t m ay b e c o n s i d e r e d a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e c a t e -g o r y o f s t a t e - o f- b o u n d e d n e s s v i a t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o no f t h e n o t io n o f u n i p l e x i t y.

1 6. T h i s c a t e g o r y m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a n e x t e n s i o nO r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e " d i s p o s i t i o n o f a q u a n t i t y "C l e a r l y, t h i s c a t e g o r y a nd t h e p r e c e d in g f i v e a l l b et o g e t h e r i n t r e a t i n g t h e g r e a t e r d i s p o s i t i o n 6 f aq u a n t i t y, b u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s h av e n o t y e t a l l b ee

worked ou t .

1 7 . O ur m a in p u rp o s e h e re i s t o n o t e t h e s h i f t i ns t r u c t u r e t y p e . T he s h i f t i n c o n t e n t , w h ic h w i l ld o u b t l e s s p r o v e t o h a ve s om e r e g u l a ~ t v i s n o t c l e a r lu n d e r st o o d a t t h i s p o i n t .

1 8. A m a j o r f u n c t i o n o f p e r f e c t f o rm s i n l a n g u a g e i nd e ed ap p e a rs t o b e t h e o n e i n v o l v e d h e r e . M o r e p a r -t i c u l a r l y , t h e p e r f e c t s e em s a b l e to s p e c i f y t h e te mo r a l c o u n t e r p a r t o f m a t t e r l o c a t e d w i t h i n a b ou n de de x t e n t o f s p a c e , a s i n ( i ) . T h a t i s , a s e n t e n ce c o n -t a i n i n g t h e p e r f e c t , a s i n ( i i ) , s u g g es ts a p a r ap h r asl i k e t h a t i n ( i i i ) , w h ic h i s ho m olo go us w i t h ( i ) :

( i ) T h e r e w e r e 5 a s p i r i n s o n t h e t a b l e .

( i i ) I h av e t a k e n 5 a s p i r i n s i n th e l a s t h o u r.( i i i ) T h e re w e re 5 a s p i r i n - t a k i n g s i n t h e l a s t h o u r .

( I n s u p p o r t o f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a s p o in t ed ~ .o u t tme by Peyton Todd , th e p e r fe c t can be no ted a lways toi n v o l v e a t em p o r a l s p a n b o u n d e d a t b o t h e n d s . )

1 9. A l l t h r e e n o t i o n - - i d e n t i t y o f a q u a n t i t y, p o r t i ot a k i n g o f a q u a n t i t y, c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e p o r t i o n - -a r e g e n e r a l l y s p e c i f i e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y. ( o r , " c o n f l a t- - s e e Ta lm y ( 1 9 7 5 ) ) by l e x i c a l i te m s t h a t w o ul d f i tin the A/B row of (2 0) . For example , ( a ) tea r speci f i e s n o t o n l y a c e r t a i n s ha pe o f Q u a n t um , b u t a l s o

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