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Global Education Review

Volume 1, Number 6, December 2013 (Serial Number 6)

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Global Education Review Volume 1, Number 6, December 2013 (Serial Number 6)

Contents The Impact of E-learning System on Conventional Teaching Environment “Field Study in UAE

Context” 1

Rashad Al Saed　

Project-based Learning as the Delivery Model in Teacher Education Courses 　 13

Elizabeth A. Lasley; Jeffrey M. Sullivan

Are you a Student Friendly or a Ghost Instructor via Online Classes?　 32

Barba Aldis PATTON; Teresa A. LE SAGE-Clements

Teachers’ Perceptions toward Social Media Integration into K-12 Instruction in Saudi Arabia 44

Hamdan Alamri; Jane Liu

Chat Show Game Show: Have Fun While Your Students Learn　 57

Richard Hillman

Social Studies in the Cross Thematic Integrated Curriculum for Kindergarten in Greece 　 69

Vasilios Oikonomidis

Global Education Review, ISSN 2220-1599 December 2013, Vol. 1, No.6, 1-12

The Impact of E-learning System on Conventional Teaching

Environment “Field Study in UAE Context”

Rashad Al Saed Skyline University College, United Arab Emirate

The role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is increasingly visible and has many applications in

our routines. One such application that currently has profound impact is e-learning systems. The growing potential

of online educational systems and their robust utilities are leading to a re-examination of conventional

teaching-learning systems all around the world. In this context, this study inquires into learners’ and instructors’

attitudes towards e-learning systems in a conventional teaching-learning environment, focusing on a few institutes

of higher education operating under the approval of the UAE’s Ministry of Higher Education. Based on the survey

data generated from 66 instructors and 96 students, there is a high level of willingness to adopt e-learning systems

in conventional teaching-learning environments like colleges and universities. High levels of association are found

between the perceived quality of e-learning systems and their adoptability in the conventional teaching learning

environments in the UAE. Thus, this study opens up an avenue for discussing the implications and possible

adoption of e-learning systems in the conventional teaching-learning setting currently employed in the UAE.

Keywords: e-Learning; conventional teaching learning; education system

Introduction The new millennium has emphasized the vital role of information technology and telecommunications in

business development. The past decade has witnessed spectacular improvements in the computational capabilities of calculators and computers and, more recently, thrilling advances in their communication capabilities. The marriage of these two functions—computation and communication—has produced powerful information technology tools that have important implications for education. IT, and within this broader designation, its educational, instructional, and learning technology applications, facilitate collaboration, interactive learning, and new pedagogical approaches that can lead to changes in the way students and faculty interact. Personal attitudes are a major factor in individual use of information technology, so understanding users’ attitudes toward electronic learning facilitates the creation of appropriate electronic learning environments for teaching and learning. However, methods of assessing electronic learning cannot be evaluated using a single linear methodology, so there is a need to build a multidisciplinary approach in order to survey individual attitudes toward electronic learning (Liaw, 2000; Liaw, in press; Wang, 2003).

The measurement of e-learning must incorporate different aspects of user perceptions to form a useful diagnostic instrument (Wang, 2003). In addition, from the point of view of Liaw (2000), constructing user

Rashad Al Saed, Ph.D, Professor of International Business &Marketing, International Business Department. Skyline

University College, United Arab Emirate.

THE IMPACT OF E-LEARNING SYSTEM ON CONVENTIONAL TEACHING ENVIRONMENT “FIELD STUDY IN UAE CONTEXT”

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attitudes toward computer and Internet technologies can be divided into three major kinds of measurements: affective, cognitive, and behavioral. Affective measurements (such as perceived enjoyment) and cognitive measurements (such as perceived self-efficacy and perceived usefulness) have a positive effect on behavioral measurements, such as the intention to use e-learning as a teaching or learning tool (Liaw & Huang, 2003).

Information technology now makes it possible for learning and teaching to take place in new settings, inspiring and facilitating lifelong education. Given the importance of individuals in predicting and improving the use of e-learning technologies, information technology has become an urgent necessity in United Arab Emirates Universities and colleges. Thus, the goals of this study are:

To determine the willingness of instructors to adopt e-learning tools

To analyze the impact of instructors’ cognitive factors, affective factors and the perceived quality of

e-learning systems on their willingness to use such systems

To determine the relationship between the instructors’ willingness to use e-learning systems and their

perception of the quality of such systems

To measure students’ perception of the quality of e-learning tools

To define the students’ preferences for assisted instructor tools in e-learning systems

To define the students preferences for multimedia tools in e-learning systems

Literature Review People learn in different ways. They tend to remember 10 percent of what they read, 20 percent of what

they hear, 30 percent of what they see, 50 percent of what they hear and see, 70 percent of what they discuss with others, 80 percent of what they try to do, and 95 percent of what they teach to others (Bush, M., 1997). Thus, we distinguish between learning and education, since learning is a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2000, Ormorod, 1995), while education is the learning of knowledge, information and skills during the course of life. People learn from their experience, while education is given and govern by specialized institutions like colleges, universities, and schools.

E-learning. From this standpoint, the definition of e-learning is "pedagogy empowered by digital technology" (Nichols, M., 2008, p.17). Electronic learning, sometimes called distance learning, is a planned teaching/learning experience that uses a wide spectrum of technologies—mainly Internet or computer-based—to reach learners. In this paper, we concentrate on e-learning in terms of formal education content and initiatives, sometimes classified as the fifth generation of learning. In 1981, the Japanese announced a program of research on the fifth generation of computing systems (FGCS) that would integrate advances in the integration of database systems, artificial intelligence, and humans in a new range of computers that are closer to people in their communication and knowledge-processing capabilities (Gaines, 1984).E-learning has been introduced at many universities and colleges as one strategy with which to transform teaching and learning. The appropriate use of information and communication technologies at many universities and colleges reflects a blended approach to teaching and learning, with asynchronous online


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communication tools, such as email or online discussion forums forming an essential part.

Table 1 summarizes the comparison between e-learning and traditional learning. No Dimensions Traditional Learning e-Learning 1 Classroom

Discussions the teacher usually talks more than the student

The student talks at least as much as or more than the Teacher (group discussion)

2 Learning Process

The learning is conducted participating; there is almost no group or individual study

Most of the learning process takes place in groups or by individual students.

3 Subject Matter The teacher conducts the lesson according to the study program and the existing curriculum.

The student participates in determining the subject matter; study is based on various sources of information, including web databanks and net experts located by the student.

4 Emphases in the Learning Process

The students learn “what,” not “how”; the students and the teachers are busy completing the required subject matter quota; the students are not involved in inquiry-based education and in solving problems, but in tasks set by the teacher.

The students learn “how,” not “how”; the students includes research study which combines searching for and collecting information from web databanks and authorities on the communications network; the learning is better connected to the real world, the subject matter is richer and includes material in different formats.

5 Motivation The students’ motivation is low, and the subject matter is “distant” from them.

The students’ motivation is high due to their involvement in matters that are closer to them and to the use of technology

6 Teacher’s Role The teacher is the authority. The teacher directs the student to the information.7 Location of

Learning The learning takes place within the classroom and the school.

The learning takes place at no fixed location.

8 Lesson Structure

The teacher dictates the structure of the lesson and the division of time

The structure of the lesson is affected by the group dynamics.

Requirements for effective e-learning initiatives

It has been widely accepted that e-learning requires interactivity to improve learners' skills and deliver results. Creating effective e-learning also requires some creativity and knowledge of basic design principles, but that is what makes it interesting, as the e-learning process helps students to understand, rather than to memorize, as in the traditional learning process. Research in cognitive science (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000) has shown that people remember better, longer, and in more detail if they understand, actively organize what they are learning, connect new knowledge to prior knowledge, and elaborate. The best way to remember is to understand, elaborate, and organize what one already knows (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking).

Table 2 summarizes the criteria that can serve as the basis for evaluating an online course.

√ Prerequisites, if any, is clearly stated.

√ Current knowledge level of students is assessed as appropriate for course.


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√ Course goals are clear and appropriate. √ Objectives are clear, behavioral and measurable and are appropriate to course goals. √ Learning activities are linked to course objectives.

√ Content is organized by modules, units, lessons, or other meaningful architecture. √ Formative evaluation is provided to students through ongoing feedback (emails, and discussion board postings). √ Evaluations are linked to objectives. √ Instructor assumes a facilitative role. √ Syllabus is online and complete, including course expectations, goals and objectives, grading criteria and course policies. √ Support for student questions is provided (e.g., instructor contact information, FAQs, discussion board for questions). √ Discussion boards and/or is chat available; group activities, email, and orientation to technology are provided.√ Instructor communicates how he or she will give feedback, including frequency of feedback on discussion forums, assignments, etc. √ Feedback is evident through announcements, emails, discussion postings, or other means. √ Students receive orientation to posting in discussion forums, submitting to drop boxes, taking online exams, and using any other type of technology that will be utilized during the course. √ Students are provided the opportunity to collaborate with other students through group work or other means. √ Progress through the course is documented. √ If online testing is used, it includes detailed instructions as to how it will be administered and permitted settings. If possible, a practice test with the same settings should be given first √ If online testing is used, it should not comprise the greater portion of the final grade (best practice: “open book” testing). √ Students are provided information as to where to get technical help.

Effective e-learning environment (Liaw, Huang & Chen, 2007). In designing effective e-learning environments, Liaw (2004), suggested three factors are considered: learner characteristics, instructional structure, and interaction. When developing e-learning, it is necessary to understand the targeted population. First, learner characteristics, such as attitudes, motivation, belief, and confidence need to be identified (Passerini & Granger, 2000). Essentially, e-learning signifies autonomous learning environments where users have more opportunities for self-directed learning. As for instructional structure, multimedia instruction enables learners to develop complex cognitive skills, such as understanding important elements of conceptual complexity, the ability to use acquired concepts for reasoning and inference, and the competence and flexibility to apply conceptual knowledge to novel situations (Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson & Coulson, 1995). Finally, e-learning environments offer group interaction, such as learner-to-learner, or learner-to-instructors. Group interaction is a kind of cooperative learning that helps learners to make progress through their zone of proximal development by the activities in which they engage (Vygotsky, 1978). When learners increase their interaction with instructors and other learners, they increase their ability to build knowledge because so much learning takes place within a social context, and the process includes the mutual construction of understanding (Bruner, 1971). Thus, based on fundamental e-learning criteria, the three kinds of e-learning environments, a combination of which are needed to create an effective overall e-learning environment, are autonomous learning, multimedia environments, and teacher-assisted learning


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Figure 1. The Parts of Effective e-learning. Source: (Liaw, Huang & Chen, 2007)

Online learning programs are showing signs of substantial growth as more resident students have begun to enroll in them (Carr, 2000). Roach (2002) estimated that “As many as half the students in online courses are from the traditional 18-to-25-year-old student cohort who normally takes campus-based courses”. Based on this research, there are nine primary requirements for effective e-learning implementation in the UAE:

Learning culture: Before any campaign can be implemented, the audiences need to be informed of the

opportunities and challenges of e-learning. Educators and administrators need to be aware of the

benefits of e-learning in the classroom, as well as the specific technologies involved.

Change leadership: E-learning’s association with change is an interesting one, and change management

itself is one of the key drivers for e-learning adoption. Most educational organizations are very

conservative, so an educational technologist not only has to worry about pedagogy and technology, but

also about organizational issues.

Organizational infrastructure: The organization’s infrastructure is the permanent foundation on

which e-learning is built. Infrastructure must address an organization's existing culture, governing

principles, processes, and structures that will contribute to the success or failure of an e-learning effort.

Learning strategy: Organizations need a comprehensive learning strategy that moves beyond basic

delivery of learning opportunities. Successful organizations build infrastructure systems that support

performance, content, and resource management. Therefore, an e-learning strategy should motivate

people, improve productivity, enable skill development, and aid retention across the enterprise.

Learning resources and networked learning: Facilitated e-learning makes use of the capabilities of

learner-led e-learning and adds the benefit of having an instructor guiding the learners. This approach

requires the use of e-mail, discussion forums, and chat capabilities, depending on whether

communication will be synchronous or entirely asynchronous.

Pedagogy, curriculum design, content and development: Institutions must ensure that pedagogy and

curriculum are flexible, adaptable and relevant to students from a diverse range of cultural and

language backgrounds.

Quality: The two most important criteria for evaluating quality in e-learning are that it should function


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technically without problems across all users and have clearly explicit pedagogical design principles

appropriate to learner type, needs and context.

Cost reduction: A successful e-learning initiative should reduce costs over the long term, improve

individual and business unit performance, help maintain core competencies, and enable the

organization to react quickly to competitive pressures and market needs.

Research and evaluation: Includes both assessment of learners and evaluation of the instruction and

learning environment

Attitudes toward e-learning (Liaw, Huang & Chen, 2007)

Many institutions of higher education have turned to e-learning for authentic learning and to enhance learning performance, while other schools are jumping on the bandwagon simply because they do not want to be left behind (Govindasamy, 2002). When instructors exhibit more positive attitudes toward e-learning, then they have more behavioral intentions to use it. Indeed, no matter how advanced or capable a technology, its effective implementation depends on users’ having a positive attitude toward it. Thus, as individuals become more positive toward e-learning, they will have greater behavioral intention to use it. Although the concept of attitude toward computers has gained recognition as a critical determinant in the use and acceptance of computer technology, there is no single, universally accepted definition of the computer attitude construct (Liaw, 2002; (Smith et al., 2000). Previous research (Triandis, 1973) has suggested that attitude consists of affective, cognitive, and behavioral components: the affective component is the emotion or feeling, which includes statements of like or dislike toward certain objects; the cognitive component refers to statements of beliefs; and the behavioral component is what an individual actually does or intends to do (Liaw, 2002).

The three-tier technology use model (3TUM) is a conceptual approach for investigating user perceptions toward information and Internet technologies. The original concept of 3-TUM was derived from TAM (the Technology Acceptance Model), a popular approach for surveying user attitudes of information technologies (Davis, Bagozzi & Warsaw, 1989). TAM suggests that two specific behavioral beliefs, perceived ease of use (EOU) and perceived usefulness (U), determine an individual’s behavioral intention to use technologies. Based on the 3-TUM (Fig. 2), individual attitudes toward information technology form three different tiers: the tier of individual experience and system quality, the affective and cognitive tier, and the behavioral intention tier. The tier of individual experience and system quality evaluates how individual experience and system quality influence individual affective and cognitive components. The affective and cognitive tier investigates how affective and cognitive components change individual behavioral intentions. In the behavioral intention tier, the 3-TUM predicts individual behavioral intentions to use technology for a particular purpose (e.g., search engines as learning-assistance tools or computers).

Figure 2 The three-tier use model (3-TUM) Source: (Liaw, Huang & Chen, 2007)


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Research Hypotheses

H1: Faculty members’ willingness to use e-learning systems does not depend on their perception of

the quality of such systems, supported by cognitive and affective aspects of using such systems.

H2: Faculty members’ willingness to use e-learning systems does not differ with their perception of

the quality of such systems.

H3: Students’ perception of the quality of e-learning systems does not differ with their liking for the

instructor assisting the learning in such systems.

Research Methodology and Sampling Details

The blueprint for executing this research was prepared in keeping with the nature of the problem identified and the objectives for the work. Hence, a descriptive research design with two separate questionnaires for the primary data collection was employed. The survey for this study was conducted in two major institutions of higher education in UAE. The valid sample size of survey respondents was 162, comprised of 96 students and 66 faculty members. The sample size of the faculty member represents more than 80 percent of the total population of the instructors employed in the educational institutions considered in the present study, while the sample size of the students represents 50 percent of the senior-batch students, who are on the verge of graduation in both the institutions. Further, due care was taken regarding the majors of the students who took part in the survey; the responses from the students who opted for an IT major were not considered in the final analysis in order to eliminate undue bias that may have arisen in the responses to the system considered. Thus, the sampling procedure adopted for this survey can be categorized under the judgment sampling method. The primary data pertaining to the present study was collected in March 2009.

Questionnaire development.

The questionnaire for this study was developed based on a survey of the literature and was adapted from previous research. Participants expressed their feedback regarding the effectiveness of e-learning courses or programs through a series of quantitative survey questions. The surveys also gathered quantitative feedback about attitudes toward e-learning with respect to age, gender, level of education, experience, and so on. Perceptions were gathered in the following areas (Munchi, 1990): (Quality of e-learning, e-learning efficiency & collaboration, E-learning flexibility communication support, e-learning pedagogic and Training evaluation scale).

In order to reduce measurement error, the scale that accompanies each question on the attitudes and perception was designed and constructed appropriately, using the Likert scale (Likert, R. (1932). The issues to be addressed when constructing a Likert scale are the number of response options and the placement of response options.

The Likert scale generally uses an odd-numbered, five-point scale with the following response alternatives: Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, and Strongly Agree, weighted 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The


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odd-numbered Likert scale allows for the adoption of a neutral point (3), which represents no expression of agreement/disagreement.

The advantages of using a five-point Likert scale with the neutral point include:

• The neutral point allows for expression of uncertainty.

• The neutral point doesn’t force the participant to answer.

• When the neutral point is omitted, there is a greater tendency to give no response.

• The Likert scale has greater reliability than a scale with fewer points.

• Likert scales are empirically more valid than forced-choice scales.

• The scale reduces acquiescent response bias (the tendency to respond “yes” indiscriminately to a

forced-choice scale).

• A five-point Likert scale is more cost-and time-effective than a seven-point scale

• Measurement uses an interval scale, placing equal distance between the response options when

determining placement. Equal spacing allows people to assign “equal psychological distance”

between each of the options and to regard those options as convenient references or stopping points

along the continuum of the concept being measured.

Statistical Data Analysis

Willingness to use e-learning systems classification.

Table 3 Distribution of Instructors’ Willingness To Use e-learning Systems

Level of Willingness Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative PercentLow 29 43.9 43.9 43.9 High 17 25.8 25.8 69.7 Very High 20 30.3 30.3 100.0 Total 66 100.0 100.0

Table 3: shows that more than half of the instructors indicated high or very high willingness to use e-learning systems, while less than half (40 percent) indicated a low willingness to use such systems.

Table 4 Results of Regression for the Test of Hypothesis 1


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Instructors’ willingness to use classification vs. their perceived quality cross tabulation.

Table 5 Results of Cross-tabulation of Willingness To Use and Perceived Quality of e-learning Systems

Table 5 shows that the chi-square value of 47.87 with 4 degrees of freedom is significant at the 5 percent

level. The cross-tabulation also shows that 45 percent of the instructors have high or very high willingness to use e-learning systems and high or very high perceived quality on e-learning systems. Based on these results, hypothesis 2 is rejected; there is an association between the instructors’ willingness to use e-learning systems and their perception of the quality of such systems. Students’ perceived quality of learning e-learning tools vs. their liking for instructor assisted learning.

Table 6 Results of Cross-tabulation for Students’ Perceived Quality of e-learning Systems and Their Preference for Instructor-assisted Learning


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Students’ preference for multimedia assisted learning systems.

Table 7 Distribution of Instructors’ Willingness To Use e-learning Systems

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Low 4 4.2 4.2 4.2 High 54 56.3 56.3 60.4 Very High 38 39.6 39.6 100.0 Total 96 100.0 100.0

Table 6 shows that the chi-square value of 34.87 with 4 degree of freedom is significant at 5 percent level and that 70 percent of the students have high or very high perceptions of the quality of e-learning systems, along with high and very high liking for instructor-assisted learning. Based on these results, hypothesis 3 is rejected and there is a strong likelihood that there is an association between students’ perception of the quality of e-learning systems and their preference for instructor-assisted learning. More than 90 percent of the students indicated high or very high preferences for multimedia-assisted learning.

Research Findings

1. The instructors who participated in the present study showed high levels of willingness to adopt

e-learning systems in their pedagogy. In this context, their willingness to adopt e-learning systems is

strongly affected by three major factors: cognitive factors, affective factors and perceived quality. A

significant level of dependency was also noted between the instructors’ willingness to adopt e-learning

systems and their cognitive measurements and perception of the quality of such systems.

2. A significant level of association could be found between the Instructors’ willingness to use e-learning

systems and their perception of the quality of such systems. More specifically, this kind of association

exists among those who have higher levels of perceived quality of e-learning systems. Thus, it’s also

found that the instructors with low levels of perceived quality of e-learning systems have low levels of

willingness to use them.

3. A significant level of association was found between the students’ preference for instructor-assisted

learning and their perception of the quality of e-learning systems. More specifically, this kind of

association exists among those students who have higher levels of preference for instructor-assisted

learning, so e-learning systems can be an excellent supplementary tool for conventional teaching

pedagogy, although they may not totally replace more conventional methods of teaching and learning.

4. Both the instructors and the students showed high levels of perceived quality of e-learning systems and

willingness to use e-learning systems. In fact, e-learning systems have higher levels of operational

acceptance with the students and instructors who have higher levels of perceived quality on such

systems.


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5. Less than 5 percent of students expressed a dislike of e-learning tools, while 95 percent accepted them.

Implications and Conclusion

Based on our findings, we see several implications of the study and can make several suggestions related to its findings.

1. Educational institutions should move to adopt e-learning systems along with their conventional

teaching learning systems to a greater degree than is currently the case. Since such systems have wide

acceptance both from instructors and students, expanding e-learning opportunities may be a way to

maintain higher levels of quality in the teaching-learning exercise.

2. Although many institutions are moving towards more e-learning, it should be given more emphasis. In

particular, educational institutions should recruit instructors with high levels of ICT (Information and

Communication Technology) ability in order to encourage an environment more conducive to the

migration of the teaching-learning system in the direction of e-learning systems.

3. The high level of student acceptance of instructor-assisted learning confirms the importance of

instructors in the teaching-learning environment as a whole. However, educational institutions should

work toward finding the optimal mix of instructor-assisted and e-learning-based teaching-learning

environments. Such an optimal mix will contribute significantly to maintaining quality in the institutes

of higher education.

4. The instructors in various educational institutions should incorporate a greater mix of multimedia

instruction in their pedagogy. Since there is resounding acceptance of the use of multimedia systems,

from the students’ perspective, institutions should take steps to develop multimedia presentations that

can enhance the quality of the teaching-learning environment as a whole. Such a mix also presents

good business opportunities for software multimedia.

5. Educational institutions whose instructors have lower levels of ICT expertise should implement

training on ICT for such instructors in order to enable them to face the challenges of the future,

particularly as they related to increased use of e-learning-based systems.

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Project-based Learning as the Delivery Model in Teacher

Education Courses

Elizabeth A. Lasley

Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA.

Jeffrey M. Sullivan

Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA.

Emphasis is shifting quickly from traditional teacher-directed approaches to a constructivist student-directed

learning format. Project-based learning (PBL) is a constructivist student-directed pedagogical approach. The

focus of this article is the construction and implementation of project-based learning (PBL) within a

higher-education course, as well as the research results of a fixed mixed-methods pilot study related to such a

pedagogical approach. The research question is: To what extent does project-based learning influence students’

level of critical thinking as measured by changes in their levels of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation? Eighty-two

students, pre-service teacher candidates, enrolled in three separate early childhood cognition courses participated in

the study. Results from the pilot study indicate a qualitative and statistically significant quantitative change with

regards to the students’ perspective-taking (critical thinking) and sense of purpose (motivation). The authors

conclude that project-based learning contributed to the increase in self-directed motivation and critical thinking

during the learning process. Continued research to explore project-based learning as a viable conduit for

promoting critical thinking and intrinsic motivation in the higher education classroom is necessary.

Keywords: constructivist approach, critical thinking, intrinsic motivation

Today, conventional thinking about learning is changing dramatically, and emphasis is shifting quickly from traditional teacher-directed sit-and-get arrangements to constructivist student-directed learning approaches. Why? Advances in technology available to students and instructors, as well as increased research on the nature of creativity, has shed light on learning and changed the way modern educators conceptualize how students learn and the learning process (Friedman, 2005; Gardner, 2006; Papert, 1993;

Elizabeth A. Lasley, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Language, Literacy, and Special Populations, Sam Houston State University,

Huntsville, Texas, USA.

Jeffrey M. Sullivan, PhD, LPC, NCC, Assistant Professor of Counselor Education,Department of Educational Leadership and

Counseling. Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA.

PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS THE DELIVERY MODEL IN TEACHER EDUCATION COURSES

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Wagner, 2012). Students need to actively engage in learning how to learn based on their capabilities to find, analyze, and evaluate constantly changing and emerging information. Opportunities to become what Whemeyer (1996) describes as “self-determined people possessing an optimal combination of attitude and ability in setting achievable goals, solving problems, making decisions, advocating for themselves, evaluating decisions, and adjusting accordingly to achieve their goals” is a key factor in the learning process (p. 15). Motivation to use critical thinking when assessing the strengths and weaknesses of ideas, distinguishing fact from opinion, and evaluating the quality of information in order to resolve a conflict or solve a problem is another factor relevant to learning.

Many leading educators today view learning through a constructivist lens as a collaborative process through student-to-student and student-to-teacher discourse (Ginsburg-Block, Rohrbeck, & Fantuzzo, 2006; Papert, 1993; Wolters, 2003). Constructivist learning stands in stark contrast to the traditional, teacher-directed format, in which the instructor provides information in a lecture format, assigns readings to supplement the lecture, and tests the students’ level of retention. The traditional model supports learning with an assumption that students’ critical thinking, motivation, or application of what they are learning will eventually materialize. Wiersema and Licklinder (2009) indicate the need for educators to “plan learning opportunities to provide students with experiences that will challenge their old ways of thinking and learning, giving them a reason to develop new habits of thinking deeply about all experiences“ (p. 125). Emphasis is on challenging and motivating critical thinking. In an increasingly complex, changing, competitive, and interconnected world, educators want to ensure that their students gain the necessary critical thinking and 21st century skills to be successful (Gardner, 2006; Papert, 1993; Penuel, Means, & Simkins, 2000; Wagner, 2012). The question becomes how to accomplish such an objective.

Deci and Ryan’s (1985) research specifies that “when conditions are created that facilitate intrinsic motivation, students’ learning, particularly conceptual learning and creative thinking, increases dramatically relative to that of students in settings that foster extrinsically oriented learning” (p. 261). Current research also indicates that optimal learning occurs when the learner has the freedom and autonomy to engage in purposeful and relevant educational material and uses his or her unique creativity to integrate new information and concepts with pre-existing perceptions (Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Pink, 2006; Wagner, 2012; Wolters, 2003). Therefore, creating a structured and safe learning environment where students collaborate, communicate, direct, and control their learning becomes the role of the instructor (Barron, 2003, Ginsburg-Block et al, 2003; Hmelo-Silver, 2004). This instructional format is accomplished through projects that require critical thinking and problem-solving abilities (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). The end result is that the students not only analyze and evaluate new material, but retain synthesized knowledge through the opportunity to create something new that has personal significance. Moreover, research increasingly demonstrates that through constructivist approaches, students retain new information longer and are likely to feel motivated to continue their learning process (Dochy, Segers, Van den Bossche, & Gijbels, 2003; Ginsburg-Block et al., 2006).

Project-based learning (PBL) is a constructivist pedagogical model introduced by John Dewey and others during the progressive movement in the 1930’s, and was designed to increase students’ critical thinking and personal investment in the learning process. Project-based learning (PBL) challenges students to assume ownership and autonomy of their learning by promoting self-awareness, self-determination, and


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social-emotional confidence. Personal investment is supported by McKeachie and Svinicki’s (2006) suggestion that educators “recognize students’ need for self-determination and autonomy, and opportunities for choice and control” (p 149). Pink (2006) also indicates that autonomy, mastery, and purpose are crucial factors that motivate individuals to achieve. Therefore, autonomy stems from mastery, purpose, self-evaluation, and personal perspectives.

Project-based learning requires critical thinking. Critical thinking requires a degree of autonomy, in other words “self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking” during the problem solving or learning process (Paul & Elder, 2008, p. 8). Egocentrism and sociocentrism must be set aside in order to effectively communicate and use problem solving aptitudes for critical thinking (Paul & Elder, 2008). In every stage of cognitive development, egocentrism exists because in each stage there is disequilibrium between an individual’s ego and the outside world (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958; Piaget, 1969;). Egocentrism becomes subdued and restrained, rather than outgrown, each time a person attempts to adopt another perspective (Epley, Keysar, Van Boven, & Gilovich, 2004; Nickerson, 1999). A student’s level of critical thinking advances when transitioning from egocentrism to perspective-taking, or the ability to consider multiple points of view. Therefore, when students are engaged and challenged to integrate new concepts that conflict with their pre-existing perceptions, they reach a necessary state of disequilibrium required for critical thinking and creativity in order to synthesize new information, thus increasing their overall ability to learn and create.

There is a positive correlation between the students’ level of intrinsic motivation and their development of critical thinking (Blumenfeld et al, 1991; Deci, 1995; Helle, Tynjala, & Olkinuora, 2006; Wolters, 2003). Instructors have an opportunity to facilitate students’ motivation to move from egocentric thinking to perspective-taking through project-based learning. Project-based learning establishes eight essential elements as the framework for critical thinking and intrinsically motivated learning (Solis, Larmer, & Ross, 2012). The elements are: significant content, a driving question, in-depth inquiry and innovation, student voice and choice, twenty-first century skills, revisions and reflections, feedback, and public involvement (Solis et al, 2012). These eight elements establish a degree of autonomy through student voice-and-choice, stimulate the students’ intrinsic motivation to think critically, and challenge the integration of new concepts with previous perceptions and experiences. As students engage in real world problems and questions, instructors become the architects, advocates, and facilitators within the perspective-taking and critical thinking process.

Project-based learning is a pedagogical model well-suited for students, pre-service teacher candidates, within an education course because it promotes sustained learning, facilitates learning how to learn, critical thinking, and provides a pedagogical model for students’ to implement when teaching. Our research was to determine if such a model would stimulate deeper levels of critical thinking, intrinsic motivation, and retention of key course concepts. The research question for this pilot study is: To what extent does project-based learning influence students’ levels of critical thinking, as measured by their changes in their levels of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation? We predicted that students would display increased levels of critical thinking and intrinsic motivation after taking a course using a project-based learning (PBL) model when compared to their levels of critical thinking and intrinsic motivation prior to taking the course.

Methodology


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Participants and Setting

The participants in this pilot study were 82 students, pre-service teacher candidates, in the EC-6 elementary program enrolled across three fall term early childhood cognition courses taught by the same instructor (the primary researcher).

Table 1 Demographics (n = 82) % % % % % % %

Age 11% (18-19)

52% (20-21)

11% (21-22)

6% (22-23)

2% (24-26)

2% (27-28)

16% (>29)

Ethnicity 79% Caucasian

12% Latino

9% African-American

2% Multi-racial

1% Arabian

4% Unidentified

Academic Status

31% Sophomores

58% Juniors

12% Seniors

Marital Status

79% Single

18% Married

2% Divorced

Gender 94% Female

6% Male

Disability 7% Learning

3% Vision

1% Hearing

Materials/Description of the PBL Course

The instructor (the primary researcher) developed a project-based learning (PBL) model and embedded case study analysis and journal writing in the course structure to facilitate critical thinking and intrinsic motivation. The objective was to encourage students’ self-examination and reflection of believable situations, as well as allow for discussions regarding plausible solutions (McTighe & Wiggins, 2004; Klassen, Krawchuk, & Rajani, 2008). Open-ended questions, with the possibility of a variety of responses, provided students’ freedom and choice to pursue any pattern of thought they wanted in response to assigned readings, specific problems, or situation. Journal and case study questions remained consistent to allow students a comfort level for thinking about themselves during the reflection process.

The instructor provided the following set of open-ended questions for every journal and case study entry: (1) What did you read and discuss this week that did or did not alter or change your thinking? Why?

(2) What do you think this concept, idea, or realization might mean?

(3) How did such information positively or negatively enhance, alter, or change your thinking, habits

of mind, or 21st century skills?

(4) How will you transfer or apply your new knowledge to the listed course requirements i.e. habits of


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mind and 21st century skills? The instructor used open-ended questions to support the creation of a sense of cognitive dissonance,

imbalance, and disequilibrium to stimulate students’ critical thinking when analyzing and evaluating case study and journal entry assignments, as well as promoting students’ personal insights into their own learning process. Personal insights into the learning process began with the distribution of information regarding 21st century skills and habits of mind. At the beginning of the semester, the instructor distributed a handout identifying 21st century skills and an article by Costa and Kallick (2009) describing sixteen (16) habits of mind that promote critical thinking. The 21st century skills are critical thinking, collaboration, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurship, communicating effectively, assess and analyze information, curiosity, and innovation and imagination (Wagner, 2012). The sixteen (16) habits of mind are persistence, managing Impulsivity, listening with empathy and understanding, thinking flexibly, metacognition (thinking about your thinking), striving for accuracy, questioning and posing problems, applying past knowledge to new situations, creating imagining and innovating, finding humor, gathering data through all senses, remaining open to continuous learning, responding with wonderment and awe, taking responsible risks, thinking and communicating with clarity and precision, and thinking interdependently (Costa & Kallick, 2009). The handout and article provided students with a frame of reference when considering their personal growth, development, and insights into their critical thinking and learning process.

Students posted journal and case study entries on Blackboard (an online program). The instructor graded and provided feedback concerning the use of dialectical reasoning, course content, and habits of mind according to a student-generated rubric. Feedback to journal and case study postings included questions such as, “What about your habits of mind?” or “How does that concept affect your thinking?” The instructor’s feedback was intended as a reference for future postings instead of an immediate student-teacher dialogue.

The mid-term and final exam contained course content, multiple choice, and short answer questions, as well as one open-ended essay question. The instructor provided full credit for responding to the following open-ended question on the mid-term and final exam. The students did not receive feedback to their responses. The open-ended question was: “Why and how do you think your intellectual thinking dispositions (habits of mind and 21 century skills) have or have not changed?” Reflect upon the course requirement (habits of mind and 21st century skills), and explain your perception of your areas of strength and areas that need improvement.

The following nine course structural components describe the implementation of the eight (8) essential elements (significant content, driving question, in-depth inquiry, need to know, 21st century skills, voice and choice, revisions and reflections, feedback, and public involvement) for a PBL.

1. Integrative thinking: Students addressed a real-life challenge, problem, and question for rigorous

and relevant learning (significant content). The driving question was “Is the content in this course

reality?” (driving question)

2. Collaboration: The students established collaborative groups during the first week of class (21st

century skills). Students selected their own small groups of five or less to complete the project

(voice and choice). Once the groups were constructed, student-directed learning dominated the


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learning process and classroom atmosphere (21st century skills). Groups established group

contracts and action plans for completing the documentary (voice and choice). Group members

collaborated on the construction and production of a documentary video - script, storyboard, and

video (voice and choice; 21st century skills). Time was allocated during class meetings to work

within groups for peer support and outside perspectives. Peer support and perspectives included

peer reviews, peer critiques, as well as instructor and group feedback during and outside of class

sessions (feedback; revisions and reflections).

3. Purpose: An in-depth inquiry process began with students developing questions that they

determined they needed to ask and answer in order to respond to the project’s driving question and

complete the project (voice and choice; significant content). Open-ended questions were

constructed for teacher and student interviews (need to know). Students interviewed teachers

currently working in the early childhood field to find answers for their open-ended questions (need to

know; public involvement; significant content). Additionally, each student selected a particular

concept or topic within the documentary assignment for an individual research paper (in-depth

inquiry; voice and choice). Predictions and goals were set, as well as defining outcomes,

analyzing results, and constructing conclusions through the comparison of course content and

interviews with classroom teachers and students (significant content; 21st century skills).

4. Relatedness and societal influence: Each group member located and interviewed two high school or

undergraduate students and two current kindergarten, 1st, 2nd, or 3rd grade level teachers (public

involvement). The instructor prohibited direct contact with teachers during the teachers’ school day.

The interviews could be accomplished via email, Facebook, phone, or face-to-face (21st century

skills). Guest lectures, during class meetings, included teachers, parents of students currently in

school, as well as a presentation by another professor (public involvement). The invited professor

spoke on how to read a textbook for comprehension and note taking. The instructor asked

professionals within the field of education to review and evaluate the final documentary videos

(public involvement). The video documentaries were then shared with the education community

(public involvement).

5. Mastery: Students conducted reviews and made revisions throughout the construction of the video

documentary in and outside of class (review and revision; in-depth inquiry; 21st century skills).

Students directed group reviews, such as gallery walks, jigsaw, fishbowl, and six-hats activities,

throughout the semester (revisions and reflections; feedback). The instructor circulated the

classroom during group meetings in order to differentiate instruction based on the needs of each


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group or needs and abilities of individuals (revisions and reflections; feedback). Students were

encouraged to ask any questions, state any concerns, debate, and collaborate as their thinking began

to shift during the perspective-taking process (review and revision; in-depth inquiry). For the

development of metacognition (21st century skill), students included self-analysis and

self-reflections as part of their journal entries, mid-term, and final exam (revisions and reflection;

feedback).

6. Perspective-taking: The instructor distributed parameters for the project in the form of a checklist

during the second week of the semester (significant content). Corresponding rubrics were included.

Perspective-taking progressed through research within project parameters, asking and answering

higher-order thinking (HOT) questions related to course content, discussing ticket-in quiz questions,

group and class discussions, as well as justification for the reasoning behind an analysis or response

to a question (voice and choice; in-depth inquiry; 21st century skills). An individual research paper

was included to address individual interests within the group’s selected topics and related to their

group’s documentary (in-depth inquiry; voice and choice; significant content).

7. Evaluating: The parameters of the project required a comparative analysis and evaluation of

information between the interviews, course content, and personal insights on the project’s content

(significant content; 21st century skills). Students analyzed content problems and issues, as well as

related data for relevance based on the credibility, emotional appeal, unsupported assumptions, and

faulty logic (significant content; 21st century skills). Dialectical and dialogical reasoning occurred

within written and oral exchange of differing points of view (in-depth inquiry; revisions and

reflections; 21st skills).

8. Autonomy: Autonomy to support critical thinking and motivation was established through student

constructed journal and case study rubrics, interviews, interview data analysis, video construction

and production, student selected due dates, group contracts and action plans (voice and choice;

in-depth inquiry) . The culminating project, a video documentary, produced by small groups within

each class included a script, storyboard, and individual research paper (voice and choice; 21st

century skills; in-depth inquiry; significant content; driving questions). The video, script,

storyboards, and class discussions correlate with critical thinking and learning within groups and

individuals over time (in-depth inquiry; voice and choice; significant content).

9. Authenticity: The students directed their learning process throughout the course (voice and choice;

21st century skills). They controlled the pacing, sequencing, and acquisition of knowledge

(In-depth inquiry). As students began to define the problem and driving question, conduct


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interviews, apply their learning, and articulate their understanding in their own words, they

demonstrated increasing level of sustainable learning, sense of achievement, and intrinsic motivation

(in-depth inquiry; significant content; need to know; driving questions).

Figure 1 Project-Based Learning Artifact/Product Development Based on Learning Outcomes

Methods

We selected a fixed mixed method approach for data analysis by constructing a typology-based approach using two phases: an initial and final quantitative phase, as well as an on-going qualitative phase. We believed that one data source would be inadequate to explain the results in sufficient depth. Therefore, the decision was made to combine both methods in order to take advantage of the strengths of both approaches. The premise was that as a new pilot study there are potential flaws that will emerge during and after the 16-week, semester long study. We also noted that using a two-part approach was the traditional method to triangulate and validate the integrity of the findings. Each method was still in the developmental stage. Therefore, we perceived the decision to use both methods as necessary in order explain findings or unexpected results generated by the other mode of inquiry.

We constructed a convergent parallel design. We administered and kept separated the quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative (open-ended questions) strands until the end of the study. During the developmental stage of the study, we considered both strands to be of equal importance when answering the research question. The comparison and interpretation of each strand occurred at the end of the 16-week semester.

The primary researcher developed the quantitative and qualitative phases of this study based on Deci and Ryan (1985), Glasser (1998), Goleman (1995), Jung’s (Deci & Ryan 1985) Pink (2006), and Wagner’s (2012) conceptualizations of intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and self-determination to critically think. Table 2

Note Taking from Assigned Readings

HOT Questions (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

Ticket-in quizzes

Extra Credit – Journal Article

Class Discussions

Journal Entries and Case Study Analysis

Teacher Student InterviewAnalysis

Documentary Storyboard

Documentary Script

Video Documentary

Individual Research

Self-reflection

Individual Research Paper

Professionals Review of the Video Documentary


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illustrates the contribution of relevant theories to the development of the quantitative and qualitative question constructs.

Table 2 Theory and Motivation Constructs Deci & Ryan, 1985; Deci, 1995

Pink, 2006 Goleman, 1995

Wagner, 2012 Glasser, 1998 Jung (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

Competence Autonomy Relatedness (social connectedness)

Autonomy (self-directed) Mastery (strive to improve) Purpose (making a contribution)

Excellence Engagement Ethics Empathy

Curiosity Collaboration Asking questions Listening with

empathy Integrative thinking Action Experimentation Purpose 21st Century skills

Satisfy self-directed needs – need satisfaction Purpose – work is useful Always improving Need for control – power and belonging

Self-awareness – self-directed

Societal influenceNeed for approvalNeed for control -

power

The primary researcher constructed the questionnaire based on a review of various quantitative

instruments used in motivational research, including the theory and motivation constructs identified in Table 2. The quantitative phase was implemented at the beginning of the study with a pilot 60-item 6-point Likert

scale questionnaire. The participants could decide on strongly disagree (1), disagree (2) unsure (3), accept (4), agree (5) and strongly agree (6). Several items were reverse coded. The purpose of the questionnaire was to measure the degree of change between extrinsic to intrinsic motivation to think critically between the beginning and end of the 16-week semester. For instance, an increase in overall total score from pre- to post-administration indicated an increase in motivation to think independently. The questionnaire was administered twice, during the first week and next to last week of classes. A decline in the number of completed questionnaires was due to participants dropping out of the course or being absent the day the questionnaire was distributed in class. The questionnaire’s Cronbach’s Alpha was .880 for reliability. Pearson Correlation two-tailed and on-tailed analysis reflected a moderate to low correlation. The small sample size compared with the number of items to be measured accounts for the lack of a high correlations coefficient.

Statements within the questionnaire and the open-ended qualitative questions were constructed based five intrinsic motivation domains that correlate with the theories and motivation constructs presented in Table 2: autonomy, perspective-taking, mastery, purposefulness, and evaluation. Clarification of terms for the questionnaire and open-ended questions were as follows:

1. Autonomy refers to the reasoning and metacognition one uses for self-direction, self-regulation,


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planning, control of one’s thinking, and independence when thinking critically. Autonomy is

defined for this study as the ability to use critical thinking when making independent decisions and

controlling one’s actions. The following key terms: voice and choice, need for control, initiative,

agility and adaptability, collaboration, thinking independently, taking responsible risks, creating,

imagination, asking question, curiosity, engagement, and innovation, positively correlates autonomy

with the PBL elements, as well as the theories and motivation constructs in Table 2. Autonomy questionnaire statement examples: Statement Strongly Disagree Unsure Accept Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree

Everything needs to be spelled out for me rather than figuring out for

myself.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Teacher’s enthusiasm is extremely important to my success. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Strong peer relationships are very important. 1 2 3 4 5 6

2. Mastery is the practice one uses to improve upon whatever constructs or concepts an individual

thinks are significant, useful, and relevant enough to warrant critical thinking. Mastery is defined

as repeating an act or exercise in order to improve and implement a perceived coherent new construct,

thought, or paradigm shift in thinking. The following key terms: need to know, revisions, in-depth

inquiry and innovations, initiative, managing impulsivity, persistence, collaboration, always

improving, self-directed learning, questioning, competence, gathering data through all the senses,

remaining open to continuous learning, and applying past knowledge to new situations, positively

correlates with the term mastery based on the PBL elements, as well as the theories and motivation

constructs in Table 2. Mastery questionnaire statement examples: Statement Strongly Disagree Unsure Accept Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree

I learn from my mistakes. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I start looking for solutions as soon as I determine that there is a

problem.

1 2 3 4 5 6

I learn more when I work with others. 1 2 3 4 5 6

3. Purpose connects the learning process and reason for learning with perceived relevance, usefulness,

and application of new information through thoughtfully questioning and reflective thinking.

Purpose is defined as the reason for a concept or understanding to be altered, adjusted or changed in

order to achieve a particular goal or outcome. The following key terms: reflections, significance of


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content, remaining open to continuous learning, posing problems, problem solving, need for approval,

need for control, passion, relatedness, ethics, and applying past knowledge to new situations,

contextually and positively correlates with the term purpose based on the PBL elements, theories and

motivation constructs in Table 2. Purpose questionnaire statement examples: Statement Strongly Disagree Unsure Accept Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree

I am only taking this course to get a job. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I need to be passionate about the course content before I can commit

myself to studying the course material.

1 2 3 4 5 6

My beliefs and values must be supported in this class. 1 2 3 4 5 6

4. Evaluating embraces dialectical reasoning used to determine, plan, assess and construct a new

concept, knowledge, and understanding or make a paradigm shift when critically thinking. The

following key terms: need to know, listening with empathy, experimentation, action, self-directed,

voice and choice, in-depth inquiry, assessing and analyzing information, striving for accuracy,

questioning and posing problems, gathering data through all senses, and applying past knowledge to

new situations, positively correlates with the term evaluating based on the PBL elements, as well as

the theories and motivation constructs in Table 2. Evaluating questionnaire statement examples: Statement Strongly Disagree Unsure Accept Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree

I evaluate and determine my own success. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I pay close attention to how I am doing if I decide to change my goals

or plan of action.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Before making decisions I consider the potential outcomes and

consequences of my actions.

1 2 3 4 5 6

5. Perspective-taking is the ability to move from a state of egocentric thinking to a self-awareness of

one’s biases, beliefs and values in order to change or make a paradigm shift as well as empathize

with others’ thoughts and perceptions. Perspective is defined as the capacity to determine the

interrelationships of concepts and ideas from different points of view including one’s egocentric

thinking in order to reach an objective state of critical thinking. The following key terms: reflections

and revisions, voice and choice, significance of course content, collaboration, thinking flexibly,

thinking and communicating with clarity and precision, integrative thinking, need for approval


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and/or control, societal influences, empathy, and listening with empathy and understanding,

contextually and positively correlates with the term perspective-taking based on the PBL elements,

as well as the theories and motivation constructs in Table2. Perspective-taking questionnaire statement examples: Statement Strongly Disagree Unsure Accept Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree

I look forward to change and thrive on it. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Open-mindedness has limits when it comes to right and wrong

answers.

1 2 3 4 5 6

I have to change my behavior when I know there is a problem. 1 2 3 4 5 6

The primary researcher collected qualitative data over a semester and considered the following four

components of trustworthiness when establishing reliability and validity: truth value/credibility; applicability/transferability; consistency/dependability and neutrality/confirmability (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Triangulation of data sources to ensure validity and trustworthiness included running word and text frequency queries, and the triangulation of three different classes as data sources. The three classes met on different days and times and in different classroom locations throughout the semester. Copies of journal entries, mid-term exams, and final exams were downloaded into Nvivo 9, a qualitative analysis computer software program.

The qualitative phase of this study was established using grounded theory to analyze the participants writing (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Grounded theory allowed for the collection of data in order to determine latent patterns, as well as a constant comparison of pattern consistency or change, based on feedback of individually directed questions within journal and case study entries, as well as mid-term and final exams. Course assignments (journal and case study entries, mid-term and final exams) required participates to think critically and self-reflect when analyzing and applying course content to their personal growth (i.e. self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-determination) based on the habits of mind, 21st century skills, and experiences using PBL throughout the semester. The same four questions, listed previously, were provided and responses analyzed.

The constant comparative method was used to develop concepts from the collected data (Taylor & Bogdan, 1998; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Collected data was processed through three stages – open, axial, and selective. Open coding was used to develop categories of information. The categories were developed based on theoretical concepts. In other words, the information that was gathered looked at the contextual evidence for intent or motivation and not the literal description of what was written. Tentative concept categories were identified and compared with the journal and case study posting. A constant comparison was made to determine the interconnection of initially determined categories and the development of future categories.

Results The researchers conducted quantitative and qualitative analyses to explore the following research question:


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To what extent does project based learning influence students’ levels of critical thinking as measured by their levels of intrinsic motivation?

Quantitative Results

We used independent samples t-tests to compare the pre-intervention (n = 82) and post-intervention (n = 67) mean scores of each of the five domains (autonomy, perspective-taking, mastery, purposefulness, and evaluation), as well as to compare the total pre-intervention and post-intervention mean score. Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics for the pre- and post-intervention scores for each of the five subscales, as well as descriptive statistics for the overall mean score of the pre- and post-intervention questionnaire. Levene’s tests for homogeneity of variance for the five subscales and the total score t-tests were not statistically significant, so we used the statistics assuming homogeneity of variance to interpret our results. We used an alpha level of .05 to determine our level of statistical significance. Results of the independent samples t-tests revealed a lack of statistical significance in the mean score change from pre-to post-intervention for three subscales: autonomy, t(1, 147) = 1.21; p = .228; mastery, t(1, 147) = .058; p = .954; and evaluation, t(1, 147) = 1.805; p = .073; d = .47. Two subscales, perspective-taking, t(1, 147) = 2.766; p = .006, and purposefulness, t(1, 147) = 2.163; p = .032; d = .35, revealed a statistically significant change in mean score from pre-intervention to post-intervention with a small-medium effect size. The change in mean score for the overall questionnaire was also statistically significant, t(1, 147) = 2.003; p = .047; d = .32, with a small-medium effect size.

Table 3 Quantitative Descriptive Statistics Mean Pre SD Pre Mean Post SD Post Mean Change Autonomy 4.52 0.54 4.63 0.55 0.11 Mastery 4.31 0.54 4.31 0.57 < 0.00 Purpose 4.18 0.54 4.31 0.57 0.20* Evaluating 4.18 0.57 4.35 0.57 0.17 Perspective- Taking 3.93 0.54 4.19 0.59 0.25* Total Score 4.21 0.43 4.35 0.45 0.16* Note. *p < .05

Qualitative Results

Participants appeared to need time to connect their involvement in project-based learning and the need to think critically during the first half of the semester. This timeframe was evident in the initial open coding and remained a constant concept code of movement and change (stress, frustration, and confusion). We developed, eliminated, or retained codes to represent concepts as we collected data. We made comparisons as we entered new data in order to solidify the pattern of concepts among all three groups of participants. Commonalities emerged, as well as variations within the codes and relationships among the coded categories. The interconnection of categories led to the discovery of five broad latent patterns: (1) movement and change (stress, frustration, confusion); (2) critical thinking/metacognition (perspective-taking, thinking about thinking,


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thinking independently, sense of purpose, self-determination); (3) purpose (reflections on significance of course content, collaboration, continuous learning, self-determination); (4) persistence (perseverance, managing impulsivity, reflections and revisions, continuous learning); (5) self-regulation (managing impulsivity, time management and organization)

Movement and Change: stress, frustration and confusion - 30% of student responses.

• I was so frustrated the whole time. I thought there was so much work, there was so much to do and

it was more than I can handle. I honestly didn’t understand why we did things like journal entries

every single week and had to be so thorough, so developed, and you know I didn’t understand the

point of driving my own learning. You know because I never learned that way in my life. I’ve

always kind of been told how you do something, and why you do something and the steps to do it,

and I’ve always done really well that way. But I never really had to you know kind of drive

instruction for myself. So, I was absolutely so frustrated all semester and I can remember my table

mates and I felt like we were so far in over our heads. Now that I kind of reflect back on it, I am so

far ahead in my other classes than absolutely anyone else……..

• I have never in my life had a project like this…. This one was so different! I was amazed and scared

at first, at the whole idea of student directed and that fact the professor gave us some and only some

guidelines to it but other than that it was up to use and our creativity as to what we wanted to do and

how we wanted to get it done.

Critical thinking and Metacognition: perspective-taking, thinking about thinking, thinking

independently, sense of purpose, self-determination - 25% of student responses.

• So the “Ah-Ha” moment I had today working on our documentary and PBL is the reason we get so

frustrated and kind of seems overwhelming is because we have been taught in our twenty something

years of education not to think outside of the box and even though we have been tested on critical

thinking we have not actually been shown how to use critical thinking skills. So in school all we

did was projects, projects, projects you know research papers basically copy paste type stuff….

This is our first experience actually thinking outside the box and knowing it is okay!

• I can now see that from the start of this class you wanted us to start thinking about our thinking and

understand what it takes to be an early education teacher. Every assignment was a chance to

develop our skills not just busy work like many teachers give and that some of us thought when we

first started this class……The journals every week in this class taught me to develop and always

reflect the habits of mind of intentional teachers. Every week I had to think about what I was doing

and what was going on around me. I had to be able to think and communicate it clearly and not be

bias and only think about myself and my opinions.


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Purpose: reflections on significance of course content, collaboration, continuous learning,

self-determination - 15% of student responses.

• Teaching is a field that takes the ability to work with others and to respect others opinions. I had to

learn that in these projects this semester. I had to realize I can’t always be a control freak looking

for perfection because sometimes the imperfection is what’s perfect. We all learned something

new and learned to respect each other and pull our strengths and weaknesses together.

• I think that having the opportunity to create and collaborate in this class has really helped me to gain

a better understanding of what it takes to be an intentional teacher

Persistence: perseverance, managing impulsivity, reflections and revisions, continuous learning –

15% of student responses.

• In my other classes there was a lot more structure. It wasn’t here are your guidelines now do what

you want. Just make sure you have these guidelines and content in there. This is a big difference

for me because I wasn’t use to this type of assignment. Everything was very structured and you are

going to do this, then this, then this, and then you are going to turn it in on this date. Here I had to

make myself do it.

• You weren’t kidding when you said this could not be done in a weekend. Keeping all the handouts

and using the time in class was really hard to do. When ____ didn’t show up for class we were lost

and frustrated. We found out we had be keep going with or without her.

Self-regulation: managing impulsivity, time management and organization – 15% of student

responses.

• The handouts were overwhelming. I know you gave them out for a reason but I couldn’t figure out

which went where until we started to finalize our script. Should have taken time to read them when

you gave them to us.

• My biggest problem is procrastination. I really began to realize how much I needed to manage my

time instead of waiting to the last minute. My group was constantly riding my case to get things

done. Time manage is the key.

Discussion Structuring a project-based learning (PBL) model requires students to identify a problem or determine a

driving question framed within the area-of-focus for the course. The problem or question becomes the foundation for structuring learning activities and developing artifacts or products that demonstrate the learning process. Emphasis is on creating a state of disequilibrium between students’ present level of understanding and the existing problem or question. The instructor encourages students to become active participants in the own learning, use critical thinking, and become self-directed, as well as intrinsically motivated in their learning


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process. The premise for project-based learning is that learning does not occur until the learners initiate the process

of actively engaging in the search for an answer to a problem or question. This includes a continuous refinement of students’ habits of mind that embrace values, preferences, understanding, competence, and commitment (Costa & Kallick, 2009). Therefore, students need to be able to set achievable goals, solve problems, and make decisions within any academic course in order to take charge of their learning, as well as their lives (Wehmeyer, 1996). This need translates into setting a clear relationship between course content, realistic expectations, and student success (Marzano, 2003). Accomplishing such an endeavor entails developing a delivery model that promotes (1) autonomy through student-directed learning based on student voice and choice; (2) collaboration within small groups that allow for differentiated instruction; (3) empowering student-directed learning with limited direct-instruction; (4) the development of a question as a catalyst that inspires the problem-solving and critical thinking skills necessary to eventually solve the problem as it relates to course content; (5) students develop authentic problem solving or questioning abilities over time throughout the learning sequence; (6) student synthesis and internalization of new information through self-directed analysis and evaluation of the question or problem; and (7) the opportunity for students to share the final results and conclusions with the world outside of higher education.

Dochy et al (2003) specifies that, “an important challenge for today’s higher education is the development and implementation of instructional practices that will foster in students the skill to apply knowledge efficiently” (p. 534). The intent of project-based learning is to connect course content with students’ perception of reality through thinking critically, analyzing personal values, challenging beliefs, and evaluating expectations in the world outside of higher education. Student performance within such a challenge requires reasoning, insightfulness, determination, motivation, creativity, and proficiency in solving complex problems (Costa & Kallick, 2009).

In this study, students directed their own learning and the learning process. They had control of their pacing, sequencing, and acquisition of knowledge. Emphasis was on the development of autonomy with support, the value for critical thinking, and perspective-taking above self-interest and personal bias. The expectation was that opportunities to comprehend, infer, and synthesize complex relevant issues and analyze teacher and student interviews would promote a sense of purpose, perspective-taking, critical thinking and autonomy. This expectation was built into every aspect of the course delivery model.

The project-based (PBL) model initially produced various levels of anxiety, stress, frustration, and confusion. Fear of failure and the concept of doing something wrong permeated the majority of initial written and oral comments. There was a continuous concern for providing the instructor with “what the professor wanted” instead of what the assessment instrument stated to be present within the final product. Instead of summarizing what was read, the act of perspective-taking required a trial and error period where students actively accessed the development of their new knowledge through peer reviews, peer critiques, class discussions, and interview analyses. The content knowledge gained from the search for answers corresponded with the self-awareness and understanding of what it will take to complete the project.

One student wrote:


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These past couple of weeks as we have been working on the documentary and PBL have really changed my perspective on a lot of subjects. I am starting to understand the course content and requirements even more. I can honestly say I have a deeper understanding of effective teaching and what it means to be an intentional teacher…….. This realization helps me see how important every little step in this class was. Even though at times I was confused and stressed, I realize there is a purpose for everything. This class has not only shown me what the teaching field would look like, but also gave me my very own firsthand teaching experience. As I worked together with my peers, we all had to “remain open to continuous learning” because we were all unique and sometimes had different ideas.

Another wrote:

We had to go out of our bubble and interview various people for the documentary. We used self-monitoring/self-direction skills by doing our weekly “self/group reflections” on who did what that week and what did we still need to do. Project Management was definitely a must. Not just for these projects but in general we had to find out when we needed certain things done by so we could get to our final product. We also held each other accountable for what needed to be done so we could have excellent finished products. Needless to say as I read about the 21st century skills and really thought about them I knew then this is what we have been doing I just did not put two & two together until this week.

Motivating students to learn beyond the extrinsic reward of a particular grade required a classroom environment where students felt comfortable enough to step outside of their comfort zone and take a risk by focusing on learning instead of the final product. Initially, this process was overwhelming for students and appeared to them to be unconnected with how they expected to learn. The process of describing, predicting, or explaining their perceptions, or valuing another’s point of view required in-depth discussions, documentation of new understandings, and relationship building in order to complete the project. Perspective-taking and learning to integrate real world information with course content conveyed to students a sense of purpose. Collaboration and interaction among peers nurtured a sense of higher achievement because there was a common level of interest, knowledge, personal bonding, which combined with a sense of commitment to complete the work. Learning became the objective for some of the groups and the grade became secondary.

The researchers note limitations within the pilot study due to the development of a new quantitative instrument (questionnaire), open-ended questions for qualitative data, and course delivery. Further research is necessary to refine the questionnaire, the questioning process, and PBL instruction for enhancing student motivation and critical thinking. The objectives remain the development of deeper levels of critical thinking, intrinsic motivation, and retention of key concepts for sustainable learning through a viable instructional model. Determining sustainable learning will only materialize over time. The process for refining the instructional PBL model has begun.

Conclusion The research question for this pilot study was: To what extent does project-based learning influence

students’ levels of critical thinking as measured by their levels of intrinsic motivation? We hypothesized that students would display increased levels of critical thinking and intrinsic motivation after taking the course using a project-based learning PBL model when compared to their levels of intrinsic motivation prior to taking the course. This research method consisted of a pilot study using a 6-point Likert scale questionnaire still in the developmental stage, as well as open-ended journal, case study and exam questions. Critical thinking, a sense of purpose, intrinsic motivation, and commitment became apparent in the quantitative and qualitative data.


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Critical thinking includes the development of perspective thinking. Our research recognizes a significant change in perspective-taking in both quantitative and qualitative data analysis. A change is also noted in student intrinsic motivation and sense of purpose through collaboration using the project-based learning (PBL) model. Collaboration, time management and organization were supported by individual persistence and small group work. The quantitative and qualitative data describes a significant change in students’ sense of purpose.

Our primary goal for this study was to determine an instructional model that will increase students’ critical thinking and intrinsic motivation to learn by tapping into their personal desire and motivation to use critical thinking. Is this goal not the same goal of any instructor, teacher, or professor? Access to information and knowledge in the 21st century has diminished the need for classroom knowledge based, direct-instruction models for learning. We need to help students learn how to access, analyze, evaluate, and apply information. Use of such skills requires critical thinking and perspective-taking through dialectical reasoning. Self-determination, the desire to learn, and the movement from egocentric thinking to perspective taking through dialectical reasoning involve the students’ ability to continuously monitor personal habits of mind. This study highlights the relevance and success of student-directed project-based learning.

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Critical Thinking Press Penuel, W. R., Means, B., & Simkins, M. B. (2000). The multimedia challenge. Educational Leadership, 58, 34–38. Piaget, J. (1965). Moral judgment of the child. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. Pink, D. (2006). A whole new mind, why right brainers will rule the future. New York, NY: Penguin Group. Solis, A., Larmer, J., & Ross, D. (2012). Project based learning workbook series PBL 101 workbook: The companion to BIE’s

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Are you a Student Friendly or a Ghost Instructor via Online

Classes?

Barba Aldis PATTON

Univ. of Houston-Victoria, USA.

Teresa A. LE SAGE-Clements

Univ. of Houston-Victoria, USA.

The study examined the perceived effective and successful characteristics of online and face to face instructors.

These characteristics whether real or just perceived make a difference if the instructor/class is effective and

successful. The subjects in the study were pre-service teachers enrolled in a mathematics methods class and who

have had multi classes in both formats. Results provided a sketch of the traits an instructor should strive to exhibit

in his/her class if he/she desires to be considered effective and successful by pre-service teachers. The number of

students in the study was small however; the researchers believe that one would have basically the same results if

the number of subjects would have been greater. The literature review supported this belief. Results of survey are

shared and discussed.

Keywords: Online teaching, faculty characteristics in online class, student desires in online class distance education.

Introduction Over the last eight years the demand for online courses has been increasing worldwide. This has raised

quality issues among educators. By the fall 2011, the number of students in at least one online class reached 6.1 million. It is estimated 90% of the United State higher education institutions offer online class (Olson & Werhan, 2005). It is further estimated 10% or more of the faculty members actually teach online classes (Conrad & Pedro, 2009). In 2011 the number of students in online education classes did not rise at the rapid pace of the previous eight or so years. This ten percent increase was the lowest since 2002. (Allen & Seaman, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011). However, there was still an increase in number of classes and students. One only has to look at the webpage of almost any university in the world to see that more and

Barba Aldis PATTON, Ed.D., Associate Professor, Mathematics Education, University of Houston-Victoria, School of Education and Human Development, USA.

Teresa A. LE SAGE-Clements, Ed. D., associate professor at the University of Houston-Victoria of Science Education and Curriculum and Development, USA.

ARE YOU A STUDENT FRIENDLY OR A GHOST INSTRUCTOR VIA ONLINE CLASSES?

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more opportunities are offered online. It is no secret that many institutions rushed onto the electronic super highway have floundered in the

delivery of web-based instruction. Many were of the opinion that online classes were the way of the future and if you did not get involved at the beginning there would not be another chance. Although some university distance education programs have failed, it is expected that there will be major growth in higher education delivered electronically. Allen and Seaman (2011) reported the learning outcomes in online classes were equal or better than the same course delivered in a face to face format when they surveyed chief academic leaders. Allen and Seaman further report approximately thirty three percent of these academic leaders in the survey still rate online education as inferior. The academic leaders seem to be divided into the two groups according to their type of teaching institute. On the opposite side of the debate is the work of Dietz-Uhler, Fisher & Han (2008) found that the dropout rate in online classes were extremely high. It is believed the technology of online instructional technology outpaced our basic knowledge of the best and most effective instructional strategies for students. It seems that the institutes of higher learning in the public sector have been the ones embracing the online instruction as the ones from private non-profit in general did not embrace online components (Li & Akins, 2005; Stodel, Thompson, & MacDonald, 2006.)

Experts project that electronic learning will transform the way learning occurs in most, if not all, college classrooms (Allen & Seaman 2006; Carnevale, D. 2006; Newman & Scurry, 2001), thus it is very important to understand how virtual students learn and the differences/similarities between them. In 2005, about 70.2% of all college students (3.2 million) in the United States took at least one online course, which was an increase of 39 % from 2004. Worldwide, nearly 19 % of the population has been internet penetrated (Internet World Stats, 2007 & Pew Research Center, 2007).

Students participating in web-based courses have different cognitive learning styles and individual differences. Although one or more learning and thinking styles may be suited for electronically delivered content, others may actually hinder learning in an electronic environment. Some students in web-based courses may have characteristic primary personality preferences that are better suited for the electronic learning environment, thus requiring no learning style adaptations and those students who do not have a natural tendency to learn in the electronic learning environment will be at a disadvantage. (Patton, 2008)

With this is mind it is upmost important that instructors be apprized of needs and desires of their students, both online and face to face. The online instructor begins with several distinct disadvantages however. Online instructors do not have the benefit of body language and voice tones, opportunities for spur of the moment communications, etc. With this in mind it is more important than ever that in order to be an effective and successful instructor, one must be aware of his/her students’ learning environment. McQuiggan’s (2012) work indicates that professional development for faculty is an absolute necessity if faculty is to be success in the technological format.

Significance of the Study Accessing education on the “go” is quickly becoming the norm in higher education. College students are

early adapters (natives) and heavy users of the internet (Jones, 2002), while most instructors are digital immigrants. Many college instructors/professors were adults before the technological age came to be. They did not have a computer/laptop to use even as they completed many of their studies at higher educational


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institutions. As a result, many educators question if college students can learn as well in an electronic environment as they can in the traditional classroom. Education delivered virtually is in its infancy (just over 10 years) compared to instruction delivered face-to-face over the past thousands of years. Higher education institutions are offering web-based courses without investigating if students are successful in this environment. Bigatel, et.al (2013) work found that the success of the online course depended greatly on the instructor’s willingness and desire to meet the students’ needs with the technology even when it meant the instructor had to seek out additional professional development.

In this study, the researchers examined what the students perceived as the characteristics of effective and successful instructors for both online and face to face instructors. The researchers believe that every instructor wants to be effective and successful. These data, although limited by the size of the study, will provide instructors information so they can become more effective and successful instructors. By looking at the characteristics of both the online and face to face, a comparison can be made and possibly determine the characteristics best suited for the online instructor. The online instructor cannot only gain information as to what characteristics are perceived as effective and successful but can implement changes in his/her classroom.

Literature Review Just as the type of delivery methods for classes has evolved so has the role of the instructor. Rosser and

Townsend (2006) found that a great concern of many faculty members is that online instruction will lead to a reduction of faculty. Years ago, the instructor was there to impart knowledge for the student to memorize. However, today instructor is a facilitator or guide as students construct their own knowledge. Online teaching is difficult for many as they are not as ‘tech savvy’ as most of their students. The instructors believe that they should have considerably more knowledge in both content and delivery than their students. The instructors seem to forget that many of their students have been big in tech devices since they were preschoolers. The younger the students the more willing they are adapt to take risks with the tech devices. By the same token, instructors teethed on hard copy materials and the marker or chalk and board. Instructors have a fear they could lose or will destroy their materials therefore they are not willing to be big risk takers. Many instructors even predict prior to working online that they will be dissatisfied as they realize they lack the tech skills they perceive necessary (McLawhon and Catright, 2011). To top this fear, many institutions provide little to no training and mentoring for their instructors. The instructor is often responsible to master the tech required for the online classes (Allen & Seaman, 2011).

An important characteristic for both instructors and students alike is motivation to be successful in this online environment. An analogy of the motivation is to be a vase to be filled with the most delicate and fragrant of flowers. The flowers are synonymous to our view of motivation. All motivation does not have to be extrinsic but can also be intrinsic. Vroom (1964) found motivation is essential to satisfaction which in turn is beneficial to both the faculty member and the institute. Berberet (2006), believed that intellectual stimulation was the primary factor followed by institutional recognition. He stated in Bataille and Brown’s Faculty Career Paths,

faculty are motivated most by four factors: 1) the intellectual stimulation they receive from their field of study, 2) the desire to be a member of a meaningful academic

community, 3) the goal to make teaching, research and service contributions, and 4) the wish to be recognized for their contributions. (p114).


35

The table below provides the type of delivery used at the university where the research was conducted. The percentages are very close those at other universities as well as defined by Allen and Seaman (2011).

Table 1 Percentage of class delivered online

Percentage of class delivered in face to face format

Type of course Description

0% 100% Traditional (face to face)

Technology is not used as in any aspect.

15% 85% Web enhanced Course which uses the web-based technology to enhance the face to face class by offering the student/professor a method to provide syllabi, assignments as well as for students to submit assignment. Also allows the students to have online discussions of topics in which the time element does not allow in the classroom.

50% or less 49% or more Hybrid/Blended Course materials delivered have at least 50% a face to face format. This is usually in a lecture format. However, usually all other classroom components are available on line in that 24/7 timeframe.

100% 0% online Course materials are delivered in an online format. This one is available for students 24/7 and is most popular with the student who has conflicting class-times or work schedules. Evaluations may be online or require the student to go to a testing center.

Teaching was and is still today a very complex undertaking (Helterbran 2008). Teaching is all about

learning and that is sometimes forgotten (Polk, 2006). The reciprocation of teaching and learning makes the two inseparable for the effective and successful instructor. Jeremy Polk (2006) states, “It is the teachers’ responsibility to grow as practitioners, stay current in their field and continually evolve as professions. It is this professional development that is considered paramount to successful teacher.” Polk makes it clear that the instructor needs to change with the changing times and different delivery methods. There is no place in the teaching field for the ‘professor who has been in the classroom for 20 years only to have one year’s experience as he has taught in the exact same way for the last 20 years’ but there is a need for the progressive professor who as truly had 20 years of experiences.

People tend to revert to a familiar trait when facing a trying or unfamiliar situation. Many tend to revert to a lower stage of development (Piaget) when we are trying to determine the area of a room. Few will just take the measurements and compute the area but most will resort to making a drawing prior to doing the computation. Classroom teachers are no exception to this. They tend to resort to methods or styles of their own student days and do not consider that many of those methods are pastiche of great teaching on one end of the


36

spectrum and the poorest of teaching on the other end. Novice teachers who have many of the newest and best teaching methods in their personal repertoire will quickly revert to those old methods to stay on the safe side when they finally arrive in the classroom. Therefore they (novice and the ineffective teacher) need the information derived from this and similar studies in order to make changes to move toward the being the most effective and successful instructor possible (Stigler & Hiebert, (1999). According to Heltebraun, students and instructors have basically the same definition or job description of the effective and successful instructor.

Polachek (2006) espoused that one of the most important roles of the effective and successful instructor is to have student-centered learning which is engaged or focused on active and meaningful experiences. However, a problem arises when the instructor is evaluated by administrators. The instructor wants to be viewed as successful but the opinions and rubrics from each population are not constructed using the same metric.

Krueger (1997) found that administrator and students agreed on some aspects although light-years away from each other. Both agree that it is important 1) to get the point across clearly and 2) give very clear directions; however, the students felt that the instructor’s content knowledge should be ranked about third. Administrators ranked content knowledge as nineteenth and listening as third. This almost seems the administrators to live in ‘days gone by’ as they want instructors who will not challenge the administrator but just listen and listen without any cognition of what is transpiring in the classroom.

Reeves and Kazelskis (1985) found that professionally young educators appeared to focus more on the affective than on the cognitive issues. The work of Gorham (1988), and McCroskey, Richmond, Sallinen, Fayer and Barraclough (1995) found teacher effectiveness would likely include traits such as closeness, enthusiasm and warmth.

‘When teachers take the time to follow up on and explore student ideas, even patently incorrect ideas, they send an important message to students: It is okay to take intellectual risks in this classroom. In this way, even when mistakes are made, students come to view mistakes as important sources of information rather than something to avoid at all costs’ (Beghetto 2007 p. 268). It is equally important that the instructors of face to face classes are aware of meeting the needs of their students in order to be successful and the online instructors must do the same.

Methods The subjects in this study were undergraduates enrolled in an early childhood Math/Science

methododology class. Their home university had many online class offerings with generally positive results. Students were provided with almost unlimited tech support. Tech support reported few course related problems in which the students were not able to be assisted. This university also provided training and mentoring for the instructors both in small groups as well as individually if the instructors requested. In addition, the university was able to secure grants to provide extra training and mentoring for the instructors as well as some specialty equipment so the instructor could add components to enhance his/her course. However, even with all the resources available to the instructors, some decided not to use the enhancements in their classes and their online classes became merely a glorified correspondence course.

All 32 were females between the ages of 22-40 who responded to the survey concerning the online instructors. There were about 60% Anglo, 38% Hispanic and less than 5% African-American. This class rarely


37

has any males enrolled and the ages and ethnicity are typical of several semesters. The class is required and is one of the last the students take prior to student teaching. The second survey had the same questions except the word face to face was substituted for online. Only 20 students responded. The demographics were 60% Anglo and 40% Hispanic and age range was again 22-40. The students were given a very small extra credit bonus if they completed the surveys. The surveys were online and strict security of privacy was adhered. For this research the questions, “What do you believe is an effective online course instructor like?’ and “What do you believe is an effective face to face course instructor like?’ Students were asked to list five components or characteristics which they believe an effective or success teacher should possess. The students were asked to complete the surveys the first day of class and have it completed before the second class meeting which was a week later. Since the question was open-ended, the responses would have to be reported in a descriptive manner.

Results The students’ responses were categorized into five areas which were 1) Communications, 2) Emotional, 3)

Motivational, 4) Rules/Grades and 5) Teacher Skills after compiling the data. Due to some students not providing five responses to each question, there will not be exactly five answers per student.

In addition, some students’ comments were only in one or two of the categories. The tables below include only a sampling of the responses.

Table 2 Student Comments Related to Communications and the online instructor Communications (positive comments)

Communications (negative comments)

Responses in a professional and courteous manner to the students

‘Smart’ replies

Sends check-up emails Did not give other contact than email …phone number and office hours would be nice

Efficient with returning emails Some have ineffective communication skills.

In Table 2, the positive comments seemed to be common respectful personal communication in and out of class. The negative comments seem to be things which happen in all settings very often still are viewed as disrespectful.

Table 3 Student Comments Related to Emotional and the online instructor Emotional (positive comments)

Emotional (negative comments)

Understanding of events which could not be stopped or changed

Need to understand that computer may fail at times or be down.

Flexible Not bending no matter what Willing to help Need to help all students and not just a few

In Table 3, the positive comments seemed to reflect a humanistic quality of the online instructors and one


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that the students appreciate while the negative ones seem to reflect the opposite. This could be just a difference in personalities of the instructors and students or it could be one that needs to be addressed by the online instructor‘s supervisor.

Table 4 Student Comments Related to Motivational and the online instructor Motivational (positive comments)

Motivational (negative comments)

caring None listed Engaging None listed encouraging None listed

In Table 4, the positive comments are ones which seemed would make a student feel part of the class and

make them feel motivated to work on the materials. Often this is a difficult task as instructors are in other areas of the world and even different time zones, therefore a simple call to the professor during office hours may not be a possibility. It seems that it is very good that the students involved with the survey did not have any negative comments in this area.

Table 5 Student Comments Related to Rules and Grades and the online instructor Rules and Grades (positive comments)

Rules and Grades (negative comments)

Fair unfair Grades in a timely fashion Grades but no feedback Time to complete assignments Flexible on rules to some and not to others

In Table 5, the comments concerning rules and grades seemed to be the usual for any class whether it is

offered in face to face format or the online format.

Table 6 Student Comments Related to Teacher Skills and the online instructor Teacher Skills (positive comments)

Teacher Skills (negative comments)

Clarity with instructions Wordy, not clear instructions Thoroughness of syllabus Not prepared Keep tentative schedule Not organized

In Table 6, the comments related to teacher skills seemed to reflect the students’ views of online

instructors will various experience teaching online. As well as different online instructors have different organizational styles the same as their counterparts may have in other formats.

Table 7 Student Comments Related to Communications and the face to face instructor Communications Communications


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(positive comments) (negative comments) Available No office hours Answers emails/phone calls Not friendly Answers questions after class Do not answer messages in a timely manner

In Table 7, the positive comments seemed to be those which would be a common respectful personal

communication in and out of class. The negative comments seem to be things which happen in all settings very often and still are viewed as disrespectful. These comments seem to apply to what a student would except in any class regardless of the format.

Table 8 Student Comments Related to Emotional and the face to face instructor Emotional (positive comments)

Emotional (negative comments)

Caring attitude (supportive) Hard, un-caring Courteous and respectful Rude helpful Not understanding of circumstances beyond the

student’s control

In Table 8, the positive comments seemed to reflect a humanistic quality of what a student really desires in an instructor as well as attributes a student appreciates while the negative ones seem to reflect the opposite. This could be just a difference in personalities of the instructors and students or it could be one that needs to be addressed by the online instructor‘s supervisor. One must also keep in mind that the survey did not ask for what the student had experienced but what he/she perceived as positive or negative comments about classes.

Table 9 Student Comments Related to Motivational and the face to face instructor Motivational (positive comments)

Motivational (negative comments)

Willing to help students Instructor-centered Enthusiastic about subject Not really interested in the material engaging No extras to class,just textbook

In Table 9, the student comments reveal they are not interested in the ‘dog and pony’ show but in some

opportunities to learn and do it in a meaningful way. The ‘dog and pony show’ comment comes from slang used by an administrator who did classroom evaluations and would see the same lesson repeated over and over. This was even happening with the same teacher doing the same lesson for each evaluator.

Table 10 Student Comments Related to Rules and Grades and the face to face instructor Rules and Grades (positive comments)

Rules and Grades (negative comments)

Fair bias


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Realistic when assigning tasks Teacher’s pets Same rules for all (both students and instructor) i.e. on time for class

Busy work

In Table 10, the comments were ones to be expected in any classroom situation. The students wanted to be

treated equally and in a fair way.

Table 11 Student Comments Related to Teacher Skills and the face to face instructor Teacher Skills (positive comments)

Teacher Skills (negative comments)

Q D Student centered Does not know content Organized No classroom management skills

In Table 11, the comments related to teacher skills seemed to reflect the students’ views of instructors in

almost any format and their ability will be as much various as their experience teaching. The students did not seem to take into consideration that different instructors have different teaching styles as well as managerial skills. Hopefully this is not something that they will not carry over into the classroom and not recognize the differences in the students and the student needs.

Table 12 Comparison of the Categories Category Online Face to face Communications 55 out of 160 comments (34%) 15 out of 100 comments (15%) Emotional 35 out of 160 comments (22%) 21 out of 100 comments (21%) Motivational 20 out of 160 comments (12.5%) 14 out of 100 comments

(14%) Rules and Grades 5 out of 160 comments (3%) 8 out of 100 comments (08%) Teacher Skills 40 out of 160 comments (25%) 28 out of 100 comments (28%)

Table 12 and Figure 1 illustrate the percentage of comments received in each of the areas. While the

subjects made many more comments concerning the online classes, it is possible that they have not felt their comments were heard in this area. Also in a face to face class, it is possible that the students have been able to resolve most of the issues involved whether negative or positive as they meet the instructor in a face to face format on a regular basis.

Since all the percentage of comments received were less than 34%, it is being considered to be a good return. Many surveys only receive about 10% therefore, this one is being viewed as successful.

The bar graph in Figure 1 illustrates the comparisons of the various desired characteristics of the online and the face to face instructor . Emotional, motivation, rules and grades and teacher skills are fairly close, commication seems to be very different in the two environments. Students in the online environment value communication much more than those in the face to face environment. Is it because in the face to face classes, the body language which would be visible is a factor? Is it that a students hears the responses to the questions


41

posed by other students? The list of ‘what if’ questions is numerous however, unless students are asked specifically the exact answer will not be known. One thing is certain, the willingness and actual communication of the instructor is definitely a desired characteristic in the online environment.

Figure: 1Graphic Illustration by Percentages of the Desired Characteristics by Categories

Conclusions The information gained from the survey data should give the college/university instructor/professor an

insight into his/her teaching and possibly even give the knowledge of character traits which need to improve. The pre-service teachers can also gain from the data by utilizing the information in their future classrooms.

Even though the surveys were given to pre-service teachers about instructors, most likely these pre-service teachers presumed they were describing the effective and successful college/university instructor. This information could be vital to any and all instructors. While many instructors are effective and successful today, everyone can use some improvement.

This study provided a sketch of the positive and negative characteristics of the effective and successful face to face and online instructor. Having an understanding of the traits (comparative and declarative knowledge) and putting those traits into the environments (actualized and procedural knowledge) is the tasks at hand for all instructors to be effective and successful in any delivery method.

Recommendations The first recommendation is for instructors to communicate with their students. In the day of technology

there can be almost constant contact, with total disregard to the distance between the instructor and student. However, instructors need to set some limitations such as specific hours which messages will not be answered or they will be online 24/7. With the specific hours students will have prior knowledge and will know when to expect or not expect a reply.


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“When teachers take the time to listen to what their students are saying they will make strides towards creating an environment in which students feel comfortable sharing their unique interpretations and ideas (Beghetto 2007 p. 268). This very likely is a major point which instructors of online and face to face classes much remember on a daily basis. Although there are several studies examining the effective and successful instructor, none was located which had any quantified results to document the findings.

In conclusion this study was limited by the small number of participants; however, this work could be utilized as a pilot study for a much larger one. The results could be very important to the professionally young educator and to the seasoned one who is now embarking on teaching in a different setting such as the online delivery. The work Fillion and Ekionea (2012) found student motivation was a significant factor in the student’s learning environments. In addition, student satisfaction and was greater for online students than for face to face students, therefore additional work must be considered with more emphasis on this factor.

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and 2004. Sloan Center for Online Education, MA. Retrieved August 24, 2011, from http://www.sloan-c.org. Allen, I.E. & J. Seaman (2005). Growing by degrees: Online education in the United States, 2005. Sloan Center for Online

Education, MA. Retrieved August 24, 2011, from http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/survey/pdf/growing_by_ degrees.pdf. Allen, I.E. & J. Seaman (2006). Making the grade: Online education in the United States, 2006. Sloan Center for Online

Education, MA. Retrieved August 24, 2011, from http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/survey/pdf/ Making_the_ Grade.pdf. Allen, I.E. & J. Seaman (2007). Online nation: Five years of growth in online learning. Sloan Center for Online Education, MA.

Retrieved August 24, 2011, from http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/survey/index.asp. Allen, I.E. & J. Seaman (2008). Staying the course: Online education in the United States, 2008. Sloan Center for Online

Education, MA. Retrieved August 24, 2011, from http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/survey/pdf/staying_the_course.pdf. Allen, I.E. & J. Seaman (2009). Learning on demand: Online education in the United States, 2009. Sloan Center for Online

Education, MA. Retrieved August 24, 2011, from http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/survey/ learning_on_demand_sr2010.

Allen, I.E. & J. Seaman (2010). Class differences: Online education in the United States, 2010. Sloan Center for Online Education, MA. Retrieved August 24, 2011, from http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/survey/ class_differences.

Allen, E. I. & Seaman J. (2011).Going the Distance, Online Education in the United States, 2011. http://www.onlinelearningsurvey.com/highered.html

Beghetto, R. A. (2007). Ideational code-switching: Walking the talk about supporting student creativity in the classroom. Roeper Review, 29(4), 265-270.

Bigatel, P. M., Ragan, L. C., Kennan, S., May, J., & Redmond, B. F. (2012) The Identificaiton of competencies for online teaching success. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 16(1), 59-77.

Carnevale, D. (2006). Company survey suggests strong growth potential for online education. Chronicle of Higher Education.53 (13) A35. http://chronicle.com/weekly/v53/i13/13a03502.htm

Carnevale, D. (2006). Online courses continue to grow, report says. Chronicle of Higher Education. 53(14) 36. Conrad, D., & Pedro, J. (2009). Perspectives on online teaching and learning: A report of two novice online educators.

International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching & Learning, 3(2), 1-17. Dietz-Uhler, B., Fisher, A., & Han, A. (2008). Designing online courses to promote student retention. Journal of Educational

Technology Systems, 36(1), 105-112. Fillion, G. & Ekionea, J. B. (2012). Intergrating ICT into higher education at the university of Moncton: A study of onsite vs

online students’ perceptions. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 16(4), 65-86. Gorham, J. (1988). The relationship between verbal teaching immediacy behaviors and student learning. Communication Education,

17, 40-53. Helterbraun, V. R. (2008). The ideal professor: Student perceptions of effective instructor practices, attitudes and skills. Education,

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Jones, S. (2002). The internet goes to college. http://www.pewinternet.org/ Internet World Stats (2007). http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia/cn.htm http://www.cnnic.net.cn/en/index/0O/index.htm Kruger, R. J. (1997). Oral communications skills necessary for successful teaching: The student’s perspective. Educational

Research Quarterly. 21(2), 13-26. Le Sage, T. & Patton, B. (2009). Personality learning style preferences and student achievement in online university learning

environments. National Social Science Association, 32(2). Li, Q., & Akins, M. (2005). Don’t believe everything you hear. Sixteen myths about online teaching and learning in higher

education. Tech Trends, 49(4), 51-60. McLawhon, R., & Catright, M. (2011). Instructor learning styles as indicators of online faculty satisfaction. Educational Technology

and Society, 15(2), 341-353. McCroskey, J. C., Richmond, V. P., Sallinen, J. M. Fayer & Barraclough, R. A. (1995). A cross-cultural and multi-behavioral

analysis of the relationship between nonverbal immediacy and teacher evaluation. Communication Education, 45, 200-211. McQuiggan, C. A. (2012). Faculty development for online teaching as a catalyst for change. Journal of Asynchronous Learning

Networks, 16(2), 27-61. Newman, F., & Scurry, J. (2001). Online technology pushes pedagogy to the forefront. Chronicle of Higher Education, 47(44), B7.

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Networks, 8(3), 84-88.


Teachers’ Perceptions toward Social Media Integration

into K-12 Instruction in Saudi Arabia

Hamdan Alamri Eastern Washington University, USA

Jane Liu Eastern Washington University, USA

This study was to investigate the status of social media application among K-12 teachers in the Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia, and also to identify the participating teachers' perceptions on application of social media technologies in

their instruction. The participants included 306 K-12 Saudi teachers from 18 schools of four different cities.

Descriptive statistics and chi-square tests were conducted for data analysis. The findings revealed the participating

teachers’ favorable beliefs about the benefits of social media integration into instructions, as espoused by teachers

in many other countries. Parents, cyber-bullying and invasion of privacy were ranked as top three challenges that

reflected the impact of culture upon social media application in Saudi K-12 instructions. The challenges also imply

the urgent need to examine how social media use in a classroom affects students’ learning and how teachers choose

their instructional strategies in order to work with and for students of the 21st century.

Key words: social media, technology application, K-12 teachers,

Introduction Learning and teaching have evolved dramatically over the last decade due to the sharply increased

availability and usage of social media. Effective instructions entail students’ engagement and cooperative learning, and this can happen through integration of social media into the process of teaching and learning.

Social media, such as online social networks and online communities, are common these days. Most young people are using them regularly. It is reported that there was a population of 1.2 billion registered Facebook users (Whitney, 2013) and 200 million Twitter users as of September 2013 (Edwards, 2013).

As a result, K-12 educators have realized that this new generation of students is no longer interested in learning with traditional lecturing approach only. Social media should be one of the viable solutions to get students motivated as long as used appropriately (Fleisher, 2012; Koenig, 2011). In the social media world, opportunities for learning are available like never before. Teachers may take advantage of social media tools such as Web blogs, Twitter, or YouTube to empower students with knowledge and skills. Students can have extended experience beyond the regular school time to express opinions about various topics through social media tools such as Web blogs and forums and improve their communication skills in the less structured

Hamdan Alamri , graduate student, Eastern Washington University, USA. Jane Liu, Ph. D., Professor of Education, Director, Master In Teaching (MIT) program, Eastern Washington University, USA.

Teachers’ Perceptions toward Social Media Integration into K-12 Instruction in Saudi Arabia

45

environments (Finamore et al., 2012). With the increased opportunities, students are actively engaged as self-directed learners (Kaur, 2011; Koening, 2011; Plesher, 2012).

In a regular classroom, communication does not occur as often as expected due to time limit and the number of students. Social media sites can counteract this limitation. They “enable communication between people and knowledge sharing beyond the limits of the classroom and classroom activities” (Guth, 2007, p. 61).

Kaur (2011) suggested using online forums to extend learning and increase communications. Teachers can design structured discussions through online forums to facilitate discussions outside class time. In particular, the online forums can be used as an ideal option for second language learning. Kaur summarized the benefits of online forums as free access, deeper reflections and building strong learning communities.

With all these benefits come concerns and challenges. Some people fear that social media could be harmful for children and invade their privacy (Lederer, 2012; Llano, 2011). Others claim that social media can be a distraction for their children’s learning and may affect their academic performance (Lederer, 2012). Cyber-bullying is another great challenge during implementation of social media tools (Collin, Rahilly, Richardson, & Third, 2011; Llanos, 2011).

Significance of this Study Studies have been conducted in different countries to signify the importance of teachers’ perceptions of

technology application in instruction (Avidov-Ungar & Eshet-Alkakay, 2011; Boon, Fore, & Spencer, 2007; Celik & Yesilyurt, 2013; Koksal & Yaman, 2009; Sekharan Nair, et al, 2012; Turel & Johnson, 2012). The consensus is that teachers’ perceptions and beliefs of technology application are among the vital contributing factors to success or failure of such an application in a classroom. The better the teachers are convinced about positives of technology application, the more they implement it in their classrooms (Petko, 2012). Teachers’ strong beliefs can motivate them to overcome obstacles (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2012). Even among pre-service teachers, their appreciation of technology can enhance their desire to apply technology into instruction (Sadaf, Newby, & Ertmer, 2012).

Teachers of many countries such as in the United States have made great endeavors to adopt social media technologies as differentiated instructional approaches for years. Unfortunately, social media technologies emerged in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia just in the last decade. However, it was reported that Saudi people are among the most popular consumers of the new technology tools, such as social networks (Alhasan, 2010). Saudis are the biggest buyers in the world of smartphones (Alzubedi, 2012). The prevalent usage of social media technologies among the Saudi people urged the educational professionals to speculate their application in the K-12 education. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the status of social media usage among K-12 teachers in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and to identify those teachers' perceptions of integrating social media technologies into their instruction.

This study attempted to answer three research questions: 1) What was the status of Saudi K-12 teachers’ usage of social media in and outside of schools? 2) What were the perceived challenges when using social media technology in the classrooms of Saudi Arabia? 3) What were Saudi teachers’ perceptions of social media application in instruction?

Methodology


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The Instrument

This was a survey study. The survey included 26 questions, with six questions about the participants’ demographics, nine questions about the participants’ usage of social media at home as well as in school, and the remaining 11 questions related with their perceptions of social media application in the classroom, including obstacles that teachers encountered in their application of social media technologies into instruction.

Participants

A total of 400 survey questionnaires were sent out to 18 schools. Three hundred and fifteen (315) were returned with a return rate of 78%. They were from four major cities: Riyadh, Jeddah, Mecca and Eastern Province. Among the 18 schools, there were 13 boy schools and five girl schools. All K-12 schools in Saudi Arabia are gender segregated due to its religious beliefs and tradition (Baki, 2004). Saudi K-12 students attend the same gender schools all over the country, that is, single gender is presented in an entire school, either male or female K-12 schools.

Rural schools were excluded from this study because they may not have the same accessibility to the Internet, computers or social media sites as the schools in the urban areas.

Demographics of the Participants

Among the 315 returned surveys, nine surveys were excluded due to too much missing information on each of the nine returned questionnaires. As a result, 306 surveys were used for data analyses. Among the 306 participants, 209 (68%) were male teachers and 97 (32%) were females. Approximately half of the participants (147, 48%) were elementary school teachers. Seventeen percent of the participants (53) were middle school teachers, and more than one third of the participants (104, 34%) were high school teachers. Table 1 showed demographics of the participants.


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Reported Social Media Usage

Social Media for Personal Use

The survey asked the participants about their experience of using social media for personal purposes. A large number of the participating teachers indicated they had accessibility to social media sites at home through computer, smartphone, or tablets although a small number of them either did not have access to social media at home or no social media accounts set up. Some participants used social media sites for one to two years. Some were users of up to more than seven years.

It seems that a positive correlation existed between the number of social media accounts (Table 2) and visitation frequency (Table 3). The more accounts the participants had, the more frequently they visited social media sites. A half of the participants indicated that they visited their social media sites daily while about 20% did 2-3 times a week. More teachers in the two areas, Mecca and Jeddah, visited social media sites daily. In another word, a higher percentage of the participants who seldom or never visited the social media sites were from the other two areas, Riyadh (25%) and Eastern Province (29%).

Table 1 Demographics of the Participants

School Regions

Gender

Educational Level

Grade Level

Total

Male

Female

BA

/BS

BA

/BS-T.C

Post-BA

/BS

E

M

H

Riyadh 150 33 81 74 23 96 34 51 183

Eastern Province

25 33 34 18 6 50 7 1 58

Mecca 34 3 20 13 4 1 11 25 37Jeddah 0 28 11 17 0 0 1 27 28

Sum 209 (68%)

97 (32%)

146 (47%)

122 (40%)

33 (11%)

147 (48%)

53 (17%)

104 (34%)

306


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Table 2 Status of Social Media Use (1)

School Regions

Having accounts in social media sites (%) Total %

0 1 2 3+

Riyadh 25 40 19 15 99% Eastern Province 29 45 14 12 100% Mecca 8 46 14 30 98% Jeddah 14 36 46 4 100%

Table 3 Status of Social Media Use (2)

School Regions

Visitation Frequency % Total %

Daily 2-3 weekly

Monthly Seldom Never

Riyadh 52 16 4 9 16 97% Eastern Province

50 15 2 9 24 100%

Mecca 48 27 10 10 3 98% Jeddah 57 21 0 11 11 100%

It appears that economic and technological development greatly impacts people’s technology use. Jeddah is one of the most economically developed cities in Saudi Arabia and among the early users of social media in the country. The participants from this city had the most years of accessibility to social media sites. About 39% of the Jeddah participants had used social media for four to six years. Almost half of the participants had at least two active social media accounts while more than one third had one account. Fifty-seven percent of the participants from Jeddah visit their accounts daily, and this is the highest visitation frequency of all the participants. In addition, 57% of the Jeddah participants stated that they still might join new social media sites. Obviously, the Jeddah participants were active users of social media sites compared with their counterparts from the other three areas.

Ten commonly used social media sites were listed on the survey for the participants to check on as their frequently visited sites. Twitter was checked as the most visited with 64% participants, YouTube as the second with 61%, Facebook as the third with 47%. Forums followed with 35%, Podcasting with 11%, Blogging with 10%, Wiki with only 4%, and Flicker with 3%. The popularity of smartphones and tablets could be viewed as the major factor that contributes to the higher percentage of home accessibility to social media sites. (Figure 1)


49

Figure 1. Social Media for Personal Use

Social Media for Instructional Purpose

The participants were asked to check on the same list of ten social media sites they had adopted for personal use and also for instructional purpose. The responses displayed that, first of all, the teachers used social media much less frequently in their instruction than for personal reasons. YouTube was the most used among the participating teachers, followed by Facebook and Twitter (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Social Media Use in Classroom

In response to the survey question- what classroom activities did you use social media sites for, the data showed that using Facebook to post homework was on the top of the list. Ninety-six participants (31%) used YouTube to show visual content. Seventy-two participants (24%) utilized Forums and other discussion platforms to facilitate web discussion among students. Some others (59 respondents, 19%) used the sites for searching for information related to their instruction. Unfortunately, 32% of the participating teachers did not use social media sites for instruction at all. (Figure 3)


50

Figure 3. Reasons for Using Social Media in the Classroom

Challenges When Integrating Social Media into Instruction.

Implementation of social media into instruction is not always viable in some Saudi schools. The three greatest challenges that the participants ranked as the roadblocks to the implementation were: parents, little or no Internet access and shortage of computers (Figure 4). Eighty-one (27%) participants marked parents as the first challenge to their application of social media into instruction. Little or no Internet access was ranked as the second greatest obstacles with 26% responses. Also, 17% participants ranked the shortage of computers or devices in a classroom as the third greatest obstacle to stop them from using social media.

Figure 4. Rank of Challenges

Teachers’ Perceptions SPSS was used to run chi-square tests to generate statistically significant differences among the

participants’ perceptions of social media usage in a classroom. The categorical variables included gender, years


51

of teaching, educational background, school location, years of using social media and grade levels at which the participants taught. Ten statements were developed in the survey to explore the participants’ perceptions about the benefits of social media use in instructions and their concerns about the use. A 3-level Likert Scale was developed to allow the participants to choose from: agree, neutral or disagree. The statements regarding benefits of social media integration covered 1) students’ motivation, 2) engagement, 3) promotion of self-direction, 4) improvement of students’ communication skills, 5) opportunities for students to express their opinions, 6) opportunities to serve students’ special needs and 7) enhancement of students’ collaboration. Three additional statements asked the participants to respond whether frequent use of social media would create concerns with their students’ privacy, distract students’ focus from academic learning or bring about the potential of cyber-bullying.

Benefits of Social Media Application in Instruction

P value was set up at 0.05 to report statistically significant differences according to the six categorical variables mentioned before. The findings indicated that teachers’ gender, educational background or years of teaching experience did not make much difference regarding their perceptions. Tables 4 and 5 aggregated the items that showed statistically significant differences at a p value at or below 0.05.

When regions where the schools were located were categorized as a variable to make a comparison, Mecca and Jeddah were grouped into West Region because of geographical adjacency of the two cities. Riyadh and Eastern Province are each as an independent region. There were no statistically significant differences identified among the participants from the three different regions regarding their perceptions of using social media as motivational tools. (Table 4)

There was, however, a statistically significant difference between the teachers of Eastern Province, West Region and Riyadh regarding extra opportunities social media created to serve students with special needs. A larger number of teachers from the first two groups held an affirmative belief on this than those of the last group (Table 4).

Table 4 Teachers’ Perceptions vs School Locations

A*: Agree, N*: Neutral, D*: Disagree **: Statistically significant different


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Although there was no statistically significant difference revealed when the participants’ years of using social media were compared, a favorable trend appeared that the more years the participants used social media, the more favorable opinions the participants held regarding using social media to motivate students.

Table 5 Teachers’ Perceptions vs. School Levels

**: Statistically significant different

Several statistically significant differences showed among the participants who taught at different school levels (Table 5). A larger number of high school teachers shared a positive attitude toward the benefits of technologies than their colleagues at elementary or middle schools. Seventy-six percent (76%) of high school teachers verse 60% elementary and 54% middle school teachers agreed that using social media could be motivational to students; 71% high school teachers believed in the positive impact of social media upon students’ engagement while 55% elementary and 52% middle school teachers thought so; nearly 80% high school teachers had a positive perception toward using social media to benefit special-needs students while 72% of the elementary and less than 60% of middle school teachers believed so; 17% more high school teachers (77% vs 60% elementary and middle school teachers) confirmed that social media usage could foster collaboration among students and encourage them to learn together.

Concerns with Social Media Application in Instruction

Three concerns with social media application in instruction were listed in the survey to solicit the participants’ point of view about: privacy invasion, distraction from learning, and cyber-bullying. The


53

participants from different locations held similar levels of concern with privacy and distraction. However, the data revealed that more participants from Eastern Province (98%) and West Region (89%) claimed that cyber-bullying could become a concern than their counterparts from the central region-Riyadh (47 %). The differences were reported on Tables 6 and 7.

People of Eastern Province and West Region are earlier social media users of the country. With a longer time of exposure to social media, the teachers from the areas may have witnessed more cyber-bullying incidents and hold some reservations concerning the adversarial effect of Internet technologies (Table 6).

Table 6. Teachers’ Perceptions about Cyber-Bullying vs School Locations

As to the teachers’ concerns with violation of students’ privacy when using social media in their instruction, 50% of the respondents expressed their apprehensions about this issue, but a larger percentage (22%) of the middle school teachers did not view it as a sincere concern compared to 11% elementary teachers and 7% high school teachers (Table 7).

Table 7 Teachers’ Concern with Privacy vs School Levels


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Discussions Most of the findings in this study were consistent with those of some previous studies (Almekhlafi &

Almeqdadi, 2010; Liu & McCombs, 2011) that teachers are willing and able to integrate technology and social media into instruction regardless of their gender even if they work in gender segregated schools.

Teachers in Saudi Arabia were interested in joining and becoming familiar with social media and social networking sites. They had a desire and need to learn in order to apply social media technologies into their instruction.

An overwhelming majority of the participating teachers believed in the benefits of using social media sites in their instructions with more than 90% positive responses from all the regions (90% from Central Region and East Province, and 95% from West Region). The commonly recognized benefits included helping with special-needs students, motivating students in learning, increasing students’ engagement and self-directed learning, and promoting collaboration and interaction between teachers and students as well as among students. The perceived benefits positively related with years of experiences with it.

Although the extend to which elementary and middle school teachers’ perceptions of the benefits was less than that of high school teachers, a majority of all the participating teachers concurred with other studies about the benefit of social media for increased collaboration and interaction (Baker, 2013; Tomaszewski, 2012).

It was no surprise that the participants used social media sites for personal purposes more often than for instruction. The gap entails a conscious effort from educators to bring more technology and social media into their classroom. The stronger purchase of smartphones among the Saudi people is expected to promote their increased use in teaching and learning.

Cyber-bullying and interruption of privacy have been grave challenges with social media usage in instruction. No school can be immune from it. The unique finding in this study was that parents were listed as number one challenge that the teachers had to cope with when using social media in their instruction. Some parents may oppose use of social media due to the potentially hazardous bullying or disclosure of privacy that may occur to their children. Therefore, teachers should work with parents to obtain their understanding of and support for beneficial application of the technology.


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Recommendations The findings of this study revealed the status quo of Saudi K-12 teachers’ use of social media in

instruction. They also indicated hope and a promising future for integration of technology into instructions owing to the teachers’ positive perceptions. For the near future of Saudi K-12 education and further research studies, the following recommendations were made.

1. The Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia and school districts should take a leadership role in

promoting technology application into instructional practice. It is recommended that the Saudi

Ministry of Education provide the guidelines for appropriate use of social media sites into instruction

due to the potential hazards of these sites if they are utilized without control. The offices should

recommend valid social media sites for educational purposes.

2. Training should be provided at different levels for in-service teachers to learn continuously about

update instructional technologies and their application in instruction. Technology application must be

included in the pre-service teachers’ training courses to ensure that next generations of teachers are

well prepared to use the most updated technology, including social media.

3. Since parents were viewed as the greatest challenge to social media integration into instruction, it is

recommended that school districts offer parents conferences or workshops to inform them of pros

and cons of social media sites that teachers and students have access to.

4. Availability and easy access to technology and Internet connections are essential guarantee of

technology usage as emphasized by Suleman (2011). Therefore, funding should be sufficient to

make sure that the Internet and computer labs will be available in all schools.

References Alhasan, F. (2010) Saudis do not read as other Arabs, but they are the best readers in fasting reading. Aleqtisadiah.

http://www.aleqt.com/2010/01/01/article_650746.html Almekhlafi, A. G., & Almeqdadi, F. A. (2010). Teachers' perceptions of technology integration in the United Arab Emirates

school classrooms. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, (1), 165-175. Alzubedi, E. (2012). Saudi Arabia has the biggest buyers in the world of smartphones. Tech World.

http://www.tech-wd.com/wd/2012/04/17/phones-share-ksa/ Avidov-Ungar, O, & Eshet-Alkakay, Y. (2011). Teachers in a world of change: Teachers’ knowledge and attitudes towards the

implementation of innovative technologies in schools. Interdisciplinary Journal of E-Learning & Learning Objects, 7, 291-303.

Baker, J. (2013, February 12). How students benefit from using social media. Edudemic, http://edudemic.com Baki, R. (2004). Gender-segregated education in Saudi Arabia: Its impact on social norms and the Saudi labor market. Education

Policy Analysis Archives, 12(28), 1-15. Boon, R. T., Fore, C., & Spencer, V. G. (2007). Teachers’ attitudes and perceptions toward the use of Inspiration 6 software in

inclusive World History class at the secondary level. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 34(3), 166-171. Celik, V., & Yesilyurt, E. (2013). Attitudes to technology, perceived computer self-efficacy and computer anxiety as predictors

of computer supported education. Computers & Education, 60(1), 148-158. Collin, P., Rahilly, K., Richardson, I., & Third, A. (2011). The benefits of social networking services. Cooperative Research

Centre for Young People, Technology and Wellbeing. Melbourne, VIC.


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Edwards, J. (2013). Twitter’s IPO will reveal how many fake or inactive users it has – And it may not be pretty. Retrieved from: TECH(HTTP://www.businessinsider.com/SAI

Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2012). Removing obstacles to the pedagogical changes required by Jonassen's vision of authentic technology-enabled learning. Computers & Education, 64, 175-182.

Finamore, C. D., Hochanadel, A. J., Hochanadel, C. E., Millam, L. A., & Reinhardt, M. M. (2012). Electronic media: A motivational strategy for student success. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 15(1).

Fleisher, L. (2012). City lays out digital rules for teachers. Wall Street Journal. http://search.proquest.com Guth, S. (2007). Wikis in education: Is public better? http://www.wikisym.org Kaur, M. (2011). Using online forums in language learning and education. Student Pulse, 4. www.studentpulse.com Koenig, D. (2011). Social media in the schoolhouse. Teaching Tolerance. Retrieved from www.tolerance.org Koksal, M. S., & Yaman, S. (2009). An analysis of Turkish prospective teachers’ perceptions about technology in education.

Revista Electronica de Investigacion y Evaluacion Educative, 15(2), 1-9. Lederer, K. (2012, January 19). Pros and cons of social media in the classroom. Campus Technology.

www.campustechnology.com Liu, Y. & McCombs, S. (2011). Student Perceptions and Usage of Social Media Tools. In M. Koehler & P. Mishra (Eds.),

Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2011 (pp. 1556-1560). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

Llanos, C. (2011). Schools grapple with social media. Daily Breeze. http://search.proquest.com Petko, D. (2012). Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and their use of digital media in classrooms: Sharpening the focus of the ‘will,

skill, tool’ model and integrating teachers’ constructivist orientations. Computers and Education, 58(4), 1351-1359. Sadaf, A., Newby, T. J., & Ertmer, P. A. (2012). Exploring factors that predict preservice teachers' intentions to use Web 2.0

technologies using decomposed theory of planned behavior. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 45(2), 171-196.

Sekharan Nair, G. K., et al. (2012). ICT and teachers’ attitude in English language teaching. Asian Social Science, 8(11), 8-12. Suleman, Q. (2011). Role of educational technology at primary school level in district Karak. International Journal of Academic

Research in Business and Social Sciences, 1, 85-95. Tomaszewski, J. (2012). Study suggests benefits of social media in the classroom. Education World, the Educator’s Best Friend.

www.educationworld.com Turel, Y. K., & Johnson, T. E. (2012). Teachers’ belief and use of interactive whiteboards for teaching and learning. Journal of

Educational Technology, 15(1), 381-394. Whitney, L. (2013). See the facts of all Facebook users, including yours. News.cnet.com.


Chat Show Game Show: Have Fun While Your Students Learn

Richard Hillman Bell Educational Services, London, UK.

Chat Show Game Show is a method for getting students to use and practise target language items, be they grammar

points or lexis. It is commonly observed by teachers that students when speaking show a tendency to revert to their

older, tried and tested language patterns, rather than embracing and using the new items. The method presented

here is a way of solving this perennial problem, while at the same time offering the teacher and the students a way

to have some fun, engage meaningfully with the desired language points, and extend the students’ familiarity with

how these points are collocated and used, meanwhile doing a lot of speaking.

Keywords: Recycling grammar and vocabulary, Speaking, using the target items, Repeated use of the language

items, Fun

Introduction As a novice teacher working in Turkey, as part of my extra duties I was asked to review for my peers a

work by Stephen Krashen, entitled The Natural Approach. I read it with great interest, and then came across a clip in which he brilliantly demonstrated the point of the book. The point was for the teacher to provide for the students comprehensible input, and in this way facilitate the progress of the learners. The formula introduced by Krashen was i + 1, where i stands for input, and the 1 represents one step beyond the students’ current level. In other words the teacher should pitch the input at a level that was just beyond the current level of the students’ comprehension, so that they understood what was being said, but at the same time were stretched by the material. In this way they would happily progress.

The technique I have developed is, I would claim, good for extending the students’ output in a similar way to Krashen’s comprehensible input. It is an attempt to extend the students’ knowledge and use of language items in a setting in which they have no choice but to use the desired items, but are given the requisite scaffolding in order for them to be able to stretch themselves.

Some Background and the Technique Itself For each set of language points, the students get several opportunities to use the language. There has been

research into input, and the number of times students are exposed to each item before a consolidated learning takes place. Nation (1990) reviewed the literature on the subject and concluded that exposure to between 5 and 16 repetitions of a new word are required. Rott (1999) found that six exposures were sufficient to produce significantly more vocabulary knowledge, while an empirical study by Webb (2007) suggests that ten repetitions of target words in context can suffice.

Then again, perhaps what is much more important is the quality of the exposure to the language item. That

Richard Hillman, M.A., English Language Teacher, Bell Educational Services, London, UK.

CHAT SHOW GAME SHOW: HAVE FUN WHILE YOUR STUDENTS LEARN

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Dogme moment when a group of students has come to a conversational impasse because they are desperately trying to find the exact word in English. Finally the teacher puts them out of their misery, and shares the word with them. In this case, surely sixteen repetitions may well not be necessary before learning occurs. Here, the words of Leo Selivan are apposite:

“If you are more actively involved in processing the language you meet (known as intentional learning) you are more likely to remember it. It is therefore up to teachers to create situations and provide meaningful contexts in which learners can have the opportunity to recycle and reuse the language they have learnt.” The aim of Chat Show Game Show is to provide repeated opportunities to use target language items in an

enjoyable way and in a memorable context. The method at the same time offers a lot of opportunities for speaking, and in this respect an advertisement regarding an exams masterclass promoted by Pearson in collaboration with the University of Cambridge ESOL examinations, to be run by Jan Bell and Amanda Thomas, seems apposite: “Speaking could be regarded as the 'Cinderella' of the skills, too often neglected, with students sometimes feeling that they are not really learning anything and teachers finding it difficult to plan a varied and productive lesson.”

Here also is a quote from Goh and Burns (2012): regarding a ‘learn to speak by speaking’ approach: “…both part-practice activities and whole tasks are necessary to facilitate the automization of various components of the

complex skill of speaking” This is in accord with Cazden’s ‘whole language plus’, where the primary focus is on task

performance, but where there is recognition of the need for ‘temporary instructional detours’ in which the learner’s attention is

directed to lower level features ‘at the point of need’.

As we shall see in Chat Show Game Show, during the playing of the game there are multiple opportunities for these temporary instructional detours, where the game can be put on hold as language issues come up. Or, indeed, those issues are incorporated into the game, and points can be awarded by the teacher on the basis of students’ contributions to clearing up the issue.

Also germane to the subject is the following, from Folse: "[...] when asked what could improve the ESL programs in which they were studying, students ranked ‘more vocabulary development’ second only to ‘more opportunities to speak in class’" (Folse, 2004, p.19).

Jim Scrivener and Adrian Underhill on their website call for a slight adjustment in the approach of EFL teachers. They remark that they see a lot of good, well-planned, varied lessons, with fun, communicative tasks. This is the norm, even among less experienced teachers. However, what is lacking is the level of learning pay-off from these lessons. In other words, when observing lessons they see a high degree of planning but a low degree of learning outcome from the lessons. When they consider the weakness of the typical lesson they see, they observe that there could have been a demand for the students to learn more and to perform at a higher level. They refer to “doable demand”, and suggest “Shifting my preoccupation from ‘successful task’ to ‘optimal learning’”. They recommend “breaking out of the chase for right answers” and “not rubber-stamping”, i.e. instead of saying “Yes, that’s right” or “No, sorry”, exploring the students’ answers and exploiting the situation to demand more language out of the students, with teacher interventions helping in this process. This is rather like what we’ve mentioned above, and rather like the modus operandi of Chat Show Game Show, which will be seen in the following pages.

Their message: “Getting away from a slight over concern about task, material, fun, et cetera and


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focussing on the learning”. I would argue that Chat Show Game Show allows us to have our cake and eat it, in terms of having fun and focussing on learning at the same time.

Method

T puts students into ideally 2 or 3 teams, depending on the size of the class. If appropriate, the teacher

will elicit or give the meaning of any vocabulary that may be new to the students

Students in their groups or pairs discuss the questions or attempt to complete sentences and try to come

up with intelligent or interesting or amusing answers

T holds the game show, when the groups give their answers question by question and the teacher

allocates points on the basis of a point for a good answer, and extra points for more interesting answers,

or even more points for correct answers!

This stage can alternatively be just a sharing of ideas rather than a competition. Some activities lend

themselves more to the competition idea and some more to just a sharing of ideas. Then again, time

may be a factor, as the competition, though a lot of fun, tends to take up a lot of time.

Comments There is nothing particularly original about this idea, of course. Teachers have been preparing worksheets

with questions for students to answer for years, or for all I know, centuries. The slant is that here, the teacher gives points for interesting and more interesting answers, and even if students have given the wrong answer, or an answer that shows a misunderstanding of the question, their answers are explored as interesting concepts. However, correct use of the grammar point or correct pronunciation and collocation of the target vocabulary must be achieved before the awarding of a point. The activities should give between two and four sets of useful repetitions of grammar and vocabulary items. At the same time students are speaking in groups or pairs, after which there is a phase which is both teacher-centred as well as student-centred, which seems to work well, and is when all these temporary instructional detours take place as language points come up.

The inspiration for the activity comes from TV game shows such as Family Fortunes and Have I Got News for You. I also owe a debt to various EFL books, from the old Meanings Into Words, to Recycling Advanced English, to Intermediate Vocabulary, to FCE Organiser.

The activities can be used for revision purposes, though many also lend themselves to the teaching of new vocabulary in a test, teach, test kind of way.

Words like ‘interesting’ and ‘more interesting’, not to mention ‘better’, are very subjective, but the teacher has the flexibility to respond to the mood of the students and how much they will accept her or his authority as a judge. The teacher can ask the students to justify their answers, and other groups can challenge those answers, and extra points can be awarded for better explanations and examples, or for successful challenges. A lot of language and discussion is generated at this stage. The teacher can further manipulate the game by finding a reason or excuse to give extra points for the answers of quieter or less confident students or to help the teams that are down on points, so as to make the game more even and therefore more exciting.

It is important that during this part of the activity where there is a competitive sharing of ideas, that the


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teacher acts to some extent like the host of a TV game show, and even if an answer is wrong, or shows a misunderstanding of the meaning of the question, they can still get points for an interesting answer, or for explaining the logic of their answer, or for the answer being not what is in general common usage in the English-speaking world, but a highly creative and exploratory use of English, and thus worthy of points. But before those points can be awarded, any mistake in the grammatical, lexical or phonological use must be corrected. The team therefore can correct an inaccurate answer for themselves, or perhaps extra points will be awarded to a student from another team who helps them to formulate it correctly.

If there is something the students don’t know the answer to, they can just guess or make something up, and that’s as valid as a correct answer – after all, by far the primary aim is for them to practise and develop their English.

The stress and worry that students might have regarding correct production of potentially challenging target language items is removed, because, with the focus on the ‘interesting answers’ for points, the correction of any mistakes in usage is seen as a kind of tidying up before coming to focus on the actual answer. Thus accurate production is achieved, students’ attention is brought to that correct production, and yet they don’t feel a lot of anxiety about it.

There may be several reasons, though, why the teacher might want to remove the points element from the activity. The demand for correct production of the target language should still be there, of course, but it could be just a sharing of interesting answers rather than a competition. For one thing, it’s less time-consuming. For another, occasionally there are students whose attention becomes over-concentrated on the competition and the number of points being awarded, so a collaborative sharing of ideas avoids this problem. Also, I’ve found the materials in my book and other materials of the same style to be extremely useful in teaching one to one lessons. With a one to one student, a sharing of ideas would be more appropriate than a competition, for the obvious reason that there is nobody for the student to be in competition with, although having said that I do occasionally have a competition between the student and myself to compare our answers to a set of questions. A lot of discussion comes up as to which of our answers to each question is the more interesting.

Whether the target language has come from a reading text, from a listening text, the course book, or just in conversation in class, this technique is useful for practising and consolidating the items. I don’t use the technique every day - far from it, but once or twice a week, for example, it comes in extremely useful.

By the way, students within groups, when it comes to sharing their answer with the whole group and teacher, should take turns to give the answer. If one of the group has given their answer to the previous question, then another student should voice their answer to this one, and so on, to ensure as far as possible maximum participation of all the students.

Positive Points

There is a lot of fun to be had

Students speak a lot

They see the purpose of the speaking, because they are doing a lot of practice of the target grammar


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or vocabulary

With practice of the game, students become very creative, and see that they can play with the

language, which helps to reduce the anxiety of having to cope in a foreign language

It extends the students’ facility with how these language items can be used, as they get the chance to

test out what does and does not work

Part One is student-centred, with T in the role of facilitator, but Part Two is both student- and

teacher-centred, which is extra fun

Most of the exercises do not have strict yes or no answers, so alternative answers can be accepted

and explored, and it is a kind of sharing of ideas. Nonetheless, getting the use of the language item

correct is a prerequisite for points, so the team is helped to use it correctly so that they can gain their

points

It removes the pressure of the type of exercises where the weaker students get less than sixty per cent

of the answers correct. Here, with the scaffolding provided, and with assistance during the sharing of

the answers, points are available for every answer

Conversely, the stronger students in the group are often challenged by these questions to come up

with creative answers, so they do not feel that they are wasting their time

A lot of interaction takes place in the class

This type of technique can be widely applied to any set of vocabulary or area of grammar that needs

to be practised and consolidated. Many of the activities in the book involve between around ten and fifteen questions. Let’s take a look at an extract from one activity that is designed for students to practise the second

conditional. The title is “Which City Would You Be In...” This type of activity can be adapted by the teacher to create a suitable level of challenge for their particular set of students. I’ve already modified my original worksheet to include a rather more Asian orientation, but of course a teacher in South America would include more accessible references to suit her students. The students should be able to get some answers quite easily, some with a straining of their memories and general knowledge, and others should perhaps be a little too difficult. Of course, nowadays, the students might equally use their mobile or ipad to get the information. In this particular activity they should be discouraged from doing that for every answer, otherwise it becomes too easy.

Correct use of the second conditional is a prerequisite for getting the points. The students can be helped towards using it correctly, and extra points could be available for helpful interventions on the part of other students, or even the same student who finally gets it right. Thus, for example, a student answers “If I were at Orchard Road, I will be in Singapore”. The teacher will hopefully elicit a correction to make it the correct form of the second conditional. An extra point may be available for that, even from the student who made the mistake in the first place. After that, the focus shifts to their actual answers.

Let’s say one student says “If you were at the Avenue of Stars, you would be in Hollywood”. They can be


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asked why they think they would be in Hollywood, and they may have thought it was the Walk of Fame. That’s a reasonable assumption, and is certainly worth some points. Or they may say “I don’t know where the Avenue of Stars is”, which would have to be taken as a correct answer, if indeed they don’t know, in which case they should get points. Then again, they may say “If I were at the Avenue of Stars, I would be in the desert”. Their reasoning could be that in the night desert sky it is possible to see a lot of stars. This would be a beautiful and poetic answer, and therefore worthy of a lot of points. However, if a student answers “If you were at the Avenue of Stars, you would be in Hong Kong”, that answer perhaps should yield the most points. Alternatively, if another student answers “ I know that if I were at the Avenue of Stars, I would be in Hong Kong, because I was there last year, and it was very exciting for me”, maybe this personalisation would trump the earlier correct answer, and merit even more points.

A variation on this activity for higher level students could be that they are required to use the third conditional – “If you had been at Venice Beach yesterday afternoon, you would have been in Los Angeles”, for example. Or for even higher level students: Had we been at the Berlin Wall yesterday afternoon, we would probably still be in Berlin today.

Or let’s look at an extract from a set of questions where students are called upon to show some creativity in their answers, entitled “Future in the Past”.

Take, for example, the sentence: The clever wife guessed that her husband was going to forget their anniversary and … One group might say: “The clever wife guessed that her husband was going to forget their anniversary and she reminded him.” A perfectly logical answer, worth good points. Or possibly they might say: “The clever wife guessed that her husband was going to forget their anniversary and she wrote him a note to remind him.” Rather more creative, so worth one or two points more, perhaps.

Or an answer might be: The clever wife guessed that her husband was going to forget their anniversary and she started reminiscing about their wedding day to remind him. More creative, and worthy of more points, surely. Another group might answer: The clever wife guessed that her husband was going to forget their anniversary and secretly called his mother to tell her to remind her husband”. This is highly creative and should surely be rewarded.

There is a lot of scope for personalisation in these activities. The extract from the set of questions practising the present perfect demonstrates this, as does the topic-based activity “The Arts”. Students in their pairs or threes can ask and answer these questions, and they can nominate the student from their group with the most interesting answer. Points can be awarded on that basis. For example “I went to a Rolling Stones concert.” Worth good points. Or “My parents don’t let me go to concerts” – personalised, a good answer. Good points, maybe extra points for having parents who care so much about their children. Or “I gave a wonderful concert, because I’m a singer.” This could give a lot of points if it is true. Then again, if there is no truth in it, perhaps it can still be positively scored, as a testament to a vivid imagination.

The activity “Binomials” can be used to introduce this lexis, or to practise what has already been looked at. The students attempt to put the missing words into the gaps. If they get the wrong ones, their answers can be explored, as usual, to follow and admire their logic, but sooner or later the correct answers should come out. Now let’s say you have a daily class, then the next day the exact same worksheet can be given out, to see if the students can remember the correct answers. The day after that, the following worksheet can be given out, and the students have to fill it in from memory, without the help of the jumbled missing words.


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Then the following day, the students can be put in pairs/groups, to discuss the following questions practising the target vocabulary. By the end of this process the students have pretty much learned the vocabulary.

One important technical detail is to do with absent students. Extremely often, when I want to do the (Part Two) revision of an activity the following lesson, there will be one or two students who were absent from the original lesson. What I do here is to give them the original worksheet, and tell them to try to answer three questions from it, or as many as they can, something like that. Then after the feedback session with the other students, I will for example ask the new students to tell us briefly their best answer, or to answer what they found the most interesting.

Below will be seen one more activity, entitled “And another thing”, which is another opportunity for personalisation. Students read the sentences, are free to ask any questions regarding the vocabulary, and complete the sentences with their own answers. Alternatively, they interview another student and fill in their answers. Then there can be a sharing of answers – all of them, or if there is limited time, ask the students for the most interesting answers that arose.

Then there is a follow-up activity, the next lesson, when students have to remember the vocabulary. The day after that, they have to put in the prepositions that collocate with each of these adjectives. This should not be too long an activity – no more than ten minutes, for example, enough for the students to recall the target language but not enough to bore the students. And the following day, this next activity should be only five minutes i.e. extremely quick, to consolidate, focus on prepositions, but not bore.

All in all, then, students can have a lot of fun and speaking practice when engaged in Chat Show Game Show-style activities. Chat Show Game Show is in itself not highly original, but the advantage of it is that the focus is on the interesting answers, while at the same time correct production of the target items is a prerequisite. Follow-up activities can then be used to further practise the desired linguistic points.

Does it work? Do students consolidate vocabulary and grammar items more than they otherwise would? Perhaps a statistical analysis is for another day. As yet there is only anecdotal evidence to support the usefulness of the technique. I can testify that the activity is always one of the most enjoyable classroom activities for teacher and students. Not only that, but also I hear the students using the target language multiple times, and I see them develop, and watch as their attitude to learning becomes more relaxed and receptive to the new language items. Students themselves comment on the value of the technique. There has also been positive feedback from other teachers who have tried it.

Anyway, I would argue that statistical analyses are not necessarily the most appropriate way to evaluate something as centred in the humanistic realm as language learning is. How could we measure the effectiveness of the technique? By having two groups, one set of human guinea pigs who encounter the technique and a control group who do not would be one option. But controlling external variables such as individual students’ pre-course lexis and exposure to language outside of the classroom, levels of motivation, and faculty of memory, just to take a few examples, is virtually impossible to do. And to what end? Perhaps some things are better left unmeasured. Or rather, to use another expression, the proof is in the pudding. Try it and see. If the teacher and the students feel that learning has taken place, and enjoyment has been had, we will have our evidence.


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References Barcroft, J Five Principles of Effective Second Language Vocabulary Instruction (University of Illinois) taken from http://www.transparent.com/about/second-language.html (last accessed 30 March 2013) Cazden, C. (1992) Whole Language Plus: Essays on Literacy in the US and NZ, New York: Teachers College Press. (accessed from scottthornbury.wordpress.com An A-Z of ELT (2006) H is for Holistic) Folse, K (2004). Vocabulary Myths. Michigan: Univerity of Michigan Press.(reporting from Folse, K. (2004). An examination of what intensive ESL students perceive as important in the curriculum. Unpublished manuscript. Goh, C, and Burns, A. (2012) Teaching Speaking. A Holistic Approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (accessed from scottthornbury.wordpress.com An A-Z of ELT (2006) H is for Holistic) Krashen, S. Comprehensible Input http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4K11o19YNvk (last accessed 30 March, 2013) Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Rott, S. (1999). The effect of exposure frequency on intermediate language learners’ incidental vocabulary acquisition and retention through reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 589-619. Scrivener, J & Underhill, A http://demandhighelt.wordpress.com/ (last accessed 30 March, 2013) Selivan, L. (2010). Revising lexis: quality or quantity? http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/revising- lexis-quality-or-quantity Webb, S. (2007a). The effects of repetition on vocabulary knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 28, 46-65. Taken from (2009 Developing Academic Vocabulary Independently (DAVI): A usability study Monica Richards Iowa State University van Lier, L. (2004) The ecology and semiotics of language learning: A sociocultural perspective, Norwell MA: Kluwer. (accessed from scottthornbury.wordpress.com An A-Z of ELT (2006) H is for Holistic)

Appendix

19. Which city would you be in? If you were at the Avenue of Stars

If you were at the Blue Mosque

If you were at the Bolshoi Ballet

If you were in Insadong

If you were on Orchard Road

If you were at Venice Beach

If you were at the Valley of the Kings

If you were at the Champs Elysees

If you were at the Berlin Wall

If you were at Old Trafford

26. Future in the Past Example:

The man felt the first few spots of rain, realised it was going to pour down, and got his umbrella out of

his bag

The policeman saw that the gang were going to rob the bank and …

The girl saw that the man was going to throw himself off the bridge and …

The full back realised that the centre forward was going to shoot and…

The clever wife guessed that her husband was going to forget their anniversary and …


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The jealous husband realised his wife was going to leave him and

The indifferent husband realised his wife was going to leave him and….

Present Perfect Focus Have you ever thought of writing a book?

How long have you lived in your current home?

Have you ever missed anything or anyone terribly?

What’s the most interesting experience you’ve had so far in your life?

What’s the biggest problem you’ve had?

Have you drunk coffee yet today? If so, how many cups of coffee have you drunk? If not, why not?

Who’s the most interesting person you’ve ever met?

How long have you had the shoes that you’re wearing?

The Arts

If you had to give up one of either cinema or books, which would you give up, and why?

Describe a painting that moves you in some way

Do you find abstract art stimulating, or does it fill you with an empty feeling?

What’s the most artistic thing you’ve ever done?

What’s the best concert you’ve been to?

81. Binomials Complete each expression with one of the words below:

Give and _________________

Up and __________________

To wine and ______________ clients

Sink or __________________

Back to __________________

Sooner or ________________

Back and ________________

Fish and _________________

Take it or ________________ it

Off and __________________

Safe and _________________

Fame and ________________


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Chips forth on fortune take Sound leave swim front Dine down later Binomials - Part Two Complete these sentences with binomial expressions:

Ships were travelling ____________________ between Athens and Rotterdam.

You’ve got your sweater on ________________.

Every relationship needs a bit of _______________.

No-one’s there to teach her, she’ll either have to ___________.

_________________ we’ll have to buy a house.

That’s my final offer: ______________________.

My football team have been very _______________ this season, one week brilliant and the next crap.

______________________ is sometimes great, but always fattening!

We sometimes have to ____________________ in order to get those money-spinning contracts.

We used to meet each other every day, but these days I just see her

_______________.

The children went missing for several hours, but now they’re __________________ at home.

A lot of starry-eyed young people go to Hollywood in search of ___________________.

Buy No Meals?

Have you ever put on an item of clothing back to front?

Can you think of something that happens in your life off and on?

Have you ever been in a new situation where you had to sink or swim?

Where do you go regularly back and forth?

What’s tastier than fish and chips?

Has anyone ever made an offer to you and said: “That’s my final offer, take it or leave it”?

Have you ever thought that you really needed fame and fortune?

What’s gonna happen in your life, sooner or later?

Does the idea of being in the kind of job where you wine and dine clients appeal to you?

Are you a bit of an up and down kind of person, or are your emotions very stable?

What would be a synonym of ‘give and take’?

Would you prefer to be sailing out on the open sea or safe and sound at home, reading a book?


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46. And Another Thing….

One thing I feel passionate about is

If I were alone on a desert island, one thing I would yearn for is

And another thing I would long for is

One thing I loathe is

One thing I’m fascinated by but have never been able to understand is

One thing I’m always tempted by is

One thing I love doing is

And another thing I love doing is

One thing I dread about my future is

One thing I love about my country is

And another thing I adore about my country is

One problem with living where I do is

One thing that appeals to me about my friend ____(name)__________ is

Next day activity: And Another Thing… - Part Two

One thing I feel pa__________ about is my football team

If I were alone on a desert island, one thing I would ye_____ for is a cappuccino. And another thing I

would lo____ for is companionship

One thing I loa________ is people smoking and then kissing me

One thing I’m fas____________ by but have never been able to understand is women

One thing I’m always te________ by is bookshops

One thing I love doing is drinking cappuccino

And another thing I love doing is drinking another cappuccino

One thing I dr________ about my future is getting old and forgetting what my name is

One thing I love about my country is the weather

And another thing I ad_________ about my country is the food

One problem with living where I do is the noise

One thing that ap________ to me about my best friend is that she’s young and lively

And Another Thing…- Part Three

One thing I feel passionate __________ is my football team


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If I were alone on a desert island, one thing I would yearn ______ is a cappuccino. And another thing

I would long ______ is companionship

One thing I loathe ______ people smoking and then kissing me

One thing I’m fascinated ________ but have never been able to understand is women

One thing I’m always tempted _______ is bookshops

One thing I love ___________ is drinking cappuccino

And another thing I love _________ is drinking another cappuccino

One thing I dread _______ getting old and forgetting what my name is

One thing I love _________ my country is the weather

And another thing I adore __________ my country is the food

One problem ______ living where I do is the noise

One thing that appeals _____ me about my best friend is that she’s young and lively


Social Studies in the Cross Thematic Integrated Curriculum for

Kindergarten in Greece

Vasilios Oikonomidis University of Crete, Greece.

Social studies constitute an important area of the curriculum for the Greek Kindergarten. The major objectives of

the social studies curriculum in preschool education is to provide the children with the opportunity to successfully

attain significant concepts in the fields of history, religion, geography, cultural diversity and environment treatment.

The social studies curriculum provides the kindergarten teacher with the opportunities to teach several subjects and

to guide children to their self-understanding and their socialization process in order to become democratic and

active citizens.

Keywords: social studies curriculum, preschool education, Greek Kindergarten

Introduction The part dedicated to Social Studies (S.S.) within the Curriculum for schools is considered particularly

important, as they promote the shaping of young persons’ personality, their integration in social context and they contribute to the creation of sensitive characters and responsible citizens (Allen, 1996; Martorella, 1994). The fields of study or the courses connected with Social Studies (History, Religion, Social and Political Education, Sociology, Economy) provide developing persons the necessary knowledge on the historic and cultural identity of the society they live in, all by assisting them to harmonically blend in it (Jacobs & Crowley, 2007; Russel, 2011). These courses principally transmit to the young generation knowledge, attitudes, forms of conduct, cultural standards, social, civil and religious values and shape the young citizens that will maintain or alter society (Jacobs & Crowley, 2007; Turner, Russel, & Waters, 2013). Pupils’ said formation takes place throughout their journey in the education system, beginning from Kindergarten (Spodek, 1969; Koutsouvanou, 2002). The shaping of a young member of the society naturally begins in the family, but takes the form of a process that follows concrete aims specified by the state carried out with a specific method by appropriately trained people in the kindergarten, the first tier of the educational system (Koutsouvanou, 2002). The role of several Social Studies subject areas, particularly History and Religion, including the knowledge of the immediate environment (home, neighborhood, professions, transport means, media), has been pivotal in all Curriculums for the Greek kindergarten (Kitsaras, 1998). Besides, the physical and social environment also brings about topics that concern a child and that are dealt with in kindergarten (D’ Addesio et al., 2005; Jacobs & Crowley, 2007; Dafermou et al., 2006). The aim of this paper is to identify the place of Social Studies in the Cross Thematic Integrated Curriculum for Kindergarten (M.E.R.A. – P.I., 2002) in Greek Kindergarten. The applicable Greek curriculum was published in 2002, but implementation began in school year 2006-2007, when

Vasilios Oikonomidis, Assistant Professor, Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, Greece.

SOCIAL STUDIES IN THE CROSS THEMATIC INTEGRATED CURRICULUM FOR KINDERGARTEN IN GREECE

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the Kindergarten teacher’s Guide was issued (Dafermou et al. 2006), an assisting book distributed by the Ministry of Education to kindergarten teachers to support them in the implementation of the new curriculum. The Cross Thematic Integrated Curriculum (M.E.R.A. – P.I., 2002) for Greek Kindergarten applies a cross thematic curricular approach (Chrysafidis, 2009) and consists of five wider teaching subjects: 1) Child and Language (oral communication, reading, writing and written communication), 2) Child and Mathematics, 3) Child and Environment (Manmade environment, Natural Environment), 4) Child, Creation and Expression (Arts, Dramatic Art, Physical Education, Music) and 5) Child and Information Technology. The Cross Thematic Integrated Curriculum proposes to kindergarten teachers to use themes from the experiences and from the interests of children and to rely on constructivist experiential and group centered teaching and learning. Its main objective is the all-round development of children. The Curriculum adopts the formative assessment of children based on observation, writing diaries and creating portfolios for every student (M.E.R.A. – P.I., 2002)

Social Studies in the Current Greek Curriculum for Kindergarten Next, we will review the position held by Social Studies (S.S.) in the Cross Thematic Integrated

Curriculum (CTIC) for Kindergarten identifying the targets/pursuits cited and the indicative activities recommended for their implementation.

Social Studies fall within the part of the CTIC entitled “Child and Environment” and the axis Manmade Environment and Interaction, which differs from axis Natural Environment and Interaction; the latter entails knowledge on Natural Sciences (natural phenomena, properties and characteristics of materials, planets etc). The axis Manmade Environment and Interaction approaches basic notions and processes of Geography, History, Religion, Civic/Social and Political Education, including elements of Environmental Education, Health Education and Traffic Education (Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs [MERA] – Pedagogic Institute [PI], 2002α:3). It is recommended that all activities, both group and individual ones, should begin from children’s previous knowledge and needs to “trigger creativity, exchange of ideas and to lead to new knowledge” (MERA - PI, 2002α:3). The subject areas must be interesting to the children, which choose the ways, materials and media to look into each matter on their own. Thus, facts, phenomena, concepts and processes reviewed in the framework of the Social Studies follow a cross-thematic approach, i.e. approaching various subject areas. Each subject primarily connected with Social Studies may also be approached through processes and knowledge integrated in other CTIC science fields –such as Language, Mathematics, knowledge of the Natural Environment, Information Technology, applications of Arts Education- achieving respective objectives (Doliopoulou & Sousloglou, 2007). That is, the concepts of Social Studies are approached through appropriately selected (cross-thematic) subject-matters and each subject-matter may be approached with activities from various branches of studies (cross-thematic), “shedding light” on several of its aspects (Chrysafidis, 2009:23-24; Sfyroera, 2002).

The axis Manmade environment and Interaction consists of two separate pillars: Α) Children in Kindergarten and their relation to others. This pillar includes aims that concern the

development of socialization and children’s competence of integration in the society (family, school, district/village), in which they belong. This includes the aims of developing children’s self-esteem, awareness of their singularity as people, the aims of conception and acceptance of others as equal members of social


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groups and the development of co-operation with them. This includes all actions regarding children’s acquaintance with their immediate social context, their microcosm, which is particularly complex (e.g. individual differences, multiculturalism) and to that effect, the teacher “being conscious of the complexity of the social context where the child lives and grows” (MERA - PI, 2002α:4) must make use of children’s relevant experiences, cultural background and lead them to develop social skills. Identifying and respecting the differences among people of the same social context or among different social contexts is attempted through appropriate descriptions and comparisons.

Β) Children within the wider manmade environment. This pillar includes actions regarding acquaintance with the wider social context in its historical and geographic dimension. Ascertaining the change of context in space and time, approaching technology achievements (e.g. media, transport means, everyday life and professional tools and machinery), approaching history facts and persons, matters related to understanding the social context in their broader time/historical and spatial/geographic dimensions are part of this pillar (MERA - PI, 2002α:4).

It is worth however noting that these two pillars do not re-appear in the analytical description of the pursuits and recommended activities of axis Manmade environment and Interaction, neither are they referred to in any other part of the CTIC for kindergarten. Thus, the teacher may take them into account to know which aspects of the social environment (in stricter or broader terms) the activities he or she develops with the children represent. The curriculum does not foresee more guidance or involvement of these pillars in designing teaching, in the sense that when the pursuits of axis Manmade environment and Interaction are then outlined in detail, reference by the drafters of CTIC is not made to the two pillars in question. We could therefore claim that these pillars are then “forgotten”.

We will continue by reviewing the competencies related to Social Studies that the children aspire to develop through relevant recommended activities, as formulated in axis Manmade environment and Interaction of the CTIC for kindergarten.

The first pursuit concerns each child’s personality in itself and refers to the enhancement of their

self-esteem by conquering self-awareness. It is recommended to offer children experiences of

assuming actions, initiatives and responsibilities in the framework of the game and of organized

activities (e.g. free participation in a democratic discussion). Reference is made to each child’s right to

a mistake, implying a pedagogic treatment.

The next aim/pursuit is to develop competencies of communication and co-operation in the context of

free and organized activities, e.g. contacts, questions/interviews with adults outside school, inviting

adults to school when investigating matters. As regards co-operation with peers, it begins from the

provision and acceptance of assistance to and from other children, a process that leads to the next aim,

the development of a culture of co-operation among children through group work and common

discovery. Activities related to group operation, discussion of problems (conflicts, tensions) that arise

from their mutual co-operation, the determination of each child’s personal boundaries, as well as the


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establishment of rules for groups and classes are relevant here, followed by contacts with adults

outside school (interviews with adults, inviting adults to school when investigating matters) (Jacobs &

Crowley, 2007).

Through contact with other people, children are encouraged to apprehend their singularity as people

with individual features (e.g. gender, abilities, wishes, culture), as well as their similarity with the other

children in basic aspects of their personality (e.g. needs, wishes, emotions). In this context, children

begin to realize the concept of individuality, as emerging both in the immediate and the broader

environment, and to approach the concept of people’s equality as independent persons and sets of

values. They pinpoint the differences (bodily, cultural, national, religious differences with other people

– recommended activities: listening to other peoples’ music, feast with other peoples’ food), they

acknowledge the right to difference, they are interested in the needs that people have because of their

difference (persons with disabilities, immigrants, third world children) and become more sensitive in

responding to these needs. Setting up groups of children coming from different cultural environments

and with different abilities helps accept difference.

The knowledge of religious traditions referred to in the Christian faith, worship and the respective

customs are closely interwoven with nourishing feelings of love and brotherhood among all people and

“to all creatures on earth”, highlighting the utmost message of Christianity, love to every human being

and the environment. In this context, Christian holidays and the relevant customs constitute a vaulting

horse for the development of the feeling of love to all human beings.

If the aforementioned aims can be characterized as more social/emotional, considering that they

concern the development of understanding and accepting oneself and the others, the axis Manmade

environment and Interaction then continues with aims characterized by their cognitive nature (MERA -

PI, 2002b:14): rules of hygiene, man/environment interaction, understanding historical time,

geographic notions and spatial skills. The cognitive nature of those aims does not preclude their social

aspect; to the contrary, in certain cases, it may even favor it, assisting at a cognitive level the

achievement of social aims (e.g. better understanding of the chronological context of a fact helps

understand more deeply the significance of the fact itself).

They are followed by aims referring to personal hygiene and protection rules, through activities related

to healthy eating, refraining from harmful substances (e.g. smoking), providing health services (e.g.

doctor, hospital etc), highlighting ways of protection from natural phenomena.

Familiarity with the immediate environment is another cognitive aim that refers to the knowledge of

the house, the school, the way they are built, the neighborhood and its change over time, the


73

knowledge of the city’s name and children’s home address.

Cognitive aims continue with getting to know the broader environment and man’s interaction with it

(seasonal activities: reaping, harvesting, seeding, producing and consuming products, man’s impact on

the environment). This also includes children’s environmental awareness that must necessarily rely on

cognitive foundations and structures (e.g. procedures to produce, consume and dispose products and

materials). Environmental awareness, which is a discrete and autonomous aim of the CTIC, has a

social aspect, yet it is based on a cognitive foothold and leads to respective children’s action in the

immediate environment (home, school, neighborhood, recycling).

Then comes another cognitive aim, which is to understand symbols, charts and maps, the way a map is

constructed by creating a map of the class, the yard, the neighborhood (Jacobs & Crowley, 2007;

Owen & Ryan, 2001), identifying geographic information on the map, plotting routes on a map, using

geographic terms (Martorella, 1994).

Familiarity with transport and communication means, their classification in categories, understanding

the intention of their use and their utility builds on children’s existing knowledge and expands it.

Then follows knowledge of traffic behavior rules as a social aim connected with the previous cognitive

aim that introduces traffic education in the CTIC, whose necessity is particularly stressed (Pantazis &

Sakellariou, 2005).

Knowledge of science applications in everyday life mainly through its achievements (machinery, tools,

devices) prepares the child to adopt safety rules when handling technology products we use in our

everyday lives.

The same model of fist introducing cognitive aims is also followed in the approach of historic subjects

and concepts. Cognitive aims of clarifying time notions and the concept of time sequence, including

the past, present, future, extended or shorter periods of time (seasons, months, weeks, days, day

periods, use of time adverbs (yesterday, today, tomorrow, before, now, afterwards etc) come first.

Among the activities aimed to better understand timing of incidents and change over time is

reproducing the scenes of a story at the right time sequence with a beginning, middle and an end,

comparing the same scenes in different time periods, visiting museums etc. (Strataridaki, 2006; O’

Hara & O’ Hara, 2001; Pluckrose, 1993).

Together with understanding time comes the aim of fostering children’s interest in events in history, at

a local, national and a wider level. Crucial to that effect is the critical approach of the events and the

people involved in the story, through commenting on incentives, dilemmas, emotions, actions of the

historic personalities and the effects of their actions. Far from just “learning about” the historic event,


74

children approach the event critically through the use of relevant resources (e.g. pictures, photos,

works of art, literary texts).

The aforementioned cognitive and social aims are best achieved through activities that are mainly

governed by language communication between children, with descriptions, comparisons, fact

assessments, formulation of hypotheses and development of arguments. The use of technology media

(e.g. cameras, tape recorder, computer), in addition to assisting the approach of the questions discussed,

also indirectly yet explicitly helps children comprehend the utility of technology media by their

hands-on experience (Martorella, 1994; Pahl, 1996).

The working method in Social Studies -proposed by CTIC and being at the same time its aim- is the

development of children’s ability to become familiar with an investigative method of study, conducting

small-scale research to answer questions they make themselves in the framework of the matters they

look into (Martorella, 1994). Investigation begins by defining the question and clarifying it, passes on

to formulating hypotheses, entails the accumulation of evidence from various sources and then leads to

the processing and interpretation of the result to answer the initial question or to formulate new ones.

Discussion Based on the review of CTIC for kindergarten, the conclusion is drawn that Social Studies, as integrated in

axis Manmade environment and Interaction, are a significant part of the CTIC. Through a variety of subject-matters, they enable the kindergarten teacher attain cognitive and social/emotional aims (MERA - PI, 2002β:14) related to shaping the child into a self-contained person and a socialized citizen. Emphasis is initially placed on developing the children’s ability to understand themselves and integrate into their immediate environment, procedures that are very important within Social Studies programs (Koutsouvanou, 2002). Questions related to human personality (e.g. wishes, emotions, attributes and features) diversities and basic similarities among people, including relationships with other people are discussed in this context. The aims that concern differences, which introduce cross-cultural education and a respective raising of people’s awareness as to the needs of contemporary society, are particularly important (Pantazis, 2006; Martorella, 1994).

The approach of historic subjects begins with understanding the time sequence and historical time and seems to follow the recent trends of a critical evaluation of events based on sources (O’ Hara & O’ Hara, 2001). The approach of religious affairs seems to be particularly meticulous: on the one hand, the curriculum of Greek kindergartens continues to divest itself of the intense Christian character (Vairinou & Kamaroudis, 2004), and on the other, an effort is made to bring the child in contact with the religious tradition of their land through their experiences, without being led to pietism and doctrinism, but transmitting the message of love and brotherhood of all people (Pantazis & Sakellariou, 2005). The aims that concern matters of geography, technology and science have a particularly cognitive aspect, but also provide possibilities for social extensions. Particular importance is placed on highlighting the investigative form of working when processing matters of Social Studies by the children, divided in groups, as this gives them the opportunity to arrange their work themselves,


75

as well as to develop and coordinate common efforts and a collective treatment of the problems that concern them (Martorella, 1994).

The objectives and the topics included in the program of Social Studies of the Greek kindergarten are similar to those contained in similar curricula in other countries (Bates, et al. 2010; Shumway, et al., 2009; NCSS, 2010; Turner, et al., 2013).

The possibility of a cross thematic approach of Social Studies and a cross disciplinary approach of each relevant matter demonstrates Social Studies’ connection with the wider spectrum of social life, including their relations to other sciences as regards the overall approach of each matter (Mindes, 2005).

The support in dealing with Social Studies subjects offered by the Kindergarten Teacher’s Guide (2006) is deemed rather insufficient. The guide does not provide adequate instructions on the thematic approach of national and religious holidays in multicultural classes and societies, to develop children’s political socialization, to conquer time sequence and dating, (Strataridaki, 2006; O’ Hara & O’ Hara, 2001; Pluckrose, 1993; Doliopoulou et al. 2007) etc. We consider that this section of the Kindergarten teacher’s Guide needs enrichment and we express the thought of whether we need to draft separate Kindergarten Teacher’s Guides for each CTIC branch of studies, drafted by experts on each subject-matter, as well as pedagogues/associations, to ensure a coherent working method in kindergarten.

Conclusion and Recommendations for Teaching Social Studies in the Kindergarten As a major conclusion from our study we consider that the Social Studies program within CTIC offers

many possibilities to develop children’s personality, boost their socialization and to discuss political (Oikonomidis, 2009; Seefeldt, 2005), historic (O’ Hara & O’ Hara, 2001), geographic (Owen & Ryan, 2001) religious and social (Koutsouvanou, 2002) matters that lead to shaping an active citizen (Michelli, 2005). It is a quite rich and wide program, open to issues and questions of contemporary Greek society. It is our estimate that through the approach of relevant matters under the aims set at CTIC level, the relevant program aims that concern the maintenance of national identity, the development of a democratic identity, the acceptance and respect of difference are also met (CTIC – PI, 2002β:5).

However, in order to address the shortcomings mentioned above and assist teaching Social Studies in Kindergarten we put forward the following recommendations

Basic methodological suggestions for the treatment of environmental matters in Kindergarten. To best approach matters related to Manmade and natural Environment in kindergarten, we highlight

certain good practices that kindergarten teachers have to apply: Fostering a climate of acceptance and safety in kindergarten is necessary to enable each child express

their views, present experiences, develop arguments without the fear of rejection or sarcasm by the

teacher or their classmates (Jacobs & Crowley, 2007). Particularly important is respect of children

with a different cultural background or with special needs (emotional, learning, motor needs etc).

Fostering an environment rich in stimuli that nourish thought and action will lead to pupils’

inspiration, discovery of new experiences and the formulation of new questions for matters that

concern the group. Pictures, photos, posters, books, graphs, charts, maps, audiovisual files (video,


76

CDs, internet), puppet theatre puppets, authentic material from manmade environment of recent and

past periods in time (e.g. historical or traditional objects), materials from the physical environment

and objects of the technical civilization, simple research tools, targeted visits outside the school with

a research/educational nature (e.g. museums, post office, neighborhood, forest etc), and the invitation

of adult experts at the kindergarten are also significant sources of stimuli, information and

knowledge (Mindes, 2005; Jacobs & Crowley, 2007).

Sufficient time should be allowed to children to describe, recount, interpret and defend experiences,

knowledge, information and opinions related to the subject discussed.

The subjects and activities, both group and individual ones, will begin from previous knowledge and

needs of the children, will to the best possible extent result from their interests, will be triggered by

relevant stimuli offered by the kindergarten teacher, will “activate creativeness, exchange of ideas

and will lead to new knowledge” (MERA - PI, 2002α:3). Current themes and themes related to

children’s immediate environment and the kindergarten’s society are being used.

Each subject mainly connected with Social Studies may also be approached through processes and

knowledge deriving from other branches of the CTIC –such as Language, Mathematics, knowledge

of the Natural Environment, Information Technology, applications of Arts Education- achieving

respective objectives (Seefeldt, 2001; Doliopoulou & Sousloglou, 2007). That is, the concepts of

Social Studies are approached through appropriately selected (cross-thematic) subject-matters and

each subject-matter may be approached with activities from various branches of studies

(cross-thematic, interdisciplinary), “shedding light” on several of its aspects (Chrysafidis, 2009;

Sfyroera, 2002; Seefeldt, 2001; Walmsley & Wing, 2004). The subjects coming from manmade and

social environment can be the object of projects by a group of children (D’ Addesio et al., 2005).

When processing the subject, the teacher adopts clear targets and pursuits commensurate with the

abilities and needs of pupils, to be able to appropriately systematize the process of teaching and

learning, to ensure coherence and continuance among activities and to instigate self-reliance and

investigative learning within children (Turner, et. al., 2013).

The teacher puts emphasis on covering smaller, rather than extended subjects (Turner, et. al., 2013).

As children of this age are not able to apprehend broader periods in time or variable connections of

social, historic, cultural phenomena and facts, teaching had better centre on small, clear-cut, concrete

matters, rather than broader, unclear and abstract ones. E.g. a subject would be the “fire-fighting

vehicle” or the “fire-fighter” rather than the “fire-fighting corps”; “our school” rather than

“education”; “elections” or “Polytechnio” rather than “political systems”; “polluting our beach”


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rather than “polluting the oceans”. Elaboration of these small matters will eventually make reference

and recourse to these broader issues (inductive method).

The teacher associates children’s new knowledge with their previous social knowledge. The

structural affiliation of new knowledge with already acquired one will help children develop to the

best possible extent a comprehensive knowledge of their social environment that will allow them

better understand it and make their critical integration therein stronger; e.g. associate knowledge they

have on national holidays with all people’s right to personal, social and national freedom.

The teacher stresses the relationships among ideas, events, people and places in a way to highlight

their connection with and their impact on today’s society. A typical example is man’s interaction

with the environment, with the changes that may occur on both sides: by man on the environment

and by the environment to the life of human beings.

Creating situations of reflection, with the aim to provoke and to arouse children’s investigative

impulse is one of the basic conditions for the elaboration of relevant subjects (Turner, et. al., 2013).

The teacher urges the children to search and discover knowledge, rather than providing it

himself/herself, teaching a way to investigate. The procedure of testing and misconception is

absolutely admissible and implementable when working on matters that concern the environment. It

requires the establishment of a positive pedagogic climate, in which children will express themselves,

seek and enunciate their results. It also requires the possibility to find documents, electronic media

and other kinds of information sources for natural and manmade environment, as referred to above.

In the context of the elaboration of subjects, many opportunities must be offered to children for group

and collective action, express ideas and get involved in social interactions e.g. self-formed groups or

groups formed by the kindergarten teacher to look into individual aspects of the subject discussed. Kindergarten teachers’ readiness (by reviewing their initial studies and any vocational training) (Rubin &

Justice, 2005) to implement in free spirit a new method and a wider pursuit of aims in matters of Social Studies always taught in kindergarten is a question that requires investigation. The stake is how these subjects will be treated in terms of ideology, target-setting and method: e.g. the subject of the Greek Revolution of March 25th 1821 has always been taught in kindergarten; however, now it is approached with the new perspective introduced by CTIC (integration in time, use of sources, critical approach, historic consciousness etc). Investigating how Social Studies are dealt with in kindergarten will offer us interesting relevant evidence, as kindergarten teachers claim that they find no particular difficulty in elaborating such matters and that they understand the implementation of the respective section of CTIC, yet request further support (Doliopoulou & Sousloglou 2007; Doliopoulou 2008).

In general, in the context of axis Manmade environment and Interaction, kindergarten teacher is given the opportunity to handle various subjects and to lead children to develop their personalities, achieve their


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socialization and become sensitive, democratic and active citizens. It lies therefore on the teacher –backed by valid knowledge, the right methodological approach, good knowledge of the school group and of the social context–to choose and handle together with the children Social Studies matters that both interest the children and enable them meet the aforementioned aims.

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