General Knowledge

: The Buddha

• .The Buddha also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata• 563 (Born in BC on the Vaishakha Poornima Day at Lumbini near

) .Kapilavastu in Nepal• .His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler• ( , ) 7 His mother Mahamaya of Kosala dynastry died after days of

. .his birth Brought up by stepmother Gautami• 16 . 13Married at to Yoshodhara Enjoyed the married life for years

.and had a son named Rahula• , , , After seeing an old man a sick man a corpse and an ascetic he

.decided to become a wanderer• 29 ( Left his palace at in search of truth also called ‘ ’ ) Mahabhinishkramana or The Great Renunication and wandered for 6 .years• ‘ ’ 35 ( ) Attained Enlightenment at at Gaya in Magadha Bihar under

.the Pipal tree• Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples had

. ‘ ’ settled His first sermon is called Dharmachakrapracartan or ‘ ’.Turning of the Wheel of Law• ( Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar identical with village

) 483 80 Kasia in Deoria district of UP in BC at the age of in the .Malla republic

: Buddhist Councils

• : , 483 First Council At Rajgriha in BC under the Chairmanship of ( ). Mehakassaapa king was Ajatshatru Divided the teachings of

- .Buddha into two Pitakas Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka• : , 383 ( Second Council At Vaishali in BC under Sabakami King was

). .Kalasoka Followers divided into Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas• : , 250 Third Council At Pataliputra in BC under Mogaliputta Tissa ( ) , King was Ashoka In this the third part of the Tripitaka was coded .in the Pali language

• : ( ), 72 Fourth council At Kashmir Kundalvan in AD under Vasumitra ( , - ). King was Kanishka Vice Chairman was Ashwaghosha Divided

.Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana sects : .Buddist Literature In Pali language : .Vinaya Pitaka Rules of discipline in the Buddhist monasteries

: , ’ .Sutta Pitaka Largest contains collection of Buddha s sermons : Abhidhamma Pitaka Explanation of the philosophical principles of

the Buddhist religion

Jainism

• . Jainism founded by Rishabha• 24 ( ), .There were Tirthankaras Prophets or Gurus all Kshatriyas

( : ).First was Rishabhnath Emblem Bull

• 23 ( : ) The rd Tirthankar Parshwanath Emblem Snake was the son of .King Ashvasena of Banaras

• 24 The th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira ( : ). ( , )Emblem Lion He was born in kundagram Distt Muzaffarpur Bihar 599 .in BC

• .His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan• , His mother was Trishla sister of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of

.Vaishali• .Mahavira was related to Bimbisara• , , Married to Yashoda had a daughter named Priyadarsena whose

.husband Jamali became his first disciple• 30, , .At after the death of his parents he became an ascetic• 13 ( 10 ),In the th year of his asceticism on the th of Vaishakha

, outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama he attained supreme knowledge ( ).kaivalya• , From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira and

. , . .,his followers were named Jains He also got the title of Arihant i e .worthy

• 72, , , 527At the age of he attained death at Pava near Patna in .BC

• Mahavira preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and , ( ) .added one more Brahmcharya celibacy to it

Social and Cultural Uprising

:Brahmo Samaj • 1828. Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in• , .Criticized Sati Pratha casteism and advocated widow remarriage• , He was opposed to Sanskrit system of education because he

.thought it would keep the country in darkness• ( Other important leaders were Devendranath Tagore father of

) .Rabindranath Tagore and Keshap Chandra Sen

:Arya Samaj• ( , ) 1875.Founded by Swami Dayanand or Moolshankar in• ‘ ’ & ‘ ’. His motto was Go back to the vedas India for the Indians He

, , . disregarded Puranas idol worship casteism and untouchability He .advocated widow remarriage

• ’ , Dayanand s views were published in his famous work Satyarth . .Prakash He also wrote Veda Bhashya Bhumika and Veda Bhashya

:Ramakrishna Mission• ( , ) (1863 – 1902)Founded by Vivekanand earlier Narendranath Dutta 1897, 11 in years after the death of his guru Ram Krishna

.Paramhans• Vivekanand attended the Parliament of Religion at Chicago in 1893.• ( )Irish woman Margaret Nobel Known as sister Nivedita

.popularized it

:Young Bengal Movement • (1809-31). Founded by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio He was a

.teacher in Hindu College in Calcutta• . He urged the students to live and die for truth He also

’ .supported women s education and their rights

:Veda Samaj• . Veda Samaj called Brahmo Samaj of South Started by Sridharalu

.Naidu• .He translated books of Brahmo Dharma into Tamil and Telegu

:Dharma Sabha• 1830.Initiated by Radhakant Deb in• , Was opposed to reforms and protected orthodoxy but played an

.active role in promoting western education even to girls

:Lokahitawadi • . Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh Advocated western education

. and a rational outlook He advocated female education for the .upliftment of women

• - , As a votary of national self reliance he attended Delhi durbar in 1876, .wearing handspun khadi cloth

: Servants of India Society• 1915.Formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in• It did notable work in providing famine relief and in improving

.the condition of the tribal

:Radhaswami Movement• 1861 , , Founded in by a banker of Agra Tulsi Ram popularly known

.as Shiv Dayal Saheb or Swami Maharaj• , ’The sect preached belief in one supreme being the Guru s

(supreme position and a simple social life for the believers the ).Satsangis

:Theosophical Society• Founded by Westerners who drew inspiration from Indian thought

.and culture• Madam H P Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in US 1875. , . . . .in Later Col M S Olcott of the US Army joined her

• 1882, ( ).In it was shifted to India at Adyar Tamil Nadu• 1907. Annie Besant was elected its president in She founded the

1898, Central Hindu College in which became Banaras Hindu 1916.University in

Governor Generals of India

(1828 – 1835):Lord William Bentinck • (1829) Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sati and

(1830).elimination of thugs• Made English the Medium of higher education in the country ( ).After the recommendations of Macaulay• .Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice• 1833 ; Charter Act of was passed made him the first Governor

. , General of India Before him the designation was Governor General .of Bengal

(1835 – 1836):Sir Charles Metcalfe Abolished all restrictions on ( ).vernacular press called Liberator of the Press

(1836 – 1842):Lord Auckland The most important event of his reign , was the First Afghan War which proved to be a disaster for the

.English

(1842 – 1844)Lord Ellenborough (1844 – 1848)Lord Hardinge I

(1848 – 1856):Lord Dalhousie • 1853 ( ).Opened the first Indian Railway in from Bombay to Thane• 1853 ( Laid out the telegraph lines in First was from Calcutta to

).Agra• (1848),Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara

(1849), (1852), (1853) Jaipur and Sambhalpur Udaipur Jhansi and (1854).Nagpur

• Established the postal system on the modern lines through the , length and breadth of the country which made communication .easier

• . Started the Public Works Department Many bridges were . constructed and the work on Grand Trunk Road was started The

, .harbors of Karachi Bombay and Calcutta were also developed• .Made Shimla the summer capital• .Started Engineering College at Roorkee• , , , .Encouraged science forestry commerce mineralogy and industry• 1854, “ ’ ’ , In Wood s Dispatch was passed which provided for the

properly articulated system of education from the primary school to .the university

• ’ , Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar s efforts remarriage of widows , 1856).was legalized by Widow Remarriage Act

Viceroys Of India

(1856 – 1862):Lord Canning• .The last Governor General and the first Viceroy• .Mutiny took place in his time• , 1858, .On Nov the rule passed on to the crown• .Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse

• , The Universities of Calcutta Bombay and Madras were established 1857.in

• 1861.Indian Councils Act was passed in

(1862 – 1863)Lord Elgin

(1864 – 1869):Lord Lawrence• .Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe• , High Courts were established at Calcutta Bombay and Madras in 1865.• .Expanded canal works and railways• .Created the Indian Forest department

(1869 – 1872): Lord Mayo• .Started the process of financial decentralization in India• Established the Rajkot college at Kathiarwar and Mayo College at

.Ajmer for the Indian princes• , 1871.For the first time in Indian history a census was held in• .Organised the Statistical Survey of India• Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan

1872.convict in the Andamans in

(1872 – 1876):Lord Northbrook

(1876 – 1880):Lord Lytton• .Known as the Viceroy to reverse characters• ‘ ’ 1877 Organised the Grand Delhi Durbar in to decorate Queen

‘ – – ’.Victoria with the title of Kaiser I Hind• (1878) Arms Act made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license

.for arms• (1878).Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act

(1880 – 1884):Lord Ripon• , .Liberal person who sympathized with Indians• (1882)Repeated the Vernacular Press Act• – (1882)Passed the local self government Act• & ( Took steps to improve primary secondary education on William

’ ).Hunter Commission s recommendations• , 1881, .The I Factory Act aimed at prohibiting child labour• (1883) Passed the libert Bill which enabled Indian district

. .magistrates to try European criminals But this was withdrawn later

(1884 – 1888):Lord Dufferin• .Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure

(1888 – 1894):Lord Lansdowne• (1891) II Factory Act granted a weekly holiday and stipulated

, working hours for women and children although it failed to address .concerns such as work hours for men

• , Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial Provincial and .Subordinate

• 1892 .Indian Council Act of was passed

• Appointment of Durand Commission to define the line between .British India and Afghanistan

(1894 – 1899):Lord Elgin II• 1896 – 1897. .Great famine of Lyall Commission was appointed

(1899 – 1905):Lord Curzon• (1904) Passed the Indian Universities Act in which official control

.over the Universities was increased• ( 16, 1905) 1, Partitioned Bengal October into two provinces Bengal ( ), 2. & .proper East Bengal Assam• Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to

.enquire into the police administration of every province• 1897 – 98 The risings of the frontier tribes in led him to create

( ).the North Western Frontier Province NWFP• (1904), Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection Act to restore

’ . India s cultural heritage Thus the Archaeological Survey of India .was established

• (1899) Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act and put .India on a gold standard

• .Extended railways to a great extent

(1905 – 1910): Lord Minto• . There was great political unrest in India Various acts were passed

. to curb the revolutionary activities Extremists like Lala Laipat Rai ( , 1907) ( , 1908)and Ajit Singh in May and Bal Gangadhar Tilak in July .were sent to Mandalay jail in Burma

• 1909 – The Indian Council Act of or the Morley Minto Reforms was .passed

(1910 – 1916):Lord Hardinge• , 1911 Held a durbar in dec to celebrate the coronation of King

.George V• (1911), Partition of Bengal was cancelled capital shifted from

(1911).Calcutta to Delhi• ; ( 23, 1912).A bomb was thrown at him but he escaped unhurt Dec• . (1915).Gandhiji came back to India from S Africa• .Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement

(1916 – 1921): Lord Chelmsford• 1917, August Declaration of whereby control over the Indian

.government would be gradually transferred to the Indian people• 1919 ( – The government of India Act in Montague Chelmsford

) .reforms was passed• 1919; ( 13, 1919).Rowlatt Act of Jallianwala Bagh Massacre April• – .Non Cooperation Movement• . . .An Indian Sir S P Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal• ’ 1916.A Women s university was founded at Poona in• 1917 Saddler Commission was appointed in to envisage new

.educational policy (1921 – 1926):Lord Reading

• 1910.Rowlatt act was repeated along with the Press act of• - .Suppressed non cooperation movement

• .1921.Prince of Wales visited India in Nov• (1921) .Moplah rebellion took place in Kerala• 1921.Ahmedabad session of• .Formation of Swaraj Party• 1922.Vishwabharati University started functioning in• 1921 . . .Communist part was founded in by M N Roy• 9, 1925.Kakory Train Robbery on Aug• 1923 – 25 , , , .Communal riots of in Multan Amritsar Delhi etc• , Swami Shraddhanand a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya

, .Samajists was murdered in communal orgy

(1926 – 1931):Lord Irwin• 1928.Simon Commission visited India in• 1929.Congress passed the Indian Resolution in• ( 12, 1930).Dandi March Mar• (1930).Civil Disobedience Movement• 1930.First Round Table Conference held in England in• – ( 5, 1931) Gandhi Irwin Pact Mar was signed and Civil

.Disobediance Movement was withdrawn• 64 (1929).Martydorm of Jatin Das after days hunger strike

(1931 – 1936):Lord Willington• 1931.Second Round Table conference in London in• On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience

1932.Movement was resumed in Jan• ( 16, 1932) Communal Awards Aug assigned seats to different

. religious communities Gandhiji went on a epic fast in protest .against this division

• 1932.Third Round Table conference in• .Poona Pact was signed• (1935) .Government of India Act was passed

(1936 – 1944):Lord Linlithgow• . . Govt of India Act enforced in the provinces Congress ministries

8 11 . formed in out of provinces They remained in power for about 2 1939, years till Oct when they gave up offices on the issue of

. India having been dragged into the II World War The Muslim ‘ ’ (22 )League observed the days as Deliverance Say December

• , 1940. Churchill became the British PM in May He declared that ( , the Atlantic Charter issued jointly by the UK and US stating to give sovereign rights to those who have been forcibly deprived of ) .them does not apply to India

• 1939.Outbreak of World War II in• 1942.Cripps Mission in• ( 8, 1942).Quit India Movement August

(1944 – 1947):Lord Wavell• 25, 1945 Arranged the Shimla Conference on June with Indian

; .National Congress and Muslim League failed• ( 16, 1946).Cabinet Mission Plan May• Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim

. .Govt was appointed under Nehru

• . 9,First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on Dec 1946.

( .1947 – .1947):Lord Mountbatten Mar Aug• Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free

.India• 3 .Partition of India decided by the June Plan• Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4, 1947, 15, 1947.by which India became independent on August• 1948 . (Retried in June and was succeeded by C Rajagopalachari the

).first and the last Indian Governor General of free India

Newspaper Journals

/ /Newspaper Journal Founder Editor (1780) ( ’ ) . .Bengal Gazette India s first newspaper J K Hikki . .Kesari B G Tilak

. .Maharatta B G Tilak . .Sudharak G K Gokhale

Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh Vande Mataram Aurobindo Ghosh . .Native Opinion V N Mandalik

Kavivachan Sudha Bhartendu Harishchandra ( ) Rast Goftar First newspaper in Gujarati Dadabhai Naoroji ( ) New India Weekly Bipin Chandra Pal

Statesman Robert Knight . .Hindu Vir Raghavacharya and G S Aiyar

. .Sandhya B B Upadhyaya Vichar Lahiri Krishnashastri Chiplunkar ( )Hindu Patriot Girish Chandra Ghosh later Harish Chandra Mukherji

Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Yugantar Bhupendranath Datta and Barinder Kumar Ghosh Bombay Chronicle Firoze Shah Mehta . .Hindustan M M Malviya . .Mooknayak B R Ambedkar

Comrade Mohammed Ali- - Tahzib ul Akhlaq Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan

- Al Hilal Abdul Kalam Azad- Al Balagh Abdul Kalam Azad

Independent Motilal Nehru

Punjabi Lala Lajpat Rai ( ) New India Daily Annie Besant

Commonweal Annie Besant Pratap Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi . .Essays in Indian Economics M G Ranade ( ) Samvad Kaumudi Bengali Ram Mohan Roy

- - ( )Mirat ul Akhbar Ram Mohan Roy first Persian newspaper Indian Mirror Devendra Nath Tagore

. .Nav Jeevan M K Gandhi . .Young India M K Gandhi . .Harijan M K Gandhi

Prabudha Bharat Swami Vivekananda Udbodhana Swami Vivekananda

Indian Socialist Shyamji Krishna Verma ( ) Talwar in Berlin Birendra Nath Chattopadhyaya

( ) Free Hindustan in Vancouver Tarak Nath Das . .Hindustan Times K M Pannikar

, , Kranti Mirajkar Joglekar Ghate

National Activities Part I

: The Indian National Congress• 1885 . . , Formed in by A O Hume an Englishman and a retired civil

.servant• . . 1885 (72 First session in Bombay under W C Banerjee in delegates

).attended it• (1885 – 1905), In the first two decades quite moderate in its

.approach and confided in British justice and generosity• But the repressive measures of the British gave rise to extremists

, within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal Bal Gangadhar Tilak and ( , , ).Lala Lajpat Rai Lal Bal Pal

:Partition of Bengal• 16, 1905, ,By Lord Curzon on Oct through a royal Proclamation

reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal .and Assam out of rest of Bengal

• The objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus .and Muslims

• .A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition National movement found real expression in the movement against

1905.the partition of Bengal in

(1905):Swadeshi Movement• , , , .Lal Bal Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role• , 1905INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session

. . .presided over by G K Gokhale• .Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places

(1906):Formation of Muslim League• 1906 , Setup in under the leadership of Aga Khan Nawab

- - .Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk• , It was a loyalist communal and conservative political organization

, which supported the partition of Bengal opposed the Swadeshi , movement demanded special safeguards to its community and a

.separate electorate for Muslims

:Demand for Swaraj• 1906 , In Dec at Calcutta the INC under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted ‘ ’ ( - ) .Swaraj Self govt as the goal of Indian people

(1907):Surat Session of Indian National Congress• – The INC split into two groups The extremists and The

, 1907. ,moderates at the Surat session in Extremists were led by Bal , . . .Pal Lal while the moderates by G K Gokhale

(1909):Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms• , Besides other constitutional measures it envisaged a separate

.electorate for Muslims• Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the

’ .Moderates and the Muslims to the Government s side

(1913):Ghadar Party• , Formed by Lala Hardayal Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh

. Bhakna• .HQ was at San Francisco

(1916):Home Rule Movement• . . ( , 1916) Started by B G Tilak April at Poona and Annie Besant and . , ( , 1916).S Subramania Iyer at Adyar near Madras Sept

• : – .Objective Self government for India in the British Empire• Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the

.formation of Linguistic States and education in vernacular language : .He gave the slogan Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it

(1916):Lucknow Pact• Happened following a war between Britain and Turkey leading to

- .anti British feelings among Muslims• ( Both INC and Muslim League concluded this Congress accepted

the separate electorates and both jointly demanded for a ).representative government and dominion status for the country

National Activities Part II

(1917):August Declaration • , After the Lucknow Pact a British policy was announced which

“ aimed at increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration for progressive realization of responsible government

”. in India as an integral part of the British empire This came to be .called the August Declaration

( 18, 1919):Rowlatt Act March• . This gave unbridled powers to the govt to arrest and imprison

. suspects without trial for two years maximum This law enabled the , Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus which had

.been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain• . -Caused a wave of anger in all sections It was the first country

wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the foundation of the Non .Cooperation Movement

( 13, 1919):Jallianwala Bagh Massacre April• . .People were agitated over the arrest of Dr Kitchlu and Dr

10, 1919.Satyapal on April• ’ General O Dyer fires at people who assembled in the Jallianwala

, .Bagh Amritsar• , As a result hundreds of men women and children were killed and

.thousands injured• . Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest Sir

’ .Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy s Executive Council after this• .Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it• 13, 1940, ’ On March Sardar Udham Singh killed O Dyer when the

, .later was addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall London

(1920):Khilafat Movement• Muslims were agitated by the treatment done with Turkey by the

.British in the treaty that followed the First World War• , . .Two brothers Mohd Ali and Shaukat Ali started this movement

- (1920):Non cooperation Movement• - .It was the first mass based political movement under Gandhiji• Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta session in Sept 1920.

– (1922):Chauri Chaura Incident• – ( ) A mob of people at Chauri Chaura near Gorakhpur clashed

22 5, 1922.with police and burnt policemen on February• This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Non Cooperation

.12, 1922.movement on Feb

(1927):Simon Commission• , Constituted under John Simon to review the political situation in

India and to introduce further reforms and extension of .parliamentary democracy

• , Indian leaders opposed the commission as there were no Indians .in it

• The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to . , break the popular opposition At Lahore Lala Lajpat Rai was

- . severely beaten in a lathi charge He succumbed to his injuries on .30, 1928.Oct

(1929):Lahore Session• .19, 1929 . . , , On Dec under the President ship of J L Nehru the INC at

, ( )its Lahore Session declared Poorna Swaraj Complete independence .as its ultimate goal

• .31, 1929, - On Dec the newly adopted tri colour flag was unfurled .26, 1930 , and an was fixed as the First Independence Day was to be

.celebrated every year

:Revolutionary Activities• 1897 The first political murder of a European was committed in at

, . Poona by the Chapekar brothers Damodar and Balkishan Their . , , target was Mr Rand President of the Plague Commission but

. .Lt Ayerst was accidentally shot• 1907, , In Madam Bhikaiji Cama a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the

( ).flag of India at Stuttgart Congress of Second international• 1908, In Khudiram Bose and Prafulla chaki threw a bomb on the

, . ,carriage of kingford the unpopular judge of Muzaffapur Khudiram . (Kanhaiyalal Dutt and Satyendranath Bose were hanged Alipur

).Case• 1909, . , In M L Dhingra shot dead Col William Curzon Whyllie the

“ ” .political advisor of India Office in London• 1912, In Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb

. ( ).and Lord Hardinge at Delhi Delhi Conspiracy Case• , 1924, In Oct a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India

. was called at Kanpur They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic / ( ).Association Army HSRA

• They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the - . 9, 1925.Saharanpur Lucknow railway line on Aug

• , , ( . . .Bhagat Singh with his colleagues shot dead Saunders Asst S P , ) .17,of Lahore who ordered lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai on Dec

1928.• Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the

8, 1929. , , Central Assembly on Apr Thus he Rajguru and Sukhdev . 23,1931 ( were hanged on March at Lahore Jall Lahore Conspiracy ) .Case and their bodies cremated at Hussainiwala near Ferozepur

• 1929 63 In only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after days fast to .protest against horrible conditions in jail

• , , Surya Sen a revolutionary of Bengal formed the Indian Republic . 1930, Army in Bengal In he masterminded the raid on Chittagong

. 1933.armoury He was hanged in• 1931, In Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in

.Allahabad

National Activities Part III

(1930):Dandi March• .Also called the Salt Satyagraha• 78 , Along with followers Gandhiji started his march from

12, 1930 Sabarmati Ashram on March for the small village Dandhi to .break the salt law

• .6, 1930.He reached the seashore on Apr• He picked a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil

.Disobedience Movement

(1930):First Round Table conference• It was the first conference arranged between the British and

. .12, 1930 Indians as equals It was held on Nov in London to discuss .Simon commission

• , , , Boycotted by INC Muslim League Hindu Mahasabha Liberals and .some others were there

(1931):Gandhi Irwin Pact• , , Moderate Statesman Sapru Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated

.efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government• ( )The two government represented by Irwin and INC by Gandhiji

5, 1931.signed a pact on March• In this the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and

.agreed to join the second round table conference• The government on its part released the political prisoners and

conceded the right to make salt for consumption for villages along .the coast

(1931):Second Round Table Conference• Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet British . . .P M Ramsay Macdonald

• , However the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and this time separate electorates was demanded not only by

, Muslims but also by Depressed Classes Indian Christians and Anglo – .Indians

( 16,1932):The Communal Award Aug• . Announced by Ramsay McDonald It showed divide and rule policy .of the British

• , , ,Envisaged representation of Muslims Sikhs Indian Christians , .Anglo Indians women and even Backward classes

• , , Gandhiji who was in Yeravada jail at that time started a fast .unto death against it

( 25, 1932):Poona Pact September• After the announcement of communal award and subsequent fast , .of Gandhiji mass meeting took place almost everywhere

• , . . Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya B R Ambedkar and . . .M C Rajah became active

• Eventually Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fact on ( 25, 1932).the sixth day Sept

• , In this the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes , was abandoned but seats reserved to them in the provincial

.legislature were increased

(1932):Third Round Table Conference• .Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison

,The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act 1935.

:Demand For Pakistan• 1930, , ,In Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province Baluchistan

.Sindh and Kashmir be made the Muslim State within the federation• 1923.Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in• . .Mohd Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality• Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in

1940.its Lahore session in

– 1942:The Cripps Mission• . 1941, – In Dec Japan entered the World War II and advanced

. 7, 1942, towards Indian borders By March Rangoon fell and Japan .occupied the entire S E Asia

• . - The British govt with a view to getting co operation from Indians , sent Sir Stafford Cripps leader of the House of Commons to settle .terms with the Indian leaders

• He offered a draft which proposed dominion status to be granted .after the war

• ’ Rejected by the Congress as it didn t want to rely upon future .promises

• .Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank

National Activities Part IV

1942 & :The Revolt of The Quit India Movement• .Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt• .8, 1942, . The resolution was passed on Aug at Bombay Gandhiji

‘ ’.gave the slogan Do or Die• 9, On Aug the Congress was banned and its important leaders

.were arrested• , The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and there

, being no program of action the movement became spontaneous . .and violent Violence spread throughout the country

• .The movement was however crushed

:The Indian National Army .Founded by Rasbehari Bose with Captain Mohan Singh

• . . 1941, S C Bose secretly escaped from India in Jain and reached . 1943, . , Berlin In July he joined the INA at Singapore There Rasbehari .Bose handed over the leadership to him

• The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they

. . .conquered S E Asia• ( Two INA head quarters were Rangoon and Singapore formed in

).Singapore• , INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji Azad and

. .Nehru Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force

(1946):The Cabinet Mission Plan• The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. . , The new Labour Party PM Lord Attlee made a declaration

15, 1946, ( on March that British Cabinet Mission comprising of Lord , Pethick Lawrence as Chairman Sir Stafford Cripps and

. . ) .AV Alexander will visit India• The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about

.acceptance of their proposals• 16, 1946, . On May the mission put towards its proposals It rejected

the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union .consisting of British India and the Princely States was suggested

• .Both Congress and Muslims League accepted it

( 2, 1946):Formation of Interim Government Sept• , Based on Cabinet Mission Plan an interim government consisting .2, 1946. . . of Congress nominees was formed on Sept J L Nehru was its

- - .Vice President and the Governor General remained as its President

’ ( 16, 1946):Jinnah s Direct Action Resolution Aug• Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the

Muslim League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the .constituent assembly

• , Therefore Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet 29, 1946.Mission Plan on July

• ‘ ’ , It passed a Direct action resolution which condemned both the ( 16, 1946). British Government and the Congress Aug It resulted in .heavy communal riots

• 27, 1947.Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar

( 9, 1946):Formation of Constituent Assembly Dec• 9, 1946 .The Constituent assembly met on Dec and Dr Rajendra

.Prasad was elected as its president

( 3, 1947):Mountbatten Plan June• 3, 1947, On June Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which

’ . outlined the steps for the solution of India s political problem The :outlines of the Plan were

• .India to be divided into India and Pakistan• Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP

.and Sylhet district of Assam would be held• There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to

.frame its constitution• The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or

.Pakistan or even remain independent• .15, 1947 Aug was the date fixed for handing over power to India

.and Pakistan• . 1947 The British govt passed the Indian Independence Act of in

1947, July which contained the major provisions put forward by the .Mountbatten plan

( 1947):Partition and Independence Aug• .All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan• , 562 At the time of independence there were small and big

.Princely States in India• , , Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel the first home minister used iron hand . 15, 1947, , in this regard By August all the States with a few

, exceptions like Kashmir Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the . Instrument of Accession Goa was with the Portuguese and .Pondicherry with the French

ASTRONOMY AND SPACE SCIENCE

» :Galaxies ; - Giant clusters of stars our solar system is part of galaxy called

' - .' » :Milky Way Evolution of Space : 140 . . Geocentric Theory It was founded by Ptolemy in A D It states

.that earth is at the centre of the universe- : 1453 . .Helio centric Theory It was propounded by Copernicus in A D

.It states that all celestial body revolves around the sun : ,William Herschel It showed that the sun is a member of galaxy

.the Milky Way and placed at one corner of Milky Way (1925): . Edwin Hubble He proved presence of other galaxies He also . proved that galaxies are receding constantly from each other With

), the help of analyzing red shifty Doppler Effect he also proved the .rate at which galaxies are receding

» :Big Bang Theory . It was put forth by Abbe George Lemaitre It states that the

. receding movement of galaxies is the result of implosion Big bang 12 . : -occurred at least billion years ago Evidences Discovery of back

, ,ground radiation proved by COBE cosmic background experiment , discovering uneven ripple of microwave radiation which suggests

.sudden explosion

» - :Black holes . It is extremely concentrated matter The pull of gravity is so

, , . ,powerful that nothing not even light can emerge from it So - ' . - black hole can t be seen Black hole formation indicates ultimate . ( death of a star The collapsing star core due to finishing up of fuel

), hydrogen imparts much energy to star exterior and explosion with . very high luminosity takes place After the explosion the highly . dense residue of a comparatively smaller star Mass less than equal

1.4 . to of solar mass is called as Chandrashekhar

» :Pulsating Theory - . It goes beyond Big Bang theory It says that receding nature of

, galaxy will not continue for ever and gravity would ultimately stop expansion and thereafter galaxy will collapse inward and ultimately

- . forming pre mordial substance once again

» :Event Horizon - Rim of the black hole from which nothing could . - escape Across event horizon matter and energy pass in only one . - - .direction Event horizon indicates beginning of black holes

-SOLAR SYSTEM

» :Sun 4 . billion years old Expected to glow with light and energy 4 , , to billion year more and thereafter it is expected to become

. 90% , 8%white dwarf of the substance of the sun is hydrogen helium 2% . - (4,2and other elements Nearest star to sun is Proxima Centauri ). - - (8.6light years away Brightest star seen is Sirius or Dog star ). - .light years away Visible part of sun is known as photosphere

6000 . - Temperature of photosphere is °C Core temperature of Sun is ; ' , over million of degree centigrade sun s lower atmosphere is called

( ). ' - chromosphere red Sun s upper part of at mosphere is called , . chroma it is visible only during total solar eclipse

» - :Sun spots Sun throws hot material towards photosphere and these results in - . sun spots These are transient dart marking on the visible surface

of the sun caused by a relatively cooler area and are seen between 5 35 . ° and ° North or South of the equator of the Sun Temperature - 20000 . -of sun spot is lower than the surrounding photosphere Sun

. - spot indicates volatility of sun Sun spots maxima and minima . -occur periodically Time interval between two successive sun spots

maxima or minima is

» - :Solar Flares Powerful eruptions or radiations around the sun or associated with

- . . -the sun spot This occur in the chromosphere of the sun Solar - . flares emits intense short wave radiation That intersects with the

. ionosphere of the earth This may result in temporary period and , appearance of brilliant display of Aurora at the higher latitudes of

. earth closer to Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circles Aurora is seen in . , the ionosphere of the earth Aurora is seen more frequently during - . sun spot maximum period

» - :Solar Prominence It uses gaseous eruption of the sun that -reach the corona of the sun and they are associated with the sun

. spot They can be seen only during total solar eclipse because of .brightness of sun

» - :Solar wind Ionised gas found in the form of persistent stream of charged particles blowing out of corona and sweeping over the whole solar

. , . ., , system It is made up of plasma i e ionised gas mostly hydrogen .and helium containing an equal number of protons and electrons 400 / . Solar wind blows at steady speed of km sec

» -10:Pioneer - ,It was the first man made object to leave the solar system

- 1 2 followed by Voyager and which detected the presence of solar - , .wind at the Helio pause which is at the edge of the solar system

» :Quasars , - . - It stands for Quasi stellar radio sources They are non steller body

, . resembling star emitting intense radiation It is believed to be at , the edge of universe considered as the farthest luminous

.object from earth

» - :Red shift To observer on earth ultraviolet light from receding galaxies appear -as visible light emitted by galaxy will be detected in the infra red . / - , part of the spectrum The change of colour is called red shift a

.manifestation of the Doppler Effect

» ( ):Pulsar Pulsating star - ( 1.4 5 , It is neutron star star with mass to solar mass in dyeing

), stage rotating on its axis at very high regularity emitting intense . radiation at regular intervals They are distinguished from other

, type of celestial radio sources as their emission instead of being constant over time scale of years consists of peiodic sequences of

.brief pulses

» :Meteor .It is smaller pieces of matters travelling at high speed in space

» :Meteorid ' , .If the meteor enters in earth s atmosphere it is called meteorid

» :Meteorite If the meteorid can survive atmospheric friction and falls on the

, .ground it is called meteorite

» :Meteor Shower ' / When earth s atmosphere encounters the remains debris of comet

, or larger asteroids the number of meteor that are observed each . hour increases giving the appearance of rain of stars The annual

12 . meteor shower reaches its peak on August every year

» :Leonid Shower It was a meteor shower witnessed from the , 1998, - earth in November most prominently in the far eastern region

. -of the earth This shower was due to disintegrated part of Temple, .Shuttle that entered into earth atmosphere

PLANETS Terrestrial and Jovian Planets ; ; Terrestrial planet are smaller in size rocky in structure slow rotation

. :on the axis and have lesser satellite Inner terrestrial planets are , , , .Mercury Venus Earth Mars

; Jovian planets are huge in size spin very fast and have higher . : , ,number of satellites Outer or Jovian planets are Jupiters Saturn , , .Uranus Neptune and Pluto

- ; Earth is the densest of all the planets Saturn has the lowest ( 0.5)density less than water

- .Mercury is closest to the sun- ' : < <Sequence of planets distance from the sun Mercury Venus

< < < < < Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Pluto traces elongated .elliptical orbit

, 1980-1999, .So from the distance of Neptune was more than Pluto- ( . ., ),Uranus and Venus rotates retrograde i e from east to west

( ).other planet rotates in the same way as earth from west to east- (243 ) Venus is the only planet whose period of rotation days is

(225 ) .longer than the period of revolution days around the sun- 90 , . Uranus is tilted at ° so it almost rolls around the sun Mars

23 , tilted at ° in the same way as the earth so experi¬ences four .seasons as earth

- ; Mercury is the hottest planet Venus is the second hottest planet (600 ), 02 (90%).°C atmosphere mainly made of C- ; Mars glows with reddish light because of high iron content it has

( - ), thin atmosphere containing free oxygen at very low level also has . , frozen water at polar region Due to these factors Mars is

.considered as the first planet that will be colonised- ' , Jupiter s internal temperature of Jupiter is very high close to

. starting nuclear fusion Mainly hydrogen is present around the .Jupiter

- ; (Saturn is the second largest planet it looks yellowish light due ). to the presence of ammonia Ring around Saturn is made up of

, , .dust particles frozen ice and frozen ammonia

- .Uranus grows with blue light- Neptune grows with the greenish blue light due to presence of

.methane- , , . Pluto is the coldest darkest and the strongest planet It is

smaller in size and does not fall in giant planet category

» :Satellite- .Mercury and Venus have no satellite- : Earth has one satellite moon- : .Mars has two satellite Deimos and Phobos- 19 , ,Jupiter has satellites one of the satellite known is Europa

. containing large number of deep oceans It contains possibility of - .extra terrestrial life

- 21 (10 1&2)Saturn has satellites discovered by Voyage- 17 (12 1&2)Uranus has satellite discovered by Voyage- 11,- .Neptune has one of this is tital- ' . Pluto s satellite is Charon

» :Asteroids , , Minor planets of the solar system small rocky structure revolving . around sun mostly between Mars and Jupiter These are considered

as debris of large planets existing between Mars and Jupiter as is .evident from the distance between them

: ( ) , ( ) .Earth has long history of collision with i comets and ii asteroids 65 Sedimentary rocks of million years ago have high iridium content

.which gives evidence of collision of celestial body- : 9,00,000 ,Miss distance a celestial body coming closer beyond km

. .may not strike earth This is called as miss distance

» :Comets , Member of the solar system found revolving around the sun , , beyond the path of Pluto generally at outer edges of the solar .system - Comets are made of pre mordial substance from which solar . , ,system are made Since they are undisturbed due to far location

study of comets may give more information about evolution of . ,earth or other planets Comets are made up of frozen ammonia .dust par¬ticles and ice crystals and other chemicals

- : 76 .Halley Comet appears after a period of years- : 40 .Halle Bopp one of the larg¬est comet with km diameter- : 14 .2126 . . Comet Swift Turtle calculated to collide on Aug A D in Australia- Comets making journey towards sun develop small head and long

, . tail due to heat only as it approaches Jupiter Tail extending . millions of kilometers in the outer space Tail always point away

. from the sun Solar wind is responsible for the formation of tails .since solar winds goes away from the sun

» :Syzygy ;It is the alignment of three celestial bodies along a straight line

, Viewed from one of these bodies the other two will either be in . , conjunction or in opposition An inferior planet whose orbit lies

, , inside that of earth can in reference to the sun as seen from the , ;earth be either in inferior conjunction or in superior conjunction , ' , unlike a superior planet whose orbit lies outside the earth s and , unlike the moon it can never be in opposition to the sun as seen

from the earth

Earth- , -Looks bluish white body due to the presence of ocean and ice

.caps- ' ; Earth s core is mainly made up of iron and nickle mantle is

. mostly solid Outer core due to its movement gives magnetic field of - . - earth manifested in Van alien Radiation bell Van Allen Radiation . belts are two concentric circles Inner belt is more energetic and

3000 . situated at km above the equator Outer concentric circle is 16000 . -less energetic and found at km above the earth Van Allen

- . radiation belts are formed due to concentration of solar winds

( ) - > >Fastest Rotational Period descending order Jupiter Saturn > > > > > > Neptune Uranus Earth Mars Pluto Mercury Venus

( ) - > > > >Density Highest to Lowest Earth Mercury Venus Mars > > > Neptune Jupiter Uranus Saturn

( ) - > > > >Size Biggest to Smallest Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune > > > > Earth Venus Mars Mercury Pluto

Minerals and Rocks :The Crust -There are eight abundant ele ' :ments in the earths crust 47%Oxygen

28%Silicon 8.1%Aluminium

6%Iron 4%Magnesium

2.4%Calcium 2.3%Potassium

2.1%Sodium There are eight important elements in the :whole earth

35%Iron 30%Oxygen

15%Silicon 13%Magnesium

2.4%Nickel 1.9%Sulphur 1.1%Calcium

1.1%Aluminium

ROCK TYPES . Rocks are aggregates of mineral grains or crystals They are

: (1) , (2)classified into three major types according to origin igneous , (3) . sedimentary and metamorphic

( ) I Igneous rocks (are those that solidify from a melt called , - magma a molten mixture of rock forming minerals and usually ). volatiles such as gases and steam Since their constituent minerals

, are crystallized from molten material igneous rocks are formed at . high temperatures

: Basic Characteristics 1. These are solidified from a molten . magma and water cannot percolate through them

2. They usually do not occur in distinct beds or strata like . sedimentary rocks

3. . Igneous rocks are generally not fossiliferous4. . Igneous rocks are generally granular and crystalline5. It is less affected by chemical weathering as the water does not

.percolate in them easily6. .These rocks are generally weathered by mechanical weathering

: ( ) Most of the igneous rocks consist of silicate minerals a Acidic 65 85 : .when to per cent acid igneous lack in iron

; and magnesium quartz and feldspar are common minerals and .granite is the common rock

( ) 45 60 b basic igneous rocks with to per cent silica content are - dominated by ferromag nesium minerals and have very low amount

, , .of feldspar and basalt gabbro dolerite are the examples( ) 45 c Intermediate igneous rocks have per cent silica and examples

.are diorite and andesite( ) - 45 d Ultra basic igneous rocks have less than per cent silica and

. example is Peridotite The great majority of the igneous rocks are . composed of silicate minerals and oxygen

> The major mineralogical components of igneous rocks can be : ( ) divided into two groups felsic from feldspar and silica and mafic

( ).from magnesium and ferrous iron> , , - , The felsic minerals include quartz tridymite cristo balite feldspars ( ), - ( plagioclase and alkali feldspar feldsp athoids nephelihe and

), , . leucite muscovite and corundum y Because felsic minerals lack , iron and magnesium they are generally light in colour and

.consequently are referred to as leucocratic> , , - , The mafic minerals include olivine pyroxenes amph iboles and

, .biotites all of which are dark in colour> Supersaturated minerals include quartz and its polymorphs and a

- ( - ).low calcium orthorhombic pyroxene called hyper sthene> : ( , Extrusive igneous rocks are Rhyolite felsic minerals typically

, , ); ( ,quartz feldspars and mica Andesite felsic minerals without quartz ); (usually including plagioclase feldspar and amphibole Basalt mafic , , ).minerals typically plagioclase feldspar pyroxene and olivine

> : , , .Intrusive igneous rocks are Granite Diorite Gabbro and Peridotite> : .Igneous rocks has two parts Intrusive and Extrusive

:Intrusive has seven parts . :l Plutonic - ; deep seated origin rocks ; , , , have coarse grain size diorite gabbro granite peridotite and

. syenite are examples The largest partially exposed pluton is a . batholith

2. : Hypabyssal originates due to cooling and solidification of rising .magma

3. :Batholith 'large body of igneous rock formed beneath the Earth s . -surface by the intrusion and solidification of magma A well known

, . .;batho¬lith is located in the Sierra Nevada range of California U S . Murha pahar at Ranchi is another example

4. :Laccolith , in geology any of a type of igneous intrusion that has , ; split apart two strata resulting in a domelike structure the floor of . the structure is usually horizontal A laccolith is often smaller than

. - a stock A well known example of a laccolith is found in the Henry , . Mountains Utah

5. :Sill - also called sheet tabular igneous intrusion emplaced . parallel to the bedding of the enclosing rock Although they may

, have vertical to horizontal orientations nearly horizontal sills are . the most common

6. : Stocks . with outcrop and mainly composed of granite

7. :Dykes - sheet like body which rises upward from a magma chamber and cuts discordantly through the bedding plane of the

. . country rock Dyke of Zimbabwe is the largest example

:Extrusive is of two types :Explosive type and Quiet Type ; ; Bombs are big fragments lapilli peas size tuffs are volcanic

; materials breccia or agglomerates mixture of smaller and larger .parts

> Igneous Rocks are divided into six types on the basis of textual :charcteristics

(1) ( - Pegmatitic igneous rocks very coarse grained like pegmititic , , )granites pegmatitic diorite pegmatitic synite

(2) ( - , )Phaneritic igneous rocks coarse grained like granites diorites(3) Aphanitic igneous rocks( - , , ) fine grained rocks like basalt felsite rocks of sills and dykes

(4) ( , ,Glassy igneous rocks grainless like pitch stones obsidians , )pumice perlite

(5) ( - ).Porphyritic igneous rocks mixed grained(6) ( , , FragmentaI igneous rocks consisting of bombs breccia volcanic

, ). dusts tuffs

:GRANITE> - - Coarse or medium grained intrusive igneous rock that is rich in

; quartz and feldspar it is the most common plutonic rock of the ' , ( ) Earth s crust forming by the cooling of magma silicate melt at . depth

> .Granite may occur in dikes or sills> 20 Rocks containing less than percent quartz are almost never

, 20 (named granite and rocks containing more than percent by ) , , volume of dark or ferromagnesian minerals are also seldom called . granite

> ,The minor essential minerals of granite may include muscovite , - , .biotite amphi bole or pyroxene

> : (52.3%); (31.3%); Mineral composition of granite Feldspar Quartz Mica (11.5%); (2.4 %); (2.0%) (0.55%) Hornblende Iron and others

> Granites are generally resistant to erosion but when the rocks are , well jointed they are easily weathered and very peculiar landform

, is generated called tors

:BASALTS> ( ) , Extrusive igneous volcanic rock that is low in silica content dark , .in colour and comparatively rich in iron and magnesium

> ( ), Some basajis are quite glassy tachylytes and many are very - ; , , fine grained and compact it is more usual however for them to

, ( ) exhibit porphyritic structure with larger crystals phenocrysts of , , ( -olivine augite or feldspar in a finely crystalline matrix ground

). mass> Olivine and augite are the most common porphyritic minerals in

; . basalts porphyritic plagioclase feldspars are also found Basaltic ; lavas are frequently spongy or pumiceous the steam cavities

, , become filled with secondary minerals such as calcite chlorite and .zeolites

> Basalts may be broadly classified on a chemical and petrographic : - ;basis into two main groups the calc alkali and the alkali basalts

> , ,Normal alkali basalt contains olivine and comm¬only .adiopsidicortitaniferous augite

> (46.2%); (36.9%); (7.6 Feldslpar is most dominant Augite Olivine per ); (9.5 ).cent Mineral Iron per cent

(2) :Sedimentary rocks -Sedimentary rocks are produced by the weathering of pre existing

rocks and the subsequent transportation and deposition of the weathering

: Important characteristics 1. . It contains strata or layers

2. The layers are rarely horizontal and generally tilted due to lateral .compressive and tensile forces

3. , It is formed of sediments derived from the older rocks plants and . animals remains

4. 75 . It covers the per cent of the surface area of the globe

5. .Most of the sedimentary rocks are permeable and porous

6.1 . t is characterised by different sizes of joints These are generally . perpendicular to the bedding plains

7. The riverine sedimentary rocks develop cracks when exposed to . .the sun These cracks are generally of polygonal shape

8. The most favourable sites of their formation is shallow sea floor . hording continents

9. The connecting plane bet¬ween two consecutive beds or layers of ' '. sedimentary rocks is called bedding plane The uniformity of two

( . beds along a bedding plane is called conformity i e when beds are ).similar in all respect

, When two consecutive beds are not uniform or conformal the . , ' structure is called unconformity In fact an unconformity is a break

in a stratigraphic sequence resu¬lting from a change in conditions '. that caused deposition to cease for a considerable time There are

-several types of unconformity e g( ) - ( i non conformity where sedimentary rocks succeed igneous or

),metamorphic rocks

( ) ( ii angular unconformity where horizontal sedimentary beds are ),deposited over previously folded or tilted strata

( ) ( iii disconformity where two conformable beds are seperated by ),mere changes of sediment type

( ) ( iv paraconformity where two sets of conformable beds are ) .separted by same types of sediments etc

10. Sedimentation units in the sedimentary rocks having a thickness 1 . of greater than cm are called beds The upper and lower surfaces . of a bed are called bedding planes or bounding planes Sometimes the lower surface of a bed is called sole while the upper surface is

. called upper bedding surface There are further sedimentary units . 1 within a bed The units having a thickness of more than cm are 1 called as layers or strata whereas the units below cm thickness

. are known as laminae The several strata and laminae makeup a . bed When the beds are deposited at an angle to the depositional

, - surface they are called cross beds and the general phenomena of - - .inclined layers are called cross lamination or cross bedding

11. Soft muds and alluviam deposited by the rivers during flood . period develop cracks when baked in the sun These cracks are

. generally of polygonal shapes Such cracks are called mud cracks .or sun cracks

12. Most of the sedimentary rocks are permeable and porous but a - . few of them are also non porous and impermeable The porosity of the rocks depends upon the ratio between the voids and the

. , ( volume of a given rock mass l Clastic Composed of rock and )mineral fragments

- Rock Type ( , Sandstone Cemented sand grains Conglomerate ( - ), ( Sand stone with pebbles of hard rock Mudstone Silt and clay with

), - ( ), ( , some sand Clay stone Clay Shale Clay broken into flat flakes , ; ; and plates with thin laminite rich in organic material found in

, ), ( lagoons shallow seas and tidal flats Siltstones Fine grained clastic ; ). 2. ( rock carried by rivers Chemically Precipitated From sea water or )salty inla¬nd lakes - ( ; ),Rock Type Limestone Calcium Carbonate formed by sea or lake

( ), ( , -Dolomite Magnesium and calcium carbonate Chert Silica a non ), ( crystalline form of quartz Evaporites Minerals formed by evaporation of salty solutions in shallow inland lakes or coastal

). 3. ( ). -lagoons Organic Formation due to organic material Rock Type ( ), ( ; Coal It is formed from peat Petroleum It is a mineral fuel found

), ( ; in liquid hydrocarbon Natural Gas It is a mineral fuel a gaseous ).hydrocarbon

There are three major categories in which sedimentary rocks are : ( )recognized l terrigenous , (2)clastic sedimentary rocks carbonates

( - ), (3)lime stone and dolomite and - non carbonate chemical . sedimentary rocks Terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks are

composed of the detrital fragments of preexisting rocks and

minerals and are conventionally considered to be equivalent to . clastic sedimentary rocks in general Because most of the clasts are

, rich in silica they are also referred to as siliciclastic sedimentary . - rocks Silicic lastics are further subdivided on the basis of clast

, , , diameter into conglomerate and breccia sandstone siltstone and - - - ( , , ). finer than silt sized mudrock shale claystone and mudstone The

, , carbonates limestones arid dolomites consist of the minerals , , .aragonite calcite and dolomite

( ) Limestones and dolostones dolomites make up the bulk of the . nonterrigenous sedimentary rocks Limestones are for the most part

. 50 primary carbonate rocks They consist of percent or more calcite . and aragonite Dolomites are mainly produced by the secondary

; . ., alteration or replacement of limestones i e the mineral dolomite replaces the calcite and aragonite minerals in limestones during

.diagenesis

Sandstones . are siliciclastic sedimentary rocks There are three :basic components of sandstones

(1) , , - Detrital grains mainly transported sand size minerals such as ,quartz and feldspar

(2) , " "A detrital matrix of clay or mud which is absent in clean , sandstones and

(3) a cement that is chemically precipitated in crystalline form from .solution and that serves to fill up original pore spaces

> The colour of a sandstone depends on its detrital grains and . : bonding material Mudrocks It includes all siliciclastic sedimentary

- : (1/16rocks composed of silt and clay size particles siltstone 1/256 ), ( 1/256millimetre to millimetre diameters claystone less than ), ( ).millimetre and mudstone a mix of silt and clay

> Shale refers specifically to mudrocks that regularly exhibit . lamination or fissility or both Mudrocks are also loosely referred to

.as both lutites and pelites and as argillaceous sedimentary rocks

> :Coal - Coals are the most abundant organic rich sedimentary .rock

> , With increasing compaction and carbon content peat can be : transformed into the various kinds of coal initially brown coal or

, , , ,lignite then soft or bituminous coal and finally with metamorphism . , ,hard or anthracite coal In the geologic record coal occurs in beds , called seams which are blanketlike coal deposits a few centimetres

.to metres or hundreds of metres thick> , Many coal seams occur within cyclothems rhythmic successions , , of sandstone mudrock and limestone in which nonmarine units are

, regularly and systematically overlain by an underclay the coal , .seam itself and then various marine lithologies

> : Oil and natural gas , Major natural gas varieties include , , , .methane ethane propane and butane

> , ,These natural gases are commonly though not invariably -intimately assoc¬iated with the various liquid hydrocarbons mainly

, , liquid paraffins napthenes and aromatics that collectively constitute .oil

(3) Metamorphic rocks -are those formed by changes in pre , ,existing rocks under the influence of high temperature pressure

. and chemically active solutions The changes can be chemical ( ) ( ) . compositional and physical textural in character

:Features of Metamorphic1. The change is due to change in texture and mineral composition - .of the pre existing rocks

2. , After metamorphism some rocks become more harder than its : , original structure marble is harder than limestone quartzite from

, .sandstone and diamond from carbon

3. They do not have fossils

4. - ,The coarse grained metamorphic rocks are imperfectly foliated . , - e g gneises from granites while fine grained metamorphic rocks are

, .perfectly foliated for example schist from shales

5. , - .It may split along the bedding planes for example mica schist

6. ( ) Some of them are impervious marble and slate and some of .them are previous for example gneiss

7. . Most of it comprises bands of granular quartz and felspar

Rock Type Description

1. : Slate Shale exposed to heat and pressure that splits into hard .flat plates

2. : Schist Shale exposed to intense heat and pressure that shows the evidence of shearing

3. : Quartzite Sandstone that is welded by a silica cement into a .very hard rock of solid quartz

4. : , Marble Limestone exposed to heat and pressure resulting in .larger more uniform crystals

5. : Gnesis Rock resulting from the exposure of clastic sedimentary .or intrusive igneous rocks to heat and pressure

:Chemical Composition Despite the wide variety of igneous and sedimentary rock types

, that can recrystallize into metamorphic rocks most metamorphic rocks can be described with reference to only four chemical

: , , , .systems pelitic calcareous felsic and mafic(1) Pelitic rocks ( ) are derived from mudstone shale protoliths and

( ), ( ),are rich in potassium K aluminum Al ( ), ( ), ( ), ( 20), silicon Si iron Fe magnesium Mg and water H with lesser

( ), ( ), . ( ), amounts of manganese Mn titanium Ti calcium Ca and other .constituents

(2) Calcareous rocks are formed from a variety of chemical and , . detrital sedi¬ments such as limestone dolostone etc and are ( ), ( ),largely composed of calcium oxide CaO magnesium oxide MgO

( 02), , ,and carbon dioxide C with varying amounts of aluminum silicon , .iron and water

(3) Felsic rocks can be produced by metamorphism of both ( . ., ,igneous and sedimentary protoliths e g granite and arkose

) , , , ,respectively and are rich in silicon sodium potassium calcium , .aluminum and lesser amounts of iron and magnesium

(4) Mafic rocks derive from basalt protoliths and some ,volcanogenic sediments and contain an abundance of iron

, , , .magnesium calcium silicon and aluminum

:Rock composition Thermodynamics of metamorphic assemblages1. The number of mineral phases that can coexist stably in a

-metamorphic rock at a particular set of pressure temperature .conditions is given by the Gibbs phase rule

2. A typical pelitic rock made up of the six chemical components , , , , , silica aluminum oxide ferrous oxide magnesium oxide potash and ; water would contain no more than six minerals the identity of those minerals would be controlled by the pressure and

.temperature at which recrystallization occurred3. .The process of chemical mixing is referred to as metasomatism

: Distribution metamorphic rocks The central and often dominant - ;feature of most continents is their vast Precambrian shield area

, , examples include the Canadian Shield Brazilian Shield African , . Shield and Australian Shield They consist of vast areas of granitic

. , , or granodioritic gneisses Inside them between them and . overlapping onto them are belts of sedimentary rocks These rocks

, , are frequently metamorphosed in the greenschist amphibolite and . ( granulite facies The Caledonian orogeny at the close of the

) Silurian Period produced tectonic metamorphic events along the ! , ,east coast of North America Greenland the British Isles

, , . , Fennoscandia Central Asia and Australia The Hercynian or , 300 , Variscan orogeny followed about million years ago affecting

. subparallel regions and the Urals and European Alps The rock : ,cycle It reflects the basic relationships among igneous

, .metamorphic and sedimentary rocks

( Erosion includes weathering the physical and chemical breakdown ) . of minerals and transportation to a site of deposition Diagenesis is the process of forming sedimentary rock by compaction and natural

, , cementation of grains or crystallization from water or solutions or . recrystallization The conversion of sediment to rock is termed

.lithification

' Earth s Interior ' :-1. -Sources for the study of Earth s Interior Artificial Sources

( ) a Density( ) b Pressure( ) c Temperature( ) d Meteorites

( ) : 5.52 / . 'a Average Density of Earth g cm Average Density of Earth s :2.6 3.3 / crust to g cm This indicates higher density below the crust

and because the acceleration due to gravity is quite uniform everywhere therefore mass is distributed uniformly in the form of

.concentric layers( ) ,b Pressure in itself is not responsible for the increase in density

rather the core is composed of intrinsically heavy metallic materials .of high density

( ) 2 3 100 c Temperature increases at the rate of ° to °C on every mtemperature100 1100km °C400-700 - km ISOO to WC2900 3700"km C5100 4300" ( ) ( ) km C d Meteorites hitting earth allow us to determine

, the density mineralogy and chemistry of the nickel iron core of .bodies having a similar composition to that of the earth

2. - , Theories related to the origin of earth Planetesimal Tidal and Nebular Hypothesis

3. Natural sources( ) a Vulcanicity( ) b Evidences from Seismology

- .Seismology Study of seismic waves generated during earthquakes

:-Seismic waves are of three types1. ( ' ') - Primary Longitudinal or Compressional or P waves to and fro

. motion of particles in line of the propagation of the ray These waves can pass through both the solid and the liquid medium

2. ( ) - Secondary transverse or distortional or S waves particles move . at right angles to the rays These waves cannot pass through the

. 3. ( - ' ') . liquid Surface Long Period or L waves

- Affect only the surface of the earth and covers the longest .distance of all seismic waves

It has lower speed than P and S waves but is of most violent and . destructive nature These waves get reflected and refracted while

passing through a body having hetero¬geneous composition and . varying density zones at the discontinuities Many such

-1. discontinuities are expressed as follows Gutenberg discontinuity - Between outer liquid core and the solid mantle2. - .Mohorovicic discontinuity Between crust and mantle3. - ( )Conrad discontinuity Between oceanic Basaltic or SIMA layer

( ) - 30-40 and continental Granites or SIAL layer Crust Up to km ( ).beneath the continents greater depth in mountainous regions

- 10 km deep beneath the oceans

-MANTLE 2900 . .Below the crust and up to km It is a solid layer -CORE .Outer core is liquid in state where as inner core is solid

:Chemically the earth can be divided into following layers

1. -SIAL .Just below outer sedimentary cover

> Composed mainly of granites

> - 2.9Density>50 300 . to km thick

> Rich in silica and aluminium

> .It forms the continental layer> Acidic in nature

, Silicates mainly present are those of sodium potassium and .aluminum

2. .SIMA> Below SIAL> Composed mainly of basalt> Source of magma and lava> Rich in silica and magne¬sium> -2.9 4.7Density to> - 1000 2000 Thickness to km> Basic in nature> , .Silicate mainly present are those of magnesium calcium and Iron

3. -NIFE> Below SIMA> Rich in nickel and iron> Very high density> - 6880 Diameter of this layer km> ' Indicates magnetic property of the earth s interior Mechanically

the earth can be divided into following layers

1. -LITHOSPHERE> The crust and the upper

(40 80 ) mantle to km move as a unit known as Lithosphere

> .Divided into several large fragments called plates> Moves over Asthenosphere

2. ASTHENOSPHERE> 300 Beneath Lithosphere and up to km of depth> ( Low velocity zone that is slow speed of seismic ways in this

).zone> ( , ).Plastic or less viscous softer more pliable

3. -MESOPHERE> Below Asthenosphere> Whole mantle apart from the portion lying in Asthenosphere and

.Lithosphere

4. BARYSPHERE> .It comprises core> .Outer layer is liquid in state where as the inner core is solid

:STRUCTURAL GEOMORPHOLOGY1. , Tectonics is concerned with the form pattern and evolution of the

' , , globe s major features such as mountain ranges pla¬teaus fold .belts and island arcs

2. : Structural Geology It concerns smaller structures such as , .anticlines faults and joints

3. : . Tectogenesis It means the study of deformation

4. : Tectostasy and Tectodynamic J Tricart divided tectonics into two : . categories tectostatic and tectodynamic types Tectostasy refers to

the actual disposition of existing strata and tectodynamism refers to the deformations that the rocks underwent at the given time

.period

: Uniclinal or Homoclinal Structure It represents inclined rock strata .at uniform dip angle caused by general regional tilt

They are subjected to differential erosion wherein resistant rocks .are less eroded than soft rocks The differential erosion of dipping strata of varying resistance gives birth to trellis drainage pattern and a few typical topographic

, features such as scrap and vale topography cuesta and hogback , .ridges etc

: , Cuesta also called Homoclinal Ridge physical feature that has a steep cliff or escarpment on one side and a gentle dip or back .slope on the other

This landform occurs in areas of tilted strata and is caused by the differential weathering and erosion of the hard capping layer and

, . the soft underlying cliff maker which erodes more rapidly Cuestas 40 -45 . with dip slopes of ° ° are usually called hogback ridges Cuesta

, escarpments tend to be cut into rough hilly country with numerous , ravines and steep valleys because the short streams flowing down

. the steep scarp face rapid erosion The back slopes commonly are .smooth , Cuestas are common in the United States notably in Ari¬zona and

.New Mexico and along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts

: Buttes The progressive dissection of twin cuestas results in the - .formation of isolated flat topped

: Hogback The escarpments or ridges having symetrical slopes on .both sides are called hogback ridges

: Strike vales Rivers form their valleys along soft rock beds due to comparatively more erosion than the resistant rock beds giving

.birth to the formation of strike vales

Plate tectonics

> : Plates Broad rigid segments of lithosphere that floats on the .underlying Asthenosphere

> : 100- 150 - Thickness km Tectonic activity Breaking and bending of .lithosphere and boundary interactions between plates

-Plate tectonics 1960 .Scientific achievement of the decades of s

> 2 - .Based upon concepts Continental drift and Sea floor spreading> ' ' -1 . . (1965).Term PLATE st used by Canadian Geophysicist J T Wilson> . . W J Morgan and Le Pichon elaborated the concept of plate

1968.tectonics in> ,The concept is based upon the theories of continental drift

- . paleomagnetism and sea floor spreading

:Continental Drift This theory was propounded by Wegner who was trying to explain . the past climatic changes in different regions His theory depended upon the evidences like the juxtafixation of the opposite coast of

, Atlantic presence of coalfields in temperate regions when they , could only be formed in the tropical regions evidences left by the , glacial flow of the past evidences of fossil fuels and similarity in

the lithology of the rock structure on the opposite coast of the . , Atlantic According to Wegner the continents after breaking away

( ) from the Pangea the unified landmass moved along two directions - ( ) (2) . l equatorward movement westward movement The

equatorward movement of continental blocks was caused by . gravitational differential force and force of buoyancy The westward

movement of the continents was caused by the tidal force of the .sun and the moon

, , According to Wegner the Pangea that is the complete landmass as , it was before any disruption began to sepa¬rate into

. Gondwanaland and Angaraland in the Carboniferous period The intervening space between these two giant continental blocks was

filled up with water and the resultant water body was called Tethys , Sea Gondwanaland was disrupted during Cretaceous period and

, , Indian Peninsula Madagascar Australia and Antarctica broke away - from the Gondwana landand drifted apart under the impact of tidal . . force of the sun and the moon Similarly N America broke away . ,from Angaraland and drifted westward due to tidal force Similarly South America broke away from Africa and moved westward under

.the impact of the tidal force Wegner was later criticized for his illogical consideration of the

. nature of forces behind the continental drift Later on the findings - associated with sea floor spreading and paleomagnetism clearified

.the real forces behind the movement of continents

' - :Hess s seafloor spreadine model , ' In this paper Hess drawing on Holmes s model of convective flow , - in the mantle suggested that the mid ocean ridges were the

surface expressions of rising and diverging convective flow while trenches and Benioff zones with their associated island arcs marked

. descending limbs At the ridge crests new oceanic crust would be , , generated and then carried away laterally to cool subside and

.finally be destroyed in the nearest trenches

. , . Supported and developed by Robert S Dietz J Tuzo Wilson and . , , Lynn R Sykes an American seismologist showed that the motions

deduced from earthquakes on transform faults conform to the directions of motion postulated by Wilson and are opposite those .observed on a transform fault

A magnetic survey of the eastern Pacific floor off the coast of 1961 Oregon and California had been published in by two

, . . .geophysicists Arthur D Raff and Ronald G Mason

Paleomagnetism It refers to the preservation of magnetic . properties in the older rocks of the earth It gets magnetized depending on the presence of iron content in the rock and is ( , preserved frozen at temperature below Curie point which is 600 .generally degree C

. ► The direction and inclina¬tion of the magnetic field of rocks of different ages have been measured from rock samples collected

. , from all over the world and this information can be used to as ' certain the location of the Earth s magnetic pole at the time when

. those rocks were formed The direction of the magnetic field of a given rock sample indicates the direction in which the magnetic

, pole of the Earth lay when the rock formed while the inclination of the magnetic field of the rock indicates how far away from the

. , collection site the magnetic pole was located For example if the , inclination of the magnetic field is nearly horizontal the magnetic

90 pole of the Earth must have been great circle degrees away from the collection site because the site was near the magnetic

. , equator On the other hand if the inclination of the magnetic field , of a rock is vertical the collection site would have been located at ' . or near the Earth s magnetic pole at the time of rock formation It is assumed that if enough rock samples of a given age are

, averaged together the average position of the magnetic pole will ' .be the same as the average position of the Earth s rotational pole

, 'Thus paleomagnetic poles provide the location of the planet s .rotational pole

- 95 ► The geocentric axial di pole magnetic field represents per ' . cent of earth s total magnetism Global system of Lithosphere : plates Depending upon the intensity of boundary activity plates are

, - . di¬vided into greater plates lesser plates and sub plates Greater - , ( ), ( -plates Pacific American N and S European having Persian sub

), ( - ), - plate African having Somalia sub plate Australian Indian and . - , , , ,Antarctic plates Lesser plates Nazca Cocos Philippines Caribbean

, , , , . Arabian Juan de Fucca Caroline Bismark Scotia plates Movement - of Plates Constantly in motion with respect to each other and to

' . Earth s axis of rotation Plate velocity varies all along the sphere of .the Earth

Plate Tectonics

Because all the plates move with different velocities in different , directions and manner therefore they are in dynamic action with

. respect to each other as well as along the Plate Boundaries There :-are three Types of Plate boundaries

1. .Constructive Margin or Divergent Plate Boundary- , .Zones of tension where the lithosphere splits and moves apart- ;Hot magma comes up through cracks and forms new crusts

.therefore it is constructive in nature- Thus rifting of continents and formation of ocean basins take

.place- :-This involves a series of stages

( ) - i Intracontinental Rifting Rift is formed due to tension and . magma rises into it

( ) - ii Interplate thinning Hot magma rises and melts the lithosphere . , thereby de opening the rift If rift deepens sufficiently sea water

( . . ). may enter e g Red Sea

( ) - iii Ocean ridge formation Finally magma wells into the rift at an - increasing rate and the land mass is gradually separated into two

( . . - parts forming a ridge e g Mid Atlantic Ridge and the Carlsberg ).ridge in the Indian Ocean

- ; Characterized by volcanic activity with fissure eruptions formation , , of new crust submarine mountains ridges and rises and occurrence .of shallow foci earthquakes

2. Destructive margin or Convergent Plate Boundary , ( When the plates collide the leading edge of one the plate having ) , higher density is bent downward allowing it to descend beneath

. , the other Upon entering the hot asthenosphere the plunging plate , is heated melted and is completely assimilated in the upper

. , mantle Since one of the plates is destroyed here this boundary is known as , 0 - convergent destructive margin cean There may be : different Collision Rising types of collisions depending upon whether

:-the crust of the plate is continental or oceanic( ) - ( . . i Oeean ocean collision e g collision of Pacific and European

. ). beneath the N American plate

- , ,Characterized by mountain building rock deformation , . metamorphism earthquakes and volcanic activity

- Slabs of oceanic crust along with sediments are scraped off by the - over riding continental material and are incorporated in a mass of

. ,complex mixture of rocks called a melange Within the melange - , ,distinctive assemblage of deep sea sediments submarine lavas

- .peri dotite and gabbro all together formanophiolite suite( ) - iii Continent continent collision- ( . . -When two plates carrying continental crust collides e g Indo

) , ,Tibetan collision Characterised by mountain building ophiolite suite . earthquakes and remnants of past volcanic activity

- Two continental plates approach each other and their oceanic . crusts get subducted one below the other After oceanic crust of

; one is completely consumed the oceanic crust of the other is . , .con¬sumed into the mantle Now continental crusts of each collide

, These are low density crusts and therefore do not subduct rather because of the convergence and simultaneous buoyancy effect . ( . . ) upliftment is generated E g Tibetan Plateau

- Zone where the two continental crusts are plastered is known as ( . . - ).the SUTURE Zone e g Indus Tsangpo suture zone

3. ( )Conservative Margin Parallel or Transform fault Boundary- At conservative margin the plates slide past each other without

. the formation of new crust It is generally formed at diverging ( . . ) boundaries e g MOR where different parts of plates move with

different velocity resulting in formation of faults known as Transform ( . . ).fault e g San Andreas fault

' : EARTH S MOVEMENT Endogenetic forces: The forces coming from within the earth are called as endogenetic

, , ( )forces which cause two types of movements in the earth viz i , ( ) . Horizontal movements and ii Vertical movements These movements motored by the endogenetic forces introduce various

types of vertical irregularities which give birth to numerous varieties ' , ., , ,of relief features on the earth s surface eg mountains plateaus

, , , , . , plains lakes faults folds etc On an average the origin of endogenetic forces is related to thermal conditions of the interior of

. , earth Generally the endogenetic forces and related horizontal and vertical movements are caused due to contraction and expansion of

' rocks because of varying thermal conditions and temperature . changes inside the earth The endogenetic forces and movements

, , :are divided on the basis of intensity into two major categories

( ) i Sudden forces( ) ii Diastrophic forces

Sudden forces are the result of long period preparation deep within . ' the earth Only their cumulative effects on the earth s surface are

. , quick and sudden Geologically these sudden forces are termed as ' ' constructive forces because these create certain relief features on

' .the earth s surface

Diastrophic forces include both vertical and horizontal movements . which are caused due to forces deep within the earth These

diastrophic forces operate very slowly and their effects become . discernable after thousands and millions of years These forces also

, termed as constructive forces affect larger areas of the globe and - , , , , ,Produce meso level reliefs for example mountains plateau plains

, , . lakes big faults etc These diastrophic forces are further subdivided , , into two groups namely epeirogenetic movements and orogenetic

.movements

( ) :A Epeirogenetic movements Epeirogenetic word consists of two , : ' ' ( - ) ' 'words viz epiros meaning thereby con tinent and genesis

( ). meaning thereby original Epeirogenetic movement causes upliftment and subsidence of continental masses through upward , , . movements are infact vertical movements These forces and

. resultant movements affect larger parts of the continents These are : further divided into two types upward movement and downward

. movement

( ) B Orogenetic movement: The word orogenetic has been derived , ' ' ( ) from two Greek words pros meaning thereby mountain and

' ' ( ). genesis meaning thereby origin or formation Orogenetic movement is caused due to endogenetic forces working in . horizontal movements Horizontal forces and movements are also

. called as tangential forces Orogenetic or horizontal forces work in , , ( ) , ( ) two ways namely i in opposite direction and ii towards each . ' ' other This is called tensional force when it operates in opposite

. directions Such type of force and movement are also called as . , , ,divergent forces Thus tensional forces create rupture cracks

. - fracture and faults in the crustal parts of the earth The force when , operates face to face is called compression force or convergent

. force Compressional force causes crustal bending leading to the formation of fields or crustal warping leading to local rise or . : subsidence of crustal parts Crustal bending When horizontal forces

, work face to face the crustal rocks are bent due to resistant . : ( ) ,compressional and tangential forces It is in two ways i warping

( ) . and ii folding The process of crustal warping affects larger areas of the crust wherein the crustal parts are either warped

( ), . raise upward or downward The upward rise of the crustal part due to compressive force resulting from convergent horizontal

. movement is called upwarping While the bending of the crustal part downward in the form of a basin or depression is called down

.warping

:Folds - Folds are wave like bends formed due to tangential compressive forces resulting from horizontal movement caused by the

. endogenetic force originating deep within the earth The two sides . of a fold are called limbs of the fold The limb which is shared

. companion syncline is called middle limb The plane which Dissects the angle between the two limbs or middle limb of the syncline is

. called the axis of fold or axial plane On the basis of anticline and , syncline these axial planes are called as axis of anticline and axis

. of syncline respectively The inclination of rock beds with respect to ' ', horizontal plane is termed as dip the angle of dip is measured

. with an instrument called clinometers The strike of an inclined bed . is the direction of any horizontal line along a bedding plane The

.direction of dip is always at right angle to the strike

: . Anticlines The unfolded rock beds are called anticlines: Synclines Downfold rock beds due to compressive forces caused by . horizontal tangential forces are called synclines

: Anticlinorium It refers to those folded structures in the regions of folded mountains where there are a series of minor anticlines and

. synclines within one extensive anticline

: Synclinorium It represents such a folded structure which includes an extensive syncline having numerous minor anticlines and

. synclines

: Monoclinal folds These are those in which one limb inclines moderately with regular slope while the other limb inclines steeply

. at right angle and the slope is almost vertical

: Isoclinal folds When the compressive forces are so strong that both .the limbs of the fold become parallel but not horizontal

: Recumbent folds These are formed when the compressive forces are so strong that both the limbs of the fold become parallel as . well as horizontal

: Overturned folds These are those folds in which one limb of the .fold is thrust upon another fold due to intense compressive forces

. Limbs are seldom horizontal

: , Plunge folds These are found when the axis of the fold instead of , being parallel to the horizontal plane becomes tilted and forms plunge angle which is the angle between the axis and the

. horizontal plane

: .Fan folds These with anticlinorium or obtuse angle

: ' Open folds These are those in which the angle between the two 90 limbs of the fold is more than degree 180 but less than degree

: Closed folds These are those folds in which the angle between the . two limbs of a fold is acute angle Such folds are formed because

. of intense compressive force

' Earth s Interior

:NAPPES ► Nappes are the result of complex folding mechanism caused by

.intense Horizontal movement and resultant compressive force .► Both the limbs of a recumbent fold are parallel and horizontal , ► Due to further increase in the continued compressive force one

limb of the recumbent fold slides forward and overrides the other . ' ' fold This process is called thrust and the plane along which one ' '.part of the fold is thrust is called thrust plane

. ► The upthrust part of the fold is called overthrust fold Due to , continuous compressive and horizontal movement the bro¬ken limb

of the fold is thrown several kilometers away from the original . ' '.place Such broken limb of the fold is called nappe

CRUSTAL Fracture ► Crustal fracture refers to displacement of rocks along a plane

due to tensional and compressional forces acting either horizontally . or vertically or sometimes even in both ways Crustal fracture

.depends on the strength of rocks and intensity of tensional forces , : ( ) , ( ) .Generally fractures are divided into i joints and ii faults

► A joint is defined as a fracture in the crustal rocks where¬in no , appreciable movement of rock takes place whereas a fracture

becomes fault when there is appreciable displace¬ment of the - rocks on both sides of a fracture and parallel to fault a fault is a

fracture in the crustal rocks due to tensional movement caused by . :the endogenetic forces Different components of a fault

Fault Dip: It is the angle between the fault plane and hori¬zontal .plane

:Up thrown side . It represents the uppermost block of a fault :Downthrown side .It represents the lowermost block of a fault

:Hanging wall .It is the upper wall of a fault :Foot wall . : It represents the lower wall of a fault Fault scarp It is

- . the steep wall like slope caused by faulting of the crustal rocks :Normal faults These are formed due to the displacement of both

- . ,the walls in op¬posite directions due to frac ture Consequently . 45 there is great stress The fault plane is usually between o and

.the vertical Reverse faults: These are formed due to the movement of both

. the fractured rock blocks towards each other The fault plane in a 40 reverse fault is usually inclined at an angle between ° and the

. : horizontal Step faults When a series of faults occur in any area in such a way that the slopes of all the fault planes of all the faults

, are in reverse direction the resultant faults are called as step .faults

:RIFT VALLEY Rift valley is a major relief fea¬ture resulting from faulting

. , activities Rift valley represents a trough depression or basis . between two crustal parts Rift valleys are actually formed due to

displacement of crustal parts and subsidence of middle portion . between two normal faults Rift valleys are generally also called as

' ' -graben which is a German word which means a trough like . , :depression A rift valley may be formed in two ways viz

( ) i When the middle portion of the crust between two normal faults is dropped downward while the two blocks on the either side of the

.down dropped block remain stable( ) ,ii When the middle portion between two normal faults remains

stable and the two side blocks on either side of the middle portion .are raised upward

- Rhine rift valley is the best example of a well defined rift valley . ( ) Death valley in the southern California USA The floor of the Jordan

. , rift valley and Death sea The Narmada valley the Damodar valley , . and some stretches of the Son valley the Tapti valley The central , , . plain of Scotland Spencer Bay of Australia etc are examples of rift

.valleys

Volcanicity Covers all processes in which molten rock material or magma rises

. into the crust or is poured out on its surface and solidifies Three :-main processes

1. Generation of Magma2. Intrusion of masses of magma3. . - Extrusion of molten material on to the surface Magma A

, molten silicate material which is a combination of liquid solid and . gas Its generation is a result of complex interaction of increase in

, (temperature decrease in pressure and addition of water water ).increase the melting point of most silicates

The volcanic material is known as MAGMA below the surface and , , , separates into lava gases vapor ashes and fragmented material as

. , it emerges on the surface Generally the molten materials are .called magma below and lavas above the surface

Fragmental or Pyroclastic materials are thrown during explosive . types of eruption On the basis of size pyroclastic materials can be

:- < < < represented as Volcanic Dust Volcanic Ash Lapillis Volcanic Bombs

Constituent of Magma- : ( ) - Two most important constitu¬ents Silica Si and water Other

- , , , , , , , . -elements Na Si K Al Fe Ca Mg and gases Steam and Vapour 69-90% .of the total gases

.Steam and Vapour comprises phreatic and the magmatic vapor .Phreatic vapor comes from the water in the Phreatic Zone , , Magmatic vapor comprises carbon dioxide nitrogen oxide sulphur

, . -dioxide hydrogen and carbon monoxide etc Other Compound , , ,Sulphurated Hydrogen Hydrochloric acid Volatile chlorides of Iron

.Potassium and other metallic matter

:Types of Volcanoes :They are classified on the basis of

( ) i Mode of eruption( ) .ii Period of eruption and the nature of their activities

,♦ On the basis of the mode of eruption Volcanoes can be - :sub classified as

( ) ( i Central Eruption type of Explosive Eruption Type through a central pipe or small opening accompanied with violent and

).explosive gases( ) ( . . ii Fissure Eruption type or Quiet Eruption type e g mid oceanic

). :-ridges This type can further be divided into following types- ( ) - Lava flood or Lava flow highly fluid lava Mud Flow- ( ) Fumaroles of gases issuing from a small hole Central eruption

:--type of volca¬noes can further be divided into following types ( ) - HAWAIAN quiet and nonviolent having long glassy threaded red

' .( . .- )lava known as Pele s hair e g Kilavea in Hawaii- ( )- STROMBOLIAN erupts with moderate intensity Eruption comprises , , , - ( of lava pumice scoria and bombs etc VULCANIAN erupts with

)- great force and intensity Highly viscous lava ash laden with . - ( )-volcanic clouds PELEEAN most violent and explosive type Domes

are formed due to eruption and successive eruption blows off these .domes

- ( - VESUVIUS extremely vio¬lent Enormous volume of explosive . - ( ). gases is given off PLINIAN most destructive

,♦ On the basis of periodicity of eruptions -they can be sub : - : , .classified as follows ACTIVE constantly ejects lavas ashes etc

( . .- . e g Etna and Stromboli Stromboli is known as the light house of .)the Mediterranean

- : .DORMANT which are quiet for some time and may suddenly erupt ( . .- ) E g Vesuvius

- : .EXTINCT these do not have any indications of future eruptions

:World Distribution Distribution of volcanoes in the world can be - :-explained through classification into fol lowing systems

1. . .: - - (Linear Volcanoes e g Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain Pacific ). - ( ) - -Ocean Line Tuamotu Chain Pacific Ocean and Austral Marshall ( ).Gilbert Chain Pacific Ocean

2. . . , ( )Chain Volcanoes e g Andes Cascade Mountains USA3. : . . , , , ,Cluster Volcanoes e g Madeira Galapagos Canaries Azores

.Mauritius and Reunion etc4. : . . Ridge Volcanoes e g Mid oceanic ridges and rises

: . . , , , , Arc volcanoes e g Kurile Kamchatka Japan Philippines Sulawesi ( ), , , , Celebes New Guinea Solomon Islands New Caledonia New

, , , , , Zealand Java Bali and Sumatra Lesser Antilles Scotia Tyrrhenian .and Aegean Seas and Aleutian Is

:-Various Volcanic Belts

1. - ( Circum Pacific Belt Fire Girdle of the pacific or the fire ring of ) ( . . , ,the Pacific Island arcs and Festoons E g Sakhalin Kamchatka

, , , , Japan Philippines Aleutian Island Hawaii some Highest volcanic - ( . ), ( ), , Peaks Cotopaxi S America Fujiyama Japan Shasta Rainier and ( . . ), Hood W Cordillera of N America Valley of ten thousand smokes

( ), . . ( ), ( ), . , Alaska Mt St Helens USA Kilavea Hawaii Mt Taral Pinatubo ( ).and Mayon Philippines

2. - ( Mid Continental Belt Volcanic Zones of convergent continental ) . , ,plate margins Volcanes of Alpine Mt Chains Mediterranean Sea , ( , , , ,Agean Sea Fault zone of Africa Kilimanjaro Mem Elgon Birunga .)Rungwe etc

3. - - ( ) , , Mid Atlantic Belt Hekla Iceland Lesser Antilles Southern , , . , . ( ) .Antilles Azores St Helena Mt Pelee Martinique in Caribbean Sea

4. - , Intra Plate Volcanoes various chain volcanoes Columbia , , . plateau peninsular India Parana of Brazil and Paraguay Flood

Basalts and Shield Volcanoes

Geologists postulate that at various points beneath the lithosphere there occur mantle plumes which are isolated columns of heated

. rock rising slowly within the asthenosphere Directly above a mantle , plume crystal basalt can be heated to the point of melting and . - .produce a Magma pocket The site of Magma is called a hot spot

Where a mantle plume liese beneath a continental lithospheric , plate the hot spot may generate enormous volumes of basaltic lava that accumulate layer upon layer and is known as Flood

. Basalts Hot spots also form above mantle plumes in the oceanic . lithosphere The emerging basalt builds a class of volcanoes known

.as shield volcanoes

( )Volcanic Features Topography produced by vulcanity( ) a Extrusive( ) i From Explosive type of Eruption( ) ii From Fissure type of Eruption

Features formed due to the explosive type of eruption can be . -divided into Elevated and Depressed forms Elevated Forms Cinder

( )or ash cones low height and formed of volcanic dusts- ( ) - Composites Cones highest of all cones stratification of different

- ( materials Parasite Cones several branches of pipes come out from ) - ( ) ( the main central pipe Basic lava cones shield cones high degree

of fluidity of lava produces a long cone with significantly low )height

- ( )Acid Lava cones highly viscous lava produces high cones- ( Lava Domes similar to shield cones but are larger and more

).extensive- ( Lava Plugs Plugging of volcanic pipes and vents when volcanoes

) become extinct Depressed Forms- ( )Craters crater lakes- Calderas( ) ( ) b Intrusive these can be concordant or discordant Concordant are

.those which have boundaries parallel with beddings of the rocks .Those which cut through the bedding are known as Discordant

( ) :i Major intrusive features are

:♦ Concordant features- - Lopoliths Saucer like bodies concordant to the structure of the

. ( . . ( ) ( . ))rocks and of enormous size e g Duluth USA Bushveld S Africa

:♦ Discordant features - ( Batholiths or Bathyliths very large deep . )seated discordant intrusions Largest intrusive bodies

- - . Bosses and stocks small intrusions similar to batholiths Bosses .have circular whereas stocks have irregular intrusions

( ) :ii Minor intrusive features

♦ Concordant features- - .Sills thin sheet like intrusions injected between bedding planes- - Laccoliths when viscous magma pushes into overlying strata and

.is bent upward to form a done- - Bysmaliths Faulted variants of laccoliths

-♦ Discordant features ( Dykes Vertical instrusions cutting across ).bedding planes

- ( Volcanic Necks Eroded remnant of solidified lava which formerly ).filled the vent of a volcano

- ( Diapirs These are formed from domes when the overlying rocks . are ruptured and the intrusive body forces upwards An earthquake

is a ruthless demonstration of the power of the tectonic forces .caused by endogenetic thermal conditions

Earthquake The earthquake is a form of energy of wave motion transmitted

through the surface layer of the earth in widening circles from a , . point of sudden energy release the focus The point within the earth where earthquakes are generated is called focus or

. ' hypocenter The point on the earth s surface directly above the .focus is called the epicenter : .Four types of earthquake waves are found three discovered by R

. , . . D Oldham and one later by Augustas E H Love

, Basically they may be divided into two chief kinds of seismic :waves

(1) Body waves and(2) .Surface waves

(1) - : BODY WAVES , The fastest seismic waves move through the . .earth Slower surface waves travel along the surface of the earth - . Body waves tend to cause the most earth quake damage There

: are two kinds of body waves

(1) compressional waves and

(2) . shear waves

, As the waves pass through the earth they cause particles of rock . -to move in different ways Compressional waves push and pull the

. rock They cause buildings and other structures to contract and . ,expand Shear waves make rocks bend or slide from side to side

. ,and buildings shake Compressional waves can travel through solids , , .liquids or gases but shear waves can pass only through solids

,Compressional or longitudinal waves are the fastest seismic waves . ,and they arrive first at a distant point For this reason

( . compressional waves are also called primary PI waves ie„ they . 5 8have shortest wavelength among the four Their velocity is to

. km per second They can travel through liquids and solids but . travel faster in denser solid media These waves are like sound waves and cause any rock in their path to compress and then . expand in the same direction as the waves are travelling Primary

'waves undergo refraction and reflection at the margin of earth s . outer lighter shell and inner dense core Secondary or S waves , which are of medium wavelength are also called Shake or Shear . , , waves Shear waves which travel slower and arrive later are called

( ) . secondary S waves Body waves travel faster deep within the . , , 25earth than near the surface For example at depths of less than

, 8 kilometers compressional waves travel at about kilometres per , .8 . second and shear waves travel at J kilometres per second At a

1,000 , 11/2 depth of kilometres the waves travel more than times . that speed

(2) :SURFACE WAVES , . are long slow waves They produce what people feel as slow rocking sensations and cause little or no . : (1) damage to buildings There are two kinds of surface waves Love

(2) . , . . .waves and Rayleigh waves Love waves named after A E H 1911, ' Love in travel through the earth s surface horizontally and . , move the ground from side to side Rayleigh waves named after

1885, Lord Rayleigh in makes the surface of the earth roll like . 4.4waves on the ocean Typical Love waves travel at about

, , kilometers per second and Rayleigh waves the slowest of the , 3.7 .seismic waves move at about kilometers per second

:Damage by Earthquakes(1) : , Fault Slippage Near a fault both the shifting of large blocks of

' , , the earth s crust called fault slippage and the shaking of the . ground due to seismic waves cause destruction The rock on either

side of a fault may shift only slightly during an earthquake or .several meters

(2) : , , Liquefaction In areas with soft wet soils a process called . liquefaction may intensify earthquake damage Liquefaction occurs

when strong ground shaking causes wet soils to behave temporarily . like liquids rather than solids Anything on top of liquefied soil may . sink into the soft ground The liquefied soil may also flow toward , . (3) . lower ground burying anything in its path Tsunamis An

earthquake on the ocean floor can give a tremendous push to , surrounding seawater and create one or more large destructive

, , waves called tsunamis also known as seismic sea waves other .horizontally

:Causes of Earthquake(1) Continental Drift(2) - Sea floor Spreading(3) Plate Tectonics(4) Isostasy and Faulting(5) : Hydrostatic Pressure and Anthropogenic Causes The introduction of additional artificial superincumbent load through the construction of large dams and impounding of enormous volume of water in bog

reservoirs behind the dams cause disequilibrium of already -isostatically adjusted rocks below the reservoirs or further augment

the already fragile structures due to faults and fractures

.underneath(6) : (1) : Volcanicity Measuring Instruments Seismograph The first

electromagnetic seismograph was constructed by Italian scientist in 1855. -But the first modern seismograph was devised by John Milne 1880, ' '.in the author of the book Earthquake and Other Movements .It is based on the principle of pendulum

( ) i Seismoscope is a qualitative device to indicate the arrival of an earthquake with human perception may not register if the 1 / acceleration is less than cm s the minimum acceleration felt by

.human beings( ) , , ii Seismograph on the other hand records an earthquake and this

. piece of recording is called a seismogram A telegraph is what a . seismogram to seismograph is

( ) .iii Seismometer lies between a Seismoscope and a seismograph The movements of the device are calibrated with known earthquake

. ' :parameters Oldham s array of wooden cylinders is a Seismoscope(2) : , Accelerographs are specifically designed to measure the

direction and intensity of ground motions during an earthquake for .application to earthquake engineering

(3) : .Inverted Pendulum are used in the seismograph(4) : Chronograph the paper component of a seismograph is called a

chronograph which consists of a drum rotating at a controlled - constant speed around which a time marked paper moves like a , . conveyor belt just touching the stylus

:Measurement of Earthquake (1) : Richter scale Probably the - - best known gauge of earth quake intensity is the local Richter

, 1935 magnitude scale developed in by United States seismologist . , Charles Francis Richter This scale commonly known as the Richter

, .scale measures the ground motion caused by an earthquake 1 9, It is a logarithmic scale that runs from to though no upper

; 7 10 limit exists a magnitude quake is times more powerful than a 6 , 100 5magnitude quake times more powerful than a magnitude

, 1000 4 , quake times more powerful than a magnitude quake and so . 800 5 6 on An estimated quakes of magnitudes to occur annually

, 50,000 3worldwide in comparison with about quakes of magnitudes 4, 8 9. to and only about one earthquake of magnitudes to Until

1979 8.5 an earthquake of magnitude was thought to be the most ; , , powerful possible since then however improvements in seismic measuring techniques have enabled seismologists to refine the

, 9.5 . scale and is now considered to be the practical limit Every increase of one number in magnitude means the energy release of

32 . , the quake is times greater For example an earthquake of 7.0 32 magnitude releases times as much energy as an earthquake 6.0. 2.0 measuring An earthquake with a magnitude of less than is

. so slight that usually only a seismometer can detect it A quake 7.0 . 10greater than may destroy many buildings There are about

times as many quakes for every decrease in Richter magnitude by . , 10 one unit For example there are times as many earthquakes with

6.0 7.0.magnitude as there are with magnitude The largest earthquake ever recorded on the moment magnitude 9.5. scale measured It was an interplate earthquake that occurred 1960. along the Pacific coast of Chile in South America in The . largest intraplate earthquakes known struck in central Asia and in

1905, 1920, 1957. the Indian Ocean in and They range between about 8.0 8.3.and

(2) : 1800 Mercalli Scale It was introduced in s by the Italian , seismologist Giuseppe Mercalli measures the intensity of shaking

. with gradations from I to XII Because seismic surface effects , diminish with distance from the focus of the quake the Mercalli

-rating assigned to the quake depends on the site of the mea. surement Intensity I on this scale is defined as an event felt by

, very few people whereas intensity XII is a catastrophic event that . causes total destruction Intensities II to III on the Mercalli scale are 3 4 , roughly equal to magnitudes to on the Richter scale and XI to

8 9.XII to to

(3) - : Rossi Forel Scale It is a scale for rating the intensity of , 1878. earthquake shocks devised in It was modified by the Mercalli

.Scale

:MOUNTAINS ,600 (2000 ) Anything above m ft can be regarded as amount . mountain Hill is smaller than mountain but no specific definition for . : absolute elevation A mountain may have several forms Mountain

: , . , ridge It is a system of long narrow and high hills Generally the slope of one side of a ridge is steep while the other side is of

moderate slope but a ridge may also have symmetrical slopes on .both the sides

: Mountain range It is a system of mountains and hills having , , . : several ridges peaks summits and valleys Mountain chain It consists of several parallel long and narrow mountains of different .periods

: Mountain system It consists of different mountain ranges of the . .same period Different mountain ranges are separated by valleys

: Mountain group It consists of several unsystematic patterns of .different mountain systems

: ,Cordillera It is a community of mountains having different ridges , . ranges mountain chains and mountain systems The mountainous region of the western part of North America is the best example of

.a Cordillera

:Classification of Mountains (1) :On the basis of HEIGHT(1) : 700-1000 ;Low mountains height ranges between m( ) : - 1000 -1500 ;ii Rough mountains height m m( ) : - 1500-2000 ;iii Rugged mountains height m( ) : 2000 .iv High mountains height above m

(2) On the basis of LOCATION( ) :i Continental mountains( ) : - , a Coastal mountains Examples are Appalachians Rockies Alpine

, , .mountain chains Western and Eastern Ghats of India etc( ) : - ( ),b Inland mountains Examples are Ural mountains Russia

( ),Vosges and Black forest block mountains Europe

: Block mountains These are originated by tensile forces leading to . the formation of rift valleys They are also called as horst

.mountains

: Dome mountains These are originated by magmatic intrusions and . : , upwarping of the crustal surface Examples are normal domes lava

, , , .domes batholithic domes laccolithic domes salt domes

: Mountains of Accumulations These are formed due to accumulation . ( . ., of volcanic materials Different types of volcanic cones e g cinder

, , , .) cones composite cones basic lava cones etc come under this .category

( ) ( ) - : -e ii Circum erosional or Relict mountains Examples are , , , , ,Vindhyachal ranges Aravallis Satpura Eastern ghats Western ghats

. ( ).etc all from India

(3) :On the basis of PERIOD OF ORIGIN( ) - :i Pre Cambrian mountains( ) - , ,h Examples are Laurentian mountains Algoman mountains

, . ( ), -Kilarnean mountains etc North America mountains of Feno, , . ( ).Scandia Northwest highlands and Anglessey etc Europe

( ) :ii Caledonian mountains These are the mountains formed during Silurian and Devonian . - periods Examples are Taonic mountains of the Appalachian , , ( ),system mountains of Scotland Ireland and Scandinavia Europe

- , , , , . Brazi lides of South America Aravallis Mahadeo Satpura etc of .India

( ) :iii Hercynian mountains These are the mountains formed during Permsari and

. - Permocarboniferous periods Examples are mountains of Iberian , , , , ,peninsula Ireland Spanish Messeta Brittany of France South Wales

, , , ,Cornwall Mendips Paris basin Belgian coalfields Rhine Mass

, , Bohemian plateau Vosges and Black forest Frankenn Hartz , ( ), mountain Donbas coalfield all in Europe Varsican mountains of

Asia include, , , , , , Altai Sayan Baikal Arcs Tien Shan Khingan Tarim basin Nanshan . Alai and Trans Alai mountains of Amur basin North American

; Variscan mountains include Applachians South American Variscan ,mountains are Austrian and Saalia folds of San Juan and Mendoza , , ( )mountains of Puna are of Atacama Gondwanides of Argentina iv

: Alpine mountains These are the mountains formed during tertiary . - ( ), (period Examples are Rockies North America Andes South ), ( ,America Alpine mountain systems of Europe mainly Carpathians , , , .), - ;Pyrenees Dinaric Alps etc Atlas mountains of north west Africa ( ,Himalayas and mountains coming out of Pamir Knot of Asia Taurus

, , , , .). -Pauntic Zagros Elburz Kunlun etc Atlas mountains of north west .of Africa

:BLOCK MOUNTAINS . Motored by endogenetic forces coming from within the earth Block

, . .:mountains are basically of two types e g ( ) i tilled block mountains having one steep side represented by

, ,fault scarp and one gentle side and ( ) ii lifted block mountains represent real horst and are

characterized by flattened summit of tabular shape and very steep . side slopes represented by two boundary fault scarps Block

. mountains are also called as horst mountains Block mountains are , :found in all the continents for example

( ) ,i young block mountains around Albert Warner. ,P Klamath lakes in the Steens mountain district of South Oregon

, . .Wasatch range in Utah province etc in USA( ) ii Vosges and Black forest mountains bordering the faulted Rhine

.rift valley in Europe ( ) , . iii Salt range of Pakistan etc Sierra Navada mountain of

( ) California USA is considered to be the most extensive block .mountain of the world and movement of side blocks

:FOLDED MOUNTAINS Folded mountains are formed due to folding of crustal rocks by

compressive forces generated by endogenetic forces coming from . within the earth

: ( ) ;Its features are a They are found in great height( ) ;b Highest and extensive( ) ;c The width is less than height( ) - ; d Arrow like shape( ) e Faults are common cause of mountain uplift and faults in turn

;are due to shrinking of the crust( ) ;f Fossilsare being found

( ) ; g Highest peaks are found in folded mountains( ) ;h Folded mountains are the youngest on the surface of the earth( ) - ;i Basically found in the form of sedimentary rqc ks0) :Have been Phanerozoic formed in long and shallow seas

; ( ) Geosyncline k Are generally formed in arc shape having one side ;concave slope and the other convex slope

( ) l Are found along the Archean margins of the continents facing ; : , , , -ocean Young Fold Mountains Himalayas Alps Rockies A ndes

:Old Fold Mountains, , , Pennines Appalachians Cape Ranges of South Africa Great Dividing

- .Ranges of A ustralia: , . : (8848 .); ;Oldest Scotland Norway Asia Himalayas m Arakana Yoma

; ; ; ; ; ; ;Sulaiman Hindukush Zagros Elburz Pontus Taurus Kunlun (861 .). : (5630 .); ; ;Karakoram lm Europe Caucasus m Balkan Carpethian

(4810 .); ;Alps m Dinaric Alps 100 ., ., mass by a few m for eg Western Patlands of Ranchi and

( )- ;Palamu India Jharkhand

( ), . ., ,► Due to the deposition of the lava volcanic e g Dexcan trap ( ), Entream of Ireland Columbian plateau USA Mahabalsstuvar and

. ;Panch gani It is formed due to depo sition of basaltic lava , ► Due to the adjoining areas which are not folded but are raised

, ., - during the process of mountain building eg Cumber land plateau ;to the west of Apalachian mountains - ► Because of the marginal sediment of geo syncline are folded into

, ., ,parallel ranges eg Tibetan plateau between Kunlun and Tienshan , and Himalayas Iranian plateau between Zagros and Elbruz

, mountains Anatolian plateau between Pontus and Taurus mountains ( );Turkey : ► Erosional or dissected plateau thick deposits of loose materials of

. .wind also form plateau Loess plateau of China is the best example : . Classification of plateaus There are ten types of plateaus According

:-( ) :to mode of origin a Simple plateau - :► Plateaus formed by exoge netic factor : ( ) : - It is of three types i Glacial plateau Examples are Garhwal

, .plateau Greenland , ; ( ) : -land plateau Marg of Kashmir ii Aeolian plateau Examples are

( ) ( ) ; ( ) : Potwar Pak and Loess China plateaus iii Fluvial plateau It is . - , , ,formed due to the rivers Examples are Bhandar Kashmir Rewa ;Rohtas and Panna plateaus

: ► Plateaus formed by endogenetic factors It is of the following : ( ) : :types I Intermontane plateau Features of these plateau are

- ; - Highest and most extensive plateau on the globe It is caused by - , upwarping of the middle portion of geosyn cline known as median

; : : (5000 ) mass Example Tibetan plateau highest m and most (20,64,000 . .) . extensive sq km plateau of the world It is also called the

' '. : - : roof of the world It is surrounded by Kunlun mountain North - : - : - :Himalayas South Kunlun and Himalayas West Chinese mountain

:East Many rivers originate from this plateau in different directions - : ; -Southern plateau region Indus and Brahmaputra rivers Eastern

: , , ;plateau region Hwangho Yangtze Salween and Mekong rivers - - : . [ : North east plateau region Tsaidan swamps NOTE The

.]endogenetic forces cause high mountains than exogenetic forces : Mexican plateau

; :It is surrounded by- : . ;West Sierra Madre Occidental Mt range- : . ;East Sierra Madre Oriental Mt range

2250 (7410 .) The average height near Mexico city is m ft and 1216 . (4000 .) decreases to m ft near the international border with

. ( ): USA Plateau of Bolivia and Peru South America The Peruvian - plateau is sur rounded by Cordilera Central ranges and Cordillera - . Occiden tal ranges in the east and west respectively The average

3648 . ( - , 12000 .). , height is m from sea level ft LakeTiticaca a fresh , .water lake comes out of it

Gobi plateau in Asia Iranian and Tarin basin Columbian plateau Great basin

( ) : II Piedmont plateau It is formed at the foot hillzone of extensive .mountains

:PLAINS ;► Are flat areas with low height ► An extensive tract without prominent hills and depressions . , ► Some plains are only a few mts above the sea level examples

. ,argisouth deltaic plains qfBangladesh Some are quite high - (450 ), examples are the eastern Missisippi plain m high even higher

;than the Piedmont plateau

, ► Thus it should be mentioned that the plains maybe above the or ;below the sea levels but not higher than the surrounding regions

, ► The slope should be quite gentle the average fall of the slope 4 . , 50 .should be mts and in extreme cases not more than mts

:Mode of Origin , . .,► Because of endogenetic factors and diastrophic movements i e

. - , structural plains Examples are Great plains of USA Gulf coastal , , - plain Atlantic plain Russian platform also called epicontinental ; ( ) ,form Great plains USA are bordered by Rockies in the west

, Central lowland province in the east Mississippi Missouri plateau .and by Reogrande river in south and plains of Canada in the north

: .Atlantic coastal plains It startsfrom Newyork to Gulf of Mexico Its 480 . . average width is kms and is of Miocene and Pliocene The 10 / , average gradient is ft mile the other is Coromandel and , Northern Circar coastal plains formed due to mile subsidence and

. : ( consequent sedimentation Erosional plains Due to erosion it is ). :formed It is of four types

( ) : . i Peneplains It happens due to weathering and rivers It is , , characterized by convex concave residual hills called the

' '. - , , ,monadnocks Examples are Chambal Swaranghati Mississippi . South Africa

( ) : ii Glacial plains Glaciers transform highland areas through their . -slow but continued erosive works into lowlands Examples are

, , , . ( ), . Sweden Finland Ladakh Imphal basin Manipur hills Canada

( ) - : , ( ), iii Wind eroded plains Reg Serir and Hamada Sahara Aravalli ( . ) .arid plains near Jaisalmer( ) : . -iv Karst plains It is composed of limestones Examples are

' ' .Yugoslavia s and Mexico s Karst plains : :Depositional plains It is of five types

( ) : - , - i AUuvial plains Examples are Mississippi delta Lomb ardi plains ( ) , ( ), ( ),Italy formed by Po river Yangtze plain China Indus plain Ganga

( ), ( ), ( )USA plain Sacramento Russia Samarkand South America Chile , , . [ plain Amazon plain Salween and Mekong plains It is formed due

]. : to the rivers Delta plain Ganga delta is the largest delta of the ( 29 . ), world llakh thousand sq km the tributaries of delta are called

. ( ) : :distributaries ii Glacial plains These are of two types( ) : ;a True glacial plains These are formed of pure glacial materials( ) : b Outwash plains These are formed due to deposition of materials

. after the ablation of glaciers and ice sheets Glacial plains are :divided into three parts on the basis of structure and composition

- : ; ; - : Till Finer or coarser materials Eskars and Drumlins Morainic finer ;glacial materials

- : , , . Outwash Admixture of sands gravels silts and clays Examples - , - , - , are West Germany north west Russia north west USA central

. ( ) : ;Canada iii Lacustrine plains When lakes are filled with sediments - , , , examples are Kashmir valley Imphal basin Hungary plain Great

( ), ( ) : lakes North America iv Loesses plains It is formed due to air ; , ,transportation of the sand it is an unstratified homogeneous

.finegrained - , , , Examples are Loesses of China Europe USSR lower Missisippi

( ), ( ), ,USA Rhine valley Alsace southern Netherlands( ) : - , , , ,v Lava plains Examples are France USA Iceland Argentina

. NewZealand These are economically very important because black . soils are formed due to weathering of lavas These black soils are ' ' . also called Regur soils are good for growing cotton

:LAKES

, Lakes are static bodies of water usually but not necessarily fresh ' water on the land s surface which is surrounded by lands on all .sides ' . Lakes are not permanent features on the earth s surface Lakes are , formed developed and ultimately obliterated due to silteration and

. ,upliftment of lake beds due to diastrophic movements For example several lakes have disappeared in the Kumaon region like SukhaTal

. and SarraiyaTal around Nainital The highest lake of the world Tso ( ) 18284 Sekuru Tibetan plateau is located at the height of ft and the -1300 .lowest is the Dead sea ft below the sea level

:-Charateristics of a Lake- ,Are variable and changes with time

- Height has nothing to do with- - . Some lake have greater depths e g Baikal lake of Siberia is more

1.6 (1600); than km deep some are shallow and almost become dry . during the summers and hence are called seasonal lakes Size does

. not matter It can be as big as the Caspian Sea and csn also be as ( ).small as Tarn Glacier lake very small

:Preconditions of a Lake- , Basins depressions and troughs are the most ideal places for the

. :development of lakes Troughs(1) ; A system of low atmospheric pressure characterized by much

.greater length and width(2) .A valley that has been overdeepened by glacial erosion(3) . -The lowest part of the wave formed between two crests There

. should be proper and regular supply of water The water table .should be high

:Classification of Lakes ) :-( ) I On the basis of salinity a Fresh Water : ;Lakes Very low amount of salt flow of water

., ( . ). . ( ) :--Eg Kumaon U P Dal and Wular lake of Kashmir b Saline Lakes . Are also called salt lakes and ajejelatively common These are

- - found mainly in semi arid and arid regions of warm cli rnate where . - :-the rate of evaporation is very high These are of four types

( ) : i Alkaline lakes having the dominance of salts of Sodium and : ( ) : Potassium Carbonate ii Bitter lakes contains salts ofSpdium

; ( ) : ; ( )Sulphate iii Borax lakes have high proportion of Borax iv Mixed : - . - / lakes have a mix ture of different salts Examples of saline salt :- - ( ), lakes Sambhar and Panch bhadra lakes Rajasthan salt lakes of ( ), ( ), .Lingtzi Tang Kashmir Chilka lake Orissa are all in India

- / ( ) ( -Examples of saline salt lakes outside India Great Salt lake Utah ) - , .USA a remnant of Bonneville lake a fresh water lake

, , , Cursbn lakes Waker and Honey lakes in USA Lahontan Caspian , , .Sea Aral Sea Dead Sea

) :II Diastrophic lakes. , , ( ),lakes Examples Crater lakes of Oregon in USA Tana lake Ethiopia

( ).Nicaragua Central America) -IV Lakes formed due to mass translocation of Rock Waste This

. - : , includes land slides etc Examples San CristoBal Slumgullion ( , ). 1968, Mudflow Colorado USA In a landslide took place in Darjeeling and two lakes were formed due to damming of - .Tantakhola a tributary of Jaldhaka river

) : . - :V Glacial lakes These are also called moraine lakes Examples ( ), / ( ). Grand lake of Colorado USA Naini Nainital lake UP lakes of , , .Canada Norway Sweden and Finland

) : . VI FluviaI lakes These are formed due to rivers They are of two :types

) : - . . . VII Oxbow lakes e g Wjilar lake in Kashmir

) :- , .VII Delta lakes Godavari Delta Ganga Delta called beels , , Ponchastrian lake of Mississippi Mayeh lake of Nile Delta Marigot

.lake of Niger Delta

;WEATHERING ( ) The process of disintegration of rocks in situ static is generally

. called weathering Weathering isJhe breakdown and alternation of . ' minerals Near the earth s surface to products that are more in

- . ,equilibrium with newly imposed physico chemical conditions Thus - weathering may be defined as the mechanical frac turing or

chemical decomposition of rocks by natural agents at the surface of . the earth It is obvious that weathering involves two types of

, : changes in the rocks for example physical and mechanical , changes wherein rocks are disintegrated through temperature , - , ( ) changes frost action biological activities biotic factor and wind

.actions( ) , ii Chemical changes wherein rocks are decomposed through static

, , .water oxygen carbon dioxide and biological activities :Provided that

( ) ;a The breakdown of rocks occurs in situ( ) - b There is no large scale transport of weathered materials except

- - mass movement or mass transaction of weathered materials down . the slope under the force of gravity The products of rock

> -weathering tends to accumulate in a short surface layer called re; golith and the regolith grades downward into solid or altered rocks . , known as bed rocks Therefore regolith is the layer of loose broken

.rocky material mantling the surface of the undecomposed bedrock The regolith produces the source of sediments consisting of

detached mineral particles deposited and transported a fluid , . medium which may be water air or glacier ice

:Agents of Weathering( ) i Transportation( ) ii Deposition( ) iii Erosion( ) : , , i Transportation The wind running water moving ice and sea

, waves also carry away particles thus removing one part and .settling it in other part is called the process of transportation

( ) : , , ii Deposition The material carried out by winds running water and .moving ice are deposited in some other place is called deposition

( ) : , , iii Erosion It is same as weathering but it is very much different . , at the same time Weathering is a static process there is no

. displacement and movement of rocks It does not constitute . depositional features Whereas erosion is basically more a process

. ( of denudation than weathering Denudation is a term used to denote the action of laying bare by the process of washing away of

, the surface materials such that all surface inequalities would be . - - .reduced to uniformity It is ba sically the process oTaegrada tion , Erosion is basically a dynamic process there is always displacement

,of rocks, = + . thus denudation weathering transportation The depositional

. , feature is also included in the erosion Therefore we see erosion in , a broader concept because it includes both transportation and

. (1) : deposition Block Disintegration Due to Temperature Change The * repetition of expansion and contraction of outer rock layers due to

diurnal rangeof temperature in the hot desert areas causes tension .and stresses which introduce parallel joints in the Rocks

(2) : Granular Disintegration Due to Change in Temperature The coarse grained rocks are more affected by shattering process in

those hot deserts which are characterised by high range of daily .temperature

: Shattering Due to Rain Shower and Heat The outer shells of the .rocks are shattered hot climatic regions mainly in hot desert areas

(4) :Block disintegration due to frost :Frost action weakens the rocks in two ways

( ) i Due to freeze and thaw of water between the particles of the .rocks

( ) .ii Due to freeze and thaw of water in the crevices and spaces(5) :Exfoliation due to temperature and wind

, , Exfoliation weathering also known as onion weathering refers to peeling off concentrjc shells of rocks due to combined actions of

heat and wind in hot - . arid and semi arid regions and monsoon lands The outer shells of rocks become loose due to alternate expansion and contraction due

to high temperature during daytime and comparatively low , temperature during night respectively and these loosened shells

( ).are removed peeled off by strong winds(6) : Disintegration and exfoliation due to unloading Sheeting refers

to the development of cracks and fractures - Parallel to the surface caused bv removal of super incurnbent load - .resulting into reduction of conflicting pres sure

:Chemical weathering Decomposition and disintegration of rocks due to chemical reaction

is called chemical weathering wherein the minerals of the rocks . weather away Water vapour and water are the media which . activate several types of chemical reactions within the rocks Pure

, , water distilled water is chemically inert but when it mixes with the , 02, .atmospheric gases mainly with C it becomes potent solvent

: Following are the important chemical reactions

( ) : I Solution It refers to the dissolution of soluble particles and minerals from the rock with the help of water in motion but a thin

film of water around a solid particle also leads to chemical . dissolution Common salts are most soluble whereas carbonate

. rocks are of moderate solubility Limestones are more susceptible to , 02 solution process which depends on temperature C content of

.water and PH of the solution( ) : II Oxidation The chemical process of oxidation simply means a

. reaction of atmospheric oxygen to form oxides When water is , mixed with oxygen its reaction with the minerals of the rocks .forms hydroxide

( ) : III Carbonation It is the reaction of carbonate or bicarbonate ions . with minerals The process of carbonation is also known as

' ' 02 solution wherein atmospheric C after mixing with water forms ( 2 03), . .,Carbonic acid H C i e

02 + 20 > 2 03,C H H C , ( 03)which after reacting with carbonate rocks say limestones CaC

[ ( 03)2] forms Calcium carbonate Ca HC which is easily dissolved in . water

( ) : IV Hydration The process of hydration is related to the addition of . water to the minerals The rocks after having absorbed water

. undergo the process of positive change of their volume The ,process of hydration changes feldspar minerals into Kaolinite clays

' '.this process is known as Kaolinization( ) : ,V Hydrolysis It is a chemical reaction between minerals and water

, ( ) , that is between hydrogen ions or hydroxyl OH ions and the ions . of the mineral in order to form mineral compounds Silicate

.minerals are most affected by hydrolysis( ) : Vl Chelation Chelation is a complex organic process by which

.metallic cations are incorporated into hydrocarbon molecules .Chelation is a form of chemical weathering by plants

Biotic Weathering ( ) : ,i Faunal weathering The burrowing of animals worms and other organisms help in gradual breakdown of rocks or

. ( ) : fragments thereof ii Floral weathering Floral weathering does not , take place independently rather it helps the physical and chemical

. process of weathering Larger plants affect and control weathering : ( ) in a number of ways a Cracks are widened by root penetration .and consequent root pressure

( ) b Dense vegetation cover generates distinct micro climate at the . ( ) : ground surface iii Anthropogenic weathering The economic and

' technological man lashed with modern technologies was becoming . the most powerful weathering and erosion agent Biochemical

:Weathering ► It refers to decomposition and disintegration of rocks due to

.organic materials of both flora and fauna ► A complex set of different biochemical processes such as Cation

, , exchange in roots chelation solution by root exudates and ,production of different kinds of organic acids such as humic acids

, , . bacterial acids microfaunal acids etc produced by organic .materials

► Humic Acid active chelation and helps in the decomposition of . , silicate minerals Fulvic Acids derived from peat help in the

.decomposition of rock materials

Mass Movement- : Mass wasting Phenomena Direction of Movement : ( ) : , of rock is divided into three categories i Vertical rockfall collapse

( ) ,of roofs of underground caves or cavities or lava tubes earthfall , ( ' , debris fall topple rotational fall of rock slab s or of earthen

) ( material and settlement collapse of ground surface due to , , .); ( ) : (withdrawal of water crude oil etc ii Lateral Blockslide movement

of materials along a horizontal fracture or interface between two ), ( ),rock strata spread lateral displacement of a series of rock blocks

( ), ( cambering draping of sedimentary units sackung lateral spreading : away from anticlinal crests CREEPING very slow and imperceptible

. ); ( ) :downslope movement of materials i e colluvium and iii Diagonal ( ), ,soil creep movement of moistened soils downslope rockcreep

, , , ( talus creep rockslide debris slide slumping movement of fine ), ( ,materials along a curved plane flow dominant role of water - ), , downslope transport of water soaked fine debris debris flow mud

, .flow solifluction and avalanche

LANDFORMS Fluvial Landforms

( )► Shaped by running water overland flow and stream flow ► Fluvial processes are most important of all the exogenetic

processes as landforms associated with them have overall .dominance in the environment of terrestrial life

3- - , ► phase work of fluvial processes Erosion Transportation and Deposition1.Erosion : .► Normal Erosions which takes place by natural physical forces : ' .► Accelerated Erosion That which is produced by man s interference

( ). Direct force of a falling raindrop Splashing Splash

Erosion- ( )Surface flow then removes soil in thin layers Sheet Erosion- - -Steep slopes having torrential rains produce intense activity Rill

( ) - Erosion innumerable closely spaced channels are formed Grows ( - ) - larger forming Gullies Steep walled canyon like trench A .rugged barren topography called Ravines and Badlands are formed

( . . )e g Chambal -1. : (Process or types of erosion Chemical Erosion Corrosion or ) 2. - ( solution and Carbonation Mechanical Erosion Impaction Effect of

)blow upon the river bed or banks by large boulders- ( .) -Cavitation Due to collapse and implosion of air bubbles Attrition ( Shattering and breaking up of the stream load through collisions

)and mutual abrasion- ( )Hydraulic Action Lifting and quarrying effect of rushing water- ( Corrasion or Abrasion Stream uses its load to scrape away its

, .)bed particularly in steep confined sections of stream channels

: Erosional landforms 1. River valleys- . - -Formed in the youthful stage of fluvial cycle of erosion V shaped ( )in the initial stage caused by vertical erosion or valley deepening

-3 - :types of v shaped valleys

( ) - i Gorge Steep precipitous wall within which a narrow river is ( . .- , , , , )confined e g Indus Sutlej Brahmaputra Rhine Zambezi

( ) - . ii Canyon A very deep and extended gorge

( ) - iii Structual benches Differential erosion of alternately arranged - hard and soft rocks forming step like valleys known as structural

. - benches Rapids Current flowing at more than normal swiftness .forms Rapids

- :-( ) Waterfalls Formed due to i Differential erosion of hard and soft rocks( ) ( , , )ii Plateau scarp formation Livingstone Aughrubies Gersoppa falls ( ) ( )iii Because of fault scarps Victoria fall on Zambezi River( ) ( ) ( ) iv Due to Glacial Hanging valley Yosemite fall v Fall in sea level

and related rejuvenation( ) . ( ) vi Other topographical reliefs and earth movements vii Due to

( formation of knick point in a rejuvenating stream Fluvial cycle of erosion is an exogenetic process which erodes the landforms and , lowers down the relief which was earlier produced by folding up . warping or emergence of land because of endogenetic forces Thus

a cycle of emergence and lowering down of the relief because of . erosion continues A landform in the early stage of the fluvial cycle

of erosion has higher relief and sharp landscape than those in later . stages If by any means the landscape of a later stage encounters

, emergence because of endogenetic forces at work the relief is rejuvenated that is the landform seems to have reverted back to

. .an earlier stage This is known as river rejuvenation- . - Cascade A fall in steps Cataract Larger steps than in a cascade

- ( Pot Holes cylindrical holes worn in the solid bedrock formed as a - )result of evortion grinding action of the whirling particles - - Plunge Pools Potholes of much bigger size Terraces step like flat surfaces on either side of the present lowest valley floors are called .terraces - Structural Benches The benches or terraces formed due to differential erosion of alternate bands of hard and soft rock beds

called structural benches- -Meanders Bends of longitudinal courses of rivers Misfit Meanders

. Meander formed within the extensive former meanders Meanders : , , - are of three types Wavy Horse shoe Ox Bow or Bracelet

- . Incised Meander Representative features of rejuvenation They develop through vertical erosion leading to valley incision or

- - deepening Ox Bow Lakes Formed due to impounding of water in . - the abandoned meander loops Peneplain It represents featureless -low lying plain having undulating surface and remnants of convexo

. .concave residual hills End product of normal cycle of erosion : . Frequented with low residual hills Monadnocks

:Transportation The size and amount of load and the velocity of . stream determine their transporting power Transportation power is directly proportional to the sixth power of stream velocity

:-Transportation is done in various ways( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) :i Traction ii Suspension iii Saltation iv Solution Deposition :-It is affected by following factors

1 . Decrease in channel gradient

2. . Spreading of stream water over larger area

3, Obstruction in channel flow

4. Decrease in the volume and discharge of water

5. .Decrease in the velocity of streams6.1 . ncrease in the load etc

.--Characteristic of rivers ( ► A river system is an open system comprising of collecting

) transporting and dispersing systems lying in a drainage basin .surrounded by divides called watersheds

► Tributaries decrease in number in a mathematic progression downstream ► Length of tributaries increases downstream ► Slope of tributaries increases downstream ► Channels deepen downstream ( )► Water flows in a laminar form path parallel to the bed = -► Discharge or volume of water velocity channel cross sectional

area ► Velocity is greatest near the centre ( ), ► Base level may be local a tributary in main river temporary

( ), ( .)lake or ground base level Sea etc ► Erosional power is directly proportional to the square of stream

. velocity

Depositional Landforms : Alluvial Fans and Cones Formed due to accumulation of materials in the form of fan and cones respectively

. at the base of foot hills Alluvial Cones are made of coarse .materials than the alluvial Fans

- Natural Levees Narrow belt of ridges of low height built by the deposition of sediments by the spill water of the stream on its

.either bank - Flood Plain Surfaces on either side of a stream that are

. - frequently inundated Crevasse splays Formed by breaching of levees when water escapes through a series of distributary

. - channels Backswamps Plain area adjoining a levee may contain . - marshes called Backswamps Yazoo Streams Distributions of rivers .occupying lateral positions

- Delta Triangular deposition at the mouth of a river debouching in . a lake or a sea

- - (1) Factors that help in Delta for mation Long Courses of rivers

(2) Medium size sediments

(3) Calm or Sheltered sea

(4) ( ) Suitable place shallow sea and lake shores

(5) Large amount of sediments

(6) Accelerated erosion

(7) . Stable condition of sea coast On the basis of shape delta can 1. 2. - 3. 4. (be Arcuate Bird Foot Estuarine Truncated Arcuate Lobate

) – - - - .Form Semicircular Common in semi arid region Growing delta e.: , , , , , , , ,g Nile Niger Ganga Indus Hwang Ho Mekong Irrawady Rhine

, . , , -Volga Danube Rhone Lena Bird Foot- Also called Finger Delta Rivers with high velocity carry suspended

, ( . .finer load to greater distance inside the oceanic water e g ) - Mississippi Estuarine Delta Submerged under marine water

- . .: , , , , , . e g Narmada Vistuala Elb Ob Seine Hudson

:Drainage Pattern Spatial arrangement and form of drainage system in turns of geometrical shapes in the areas of different rock

, , types geological structure climatic conditions and denudational . 1 . - history Trellis In the areas of simple folds characterised by .parallel anticlinal ridges alternated by parallel synclinal valley

2. - , Dendritic In the region of flat rolling topography uniform lithology . .and impermeable rocks eg Himalayan rivers

3 . - Rectangular Confluence angle determine by weaknesses like , .faujts fractures and joints

4. - Radial This centrifugal pattern is formed by the streams which , . ,diverge from a central higher point in all directions eg Sri Lanka

, , . - Hazaribagh plateau Ranchi Plateau S Centripetal Inland Drainage , .( . .- ).region with depression basin or crater lake e g Kathmandu valley

6. - Annular Developed over a mature and dissected dome mountain characterised by a series of alternate bands of hard and soft rock

.beds7. - Bar bed When tributaries flow in opposite direction to their

.master stream8. - . .-Pinnate Formed in a narrow valleys flanked by steep ranges e g

, .Upper Son Narmada9. Herringbone When broad valleys are flanked by parallel ridges

. . having steep hillside slopes e g Upper Jhelum in Kashmir valley10. - (Parallel drainage On Cuestas or nearly emerged coastal plains . . e g Western

. Ghats and some on Eastern coastal plains

-Drainage System 1 . - Consequent follows regional slope They are . the primary streams

2. - Subsequent Those originate after master consequent and follow the axis of the anticlines or ridges and the strikes of beds are

. called subsequent streams

3. - obsequent The streams flowing in opposite direction to the . master consequent are called obsequent

4. - Antecedant Those which are originated prior to the upltftment of . land surfece

5. - , Superimposed It means a river which flowing on a definite , geological formation and structure has inherited the characteristics

of its previous form developed on upper geological formation and structure are superimposed on the lower geological formation of

, ( . . ).entirely different characteristics e g Deccan Rivers

Karst Landforms- Produced by chemical weathering or chemical erosion of carbonate

- . - rocks by surface and sub surface water Named after the Karst .Region of Yugoslavia haying typical limestone topography

- :- ; ;Distribution of Karst Areas Erstwhile Yugoslavia Spanish Andalusia . , , , ( ); S Indiana Kentucky Virginia Tennesse and Florida USA Chalik Area , .of England and France

Limestone topography has not developed properly in India because of the absence of extensive thick limestone formations near the

. surface Most of limestones of the Vindhyan formation are buried .under thick covers of sandstones and shales -Though some Karst regions are present

( )► Guptadham Cave Rohtas Plateau ► Jammu and Kashmir , ( ,► Sahasradhara Rovers Cave and Tapkeshwar Temple Dehra Dun

)Uttranchal ( . .)► Panchmarhi M P ► Eastern Himalayas ( - )► Bastar district Chhat tisgarh .► Coastal areas near Vishakhapatnam

- :Essential conditions for the development of Karst land forms , , , ► Massive thickly bedded hard tenacious and well jointed

.limestone .► Lime stones should not be porous .► It should be above ground water table ! .► Widely distributed in both area and vertical dimensions .► Carbonate rocks should be very close to the ground surface , .► Limestone should be highly folded faulted or fractured . - ► Adequate rainfall Mechanism of erosion in Karst areas

- ► Carbonation Erosional Landforms Lappies Highly corrugated and .rough surface of limestone lithology with low ridges and pinnacles

- . -Terra Rosa Weathering residue at the surface Solution Holes Holes produced by dissolution of lime stones by chemically active

.rain water - .Sink Holes Small solution holes

- . - Dolin A large solution hole Swallow Hole Formed by coalescence .of closely spaced sink holes

- Collapse Sinks Solution holes formed due to collapse of upper .surface - Solution Pans Similar to doline with shallow depth and larger areal

extent - .Karst Lakes When Dolines plugged by clay are filled with water - Karst Window Formed due to collapse of upper surface of sink . - holes or dolines Uvala Extensive depression formed by

.coalescence of several dolines- Polje Most extensive depressions larger than dolines and are

.formed due to downfolding and faulting - . -Karst Plain Upper surface having several sink holes Sinking Creek

. - Numerous sink holes located in a line Blind Valley When flow is , terminated at a swallow hdle the valley looks dry valley and is

. - known as blind valley Karst Valley U shaped valleys developed on . lime stones

- . Cave Voids of large dimension below ground surface It is the . - most significant feature Ponores Vertical passages that connect the .caves and the swallow holes - Natural Bridge Formed due to collapse of the roofs of caves or

.due to disappearance of surface streams and their reappearance

Depositional Landforms Causes of Deposition :-( )l Chemical (2) . . (3)reactions Charge in temperature and pressure conditions

(4) Loss of Carbon dioxide Evaporation- Speleothems Deposits in the caves are collectively called

' '. . -Speleothems Calcite is the common constituent Travertines 'Banded calcareous deposits are called Travertines

- - Drip Stones Calcareous deposits formed by dripping of water in . dry caves

- . Stalactites Dripstones hanging from the roof of a cave

- . Stalagmites Growing upward from the bottom of a cave

- Cave Pillars These are formed when stalactites and stalagmites . meet together

- Drapes or curtains Numerous needle shaped dripstones hanging . from the cave ceiling

- . Helictites Sideward growth from stalactites

- . Helgmites Sideward growth from stalagmites

- Flowstones Floor deposits caused by seepage water

Marine Landforms

- .Confined only to the narrow coastal zone- , . Produced by joint action of waves currents and tides The effect of

.waves is predominating- As the waves approach the shore the wavelength continues to

decrease while the wave height increases to such an extent that , the crest of the wave topples over and the wave is transformed ' ' . - ,into a breaker which then collapses Breakers may be Spilling

.Plunging or Surging breakers- They return towards the sea as Backwash or Undertow or Rip

.Currents- ' ' ' ' ' ', The turbulent water known as Swash or Surf or Uprush rushes

. shore ward with great velocity and force The distance from the ' ' -shore where the wave breaks is known as Plunge Line Wave

refraction results in the formation of littoral or long shore currents . - which move parallel to the sea coast Coast Land surfaces

, .modeled conspicuously by waves now as well as in the past - Shore Narrow strip of land between the low tide water mark and

. - the high tide mark Shoreline Line of contact between land and - .water Beach Deposit made by seas that rest on the shore

Processes and Mechanism of Erosion - Wave Quarrying Pressure of waves and oscillatory motion of water

. , , removes the material Abrasion Hydraulic Action Solution and .various weathering processes also activate erosion

-Rate of wave erosion is determined by( ) ( ) ( )i Degree of exposure of the coastal region ii Tidal range iii

.Composition of Coastal bed rock

:Erosional Landforms - , Notch A recess indicating the point of wave .attack on the coastline

- Cliff Almost vertical steep precipitous slope above the sea water . - on a rocky coast Wave cut Platform A platform at the base and

.front of cliff formed due to retreat of cliff

- - Marine Terraces Elevated wave cut platforms marking former high - sea levels Coves or Bays Where hard and soft rocks lay

, alternately differential erosion will create lesser indentations on the . . - coast These are coves or bays Bight Feature much larger but .similar to that of a cove or a bay

- Hanging Valley Rapid retreat of cliff renders small streams .incapable to keep down cutting thereby resulting in hanging valleys

- Sea Caves Wave action on a headland protruding into the sea . - , leads to cave formation Arch Two caves developing on opposite .sides coalesce to form an arch

- , Stack Eventually the arch collapses and an isolated pinnacle . - called stack is formed Blow hole A hole formed on a cave roof

because of wetness in rock

- , Geo When the whole cave roof collapses an inlet is formed known - as Geo Tidal Pools Deep depressions on the wave cut platform .due to quarrying

- Rock Reefs The hard resistant parts of a platform which have . withstood erosion

:Transportation Work Backwash currents transport the eroded materials seaward which are brought back to the coast by the Surf

. .currents Thus transportation goes both ways Long shore currents are generated due to oblique incidence of . waves striking the coast These currents transport materials parallel

. to the shoreline

: Depositional Landforms : -Deposition occurs because of Decrease in transporting power of wave

- Interruption of the long shore drift- River entering the sea - Mutual neutralisation of tidal currents- . Shelter provided by the embankments in the coast Wave Built

- Platform Formed by sediments derived from the .erosion of cliff and wave cut platforms

- Beaches A land on shore between the high water mark and the . , , , ,low water mark Composed of cobbles pebbles boulders fine silt . clay and sand With reference to the type of material involved

, , , .beaches can be shell coral rock lava or Shingle beach

- , , . Shingle Beach It is composed of flat circular smooth stones Beach - ,Ridges or Berrns Linear accumulation of shingles on a beach .parallel to the high water mark

- , Beach Cusps Crescent shaped mass of beach material ranging . from sand to quite large shingles or cobbles Ridges and

- -Runnels Rises and depressions lying parallel to the shoreline Bars , The ridges embankments of sands form by sedimentation through sea waves parallel to the shore line are called bars

- - Off Shore or Long Shore Bars If the bars are formed in such a way that they are parallel to the coast but are not attached to the , - .land they are called off shore or long shore bars

- Spits Sand bars having one end attached to the land and the , . - . other projecting into the sea are called spits Hook A curved Spit

- Connecting Bars A bar joining two headlands or two islands

- Tombolo A connecting bar which connects a headland or mainland . - with an Island Lagoons They are formed when the curves or bays

, ( . . ) -are completely enclosed by bars e g Chilka and Pulicat Mudflats A specialised vegetation adapted to salt and brackish water

( ) Halophytes invade the lagoon region and help to bind the . sediments The whole lagoon area is finally turned into marsh or

. -tidal mudflats Analogous to salt marshes tidal mudflats in mid .latitudes are the mangrove swamps of the tropics

Aeolian Landforms- Aeolian processes involve erosion of dry and loose material along

with transportation and deposition of fine sediments mainly sands . - by action of wind These occur mainly in arid and semi arid regions .of tropical and temperate environments

- Besides Aeolian process limited fluvial processes are also operative - ,in arid and semi arid regions characterised by inland drainage

. - ephemeral and intermittent streams Wind erosion is largely :-1. 2. controlled and determined by Wind velocity Nature and amount

, 3. 4. of sands dusts and pebbles Composition of rocks Nature of 5. , , vegetation Humidity rainfall amount and temperature

:-Wind erosion occurs in three ways1. : Deflation Removal and blowing away of dry and loose particles of

. sands and dusts Long and continuous deflation produces ' '. depressions or hollows known as Blow Outs

2. : Abrasion or Sand Blasting Wind armed with entrained sand grains .as tools of erosion attacks the rocks and erodes them

3. : . Attrition Mechanical wear and tear of the particles

Erosional landforms - Deflation Basins Depression created through , . . deflation also known as Deflation hollows e g Quattara depression

( ), ( ) ( ,Egypt Buffalo Hollow American Great Plain Big Hollow Wyoming ), ( )USA Pong Kiang Hollow Mongolian Desert

- Mushroom Rocks Rocks having broad upper part and narrow base . - formed due to abrasion at base Isenberg Sharply rising residual

.hills

- Demoiselles Rock pillars having relatively resistant rocks at the top . . and soft rock below These are formed due to differential erosion

- Zeugens Abrasive action of wind acting on exposed weakness of ( ) horizontally bedded rocks hard above and soft below thereby

producing a tabular mass of resistant capping upon softer rocks . beneath

- ' Yardangs Sinuous ridges and parallel depressions formed due to differential abrasion of vertically arranged thin alterations of hard

. and soft strata Typical of Turkistan Desert and also in Tibesti Massif ( ) Sahara

- , Ventifacts Faceted rock boulders cobbles and pebbles formed due ( - , to prolonged wind abrasion one abraded face Einkanter two

- , - ). abraded faces Zweikanter three abraded faces Dreikanter

- Stone lattice Differential erosion of hard and soft portions of rocks through abrasion produces pitted and fluted surfaces called stone

. lattice

Transportation 1. - Takes place through Suspension Materials kept in ( . . , , )suspension by upward moving air e g Dust Haze Smoke

2. - , .Saltation Mechanism of bouncing leaping or jumping of particles3. - Surface creep Transport of loosened materials on the ground

. surface

Depositional Landforms - Ripples Wave like features formed by . saltation impact They may be transverse or longitudinal

- . Sand Dunes Heaps or mounds of sands They are mobile , , landforms and may be coastal dunes riverine dunes and lacustrine

. - -dunes Formation of Sand dunes re quire1 . Abundance of sand

2. High velocity of wind

3. , , , . Obstacles such as tree bushes rocks forests etc

4. . - Suitable places for the accumulation of sands Nebkhas Dunes formed due to shrubs as obstacles

- .Lunettes Dunes that develop on the lee of desert depressions - .Fore Dune Those formed on the windward side of a hill

:-Depending upon shape they may be

( ), , , ,Linear or Longitudinal or Seif Dunes Star Dome Reverse , - - , -Barachan Transverse Loess Thick deposits of non stratified non - indurated well sorted fine grained sediments consisting of quartz

. silt Sediments for the accumulation of loess are derived from , , . ( . .desert areas flood plains of river valleys coastal areas etc e g Chinese loess has been deposited from sediments from Gobi . deserts Hwang Ho flowing through loess plateau acquires enough

) sediments that makes it look yellowish in colour Five Great Desert :-Provinces

1. - ( , , , ,Sahara Central Asian Province Sahara Arabian Indian Karakum , , )Kizil Kum Takla Makan Gobi

2. ( , , )Southern African province Namib Karroo Kalahari3. ( , ) 4. South American dry zone Atacama Patagonia North American ( , , ) 5. Mojave Arizona Sonoran Australian

.Desert having mobile sands are called Ergs

. :GLACIERS GLACIATED TOPOGRAPHY 10% ' - . About of the earth ssur face is covered by glaciers Glaciers are . formed due to accumulation of ice Snowline is generally defined as

a zone between permanent and seasonal snow and that height , above which there is permanent snow cover The snowline is at he - -lowest height sea level in the polar region and increases equator

5000-6000 . ward where it tends to occur between mt The areas of - . accumulation of huge volume of ice are called snow fields The

glaciers grow by gradual transformation of snow into granular snow and then into firn and neve and finally into solid glacial ice

( - / - ). granular snow firn neve solid ice

: :Types of glaciers They are basically of three types ;► Mountain glaciers ;► Continental glaciers . . : . ► Icecaps glaciers Icecaps The biggest is called as icecap It is

-broad domes with flattened cross section covering thou sands . .glaciers There is one difference between icesheets and jcecaps : ., .Icesheets Eg Antarctic and Greenland

: Continental glaciers It is also a kind of icesheet but since it is , spread oyer the continents hence are known as continental .glaciers : - 4000 ; Examples are Antarctic average thickness is m Greenland

- 3000 . - , ,average thickness is m Other examples are Arctic Canada , .Iceland Norway

/ / :Valley Mountain Alpine glaciers :Examples are

( ) : (16 ), (27 ),i Himalayan region Roopal glacier km Punma glacier km (40 ), , Rjmu glacier km Himarche glacier Barche and Milaspin glacier

( ).all in Kashmir Himalaya( ) , (62 ), (58 ),ii Hispar glacier Baifo glacier km Baltorp glacier km

(72 ), (58 ), (158 ), Siachen km Batura glacier km Sasaini glacier km all .in Karakoram range

: Cirque glacier The armchair shaped or amphfthejatric cirque or , corrie is a horse shoe shaped steep wall depression representing a

. glaciated valley hill It is known by different names at different

. :places It is known as - ;► CWN at Wales - ;► CORRIE at Scotland - ;► KAR at Germany

- ' '.Cirque lake is called Tarn/ :Col Aretes and Horns

;► When it becomes pyramidal called as col and peak , ' '. : ► When the peak looks like teeth it is called aretes Nunatak the

> _ higher peaks and mounds surrounded J y ice from all sides are - &called Nuna tak

- (19 ), (14 ), (25 ),Milan glacier km Kedarnath km Gangotri glacier km (11 ) . - (25 ),Kosa km all in Kumaon Himalayas Zemu glacier km

(16 ) - .Kanchenjunga km all in Sikkim - :Other sub types of glaciers

( ) : l Piedmont glacier These are found in colder areas and not in the . tropical or temperate regions If is to coalescence of several

.,mountains and valleys or glaciers at the foothill zone for eg ( )! Melaspina of Alaska USA

(2) : / . .,Iceshelf Floating thick icesheet icecap attached to the coast Eg , , - .Ross iceshelf Ronne iceshelf Filchner iceshelf all in Atlantic coast

(3) : Niche glacier It represents a small upland icemass which rests . upon a sloping rockface

(4)' ' : ' ' U shaped valley They are U shaped and are associated with . the tributary valleys called hanging valleys The main glacial valleys

.of much greater depth are called hanging valleys(5) : Crag and Tail A peculiar landform having vertical eroded steep

- ,side up glacial side and tail like appearance with lower height . down glacial side is called crag and tail

(6) : Roches mountains They are all covered by ice andlakes are formed at the foothills and are called Beaded lakes and the smaller

.lakes are called Paternoster lake(7) : .Morraines They are ridgelike depositional features of glaciers

30 They are long but narrow ridges with height more than m(8) : . Drumlins They look like inverted elliptical or avoid hills(9) : Eskers They are long narrow and sinuous ridges of sands and

.gravels and are situated in the middle of ground moraines(10) : Kames These are small hills or irregular mounds of bedded

) sands and grave s which are deposited by melt of the water near . or at the edge of the retreating icesheets

(11) : Kettles and Hummocks Kettles are depressions in the outwash . plains Large kettles are dotted with numerous low mounds and are - . called hum mocks

(12) : Outwash The melt water caused due to ablation of glaciers at its snout descents through the terminal morraine and spreads like

. ' ' ' '. sheet water It is also known as sander and braids

:LANDFORMS MADE BY GLACIERS Features of Erosion 1. ; Cirques These are circular depressions formed by plucking and

- . grinding on the upper parts of the mountain slopes Also known as .Corries or Amphitheatre

2. : . Arete This name is applied to the sharp ridges produced by glacial . - , erosion Where two cirque walls intersect from opposite sides a , - , , jagged knife like ridge called arete results also known as comb or - .serrate ridge

3. : , -Horn Where three or more cirques grow together a sharp pointed .peak is formed by the intersection of the aretes

4. : , §Col Where opposed cirques have intersected deeply a pass r . notch called a col is formed

5. - : Glacial trough Glacier flow constantly deepens and widens its , channel so that after the ice has finally disappeared there remains

, , ' ' , . a deep steep walled U shaped valley known as glacial trough

6. : ' ' .Hanging valley Tributary glaciers also carve U shaped troughs - ,, But they are smaller in cross section with floors lying high above - , . ., .the floor level of the main trough i e main glacial valley

7. ; Fiords When the floor of a glacial trough open to the sea lies , - - ,below sea level the sea water will enter as the ice fronts recedes

, ' '.producing a narrow estuary known as a fiord

8. : - Tarns The bed rock is not always evenly excavated under a , -glacier so that floors of troughs and cirques may contain rock

- . basin and rock steps Cirques and upper parts of troughs thus are . occupied by small lakes called tarns

- :Glacio Fluvial Deposits 1. : Outwash plain It is also known as . overwash plain Glacial streams carry a huge quantity of rockdebris

- .and then form fan like plains beyond the terminus of glaciers , , These are stratified when they occur on valley floors such outwash . plains are called valley trains

2. : Karnes or kame terraces These are formed on the top surface of - a glacier where the surficial melt waters wash sediments from the

. top in to depressions As the ice melts the material that formerly - filled depressions on top of the gla cier is dropped and makes

, - small hills which are more or less flat topped and are known as . , , .kames Terraces called kame terraces are built in this way

3. : - - Eskers These are winding steep sided ridge like features built of , .stream borne drift these are also known as Osser or Oss

4. : Erratics These are stray boulders of rocks which have undergone a prolonged glacial transport and have subsequently been deposited , .in an area where the country rocks are of distinctly different types - , At times they are delicately balanced upon glaciated bed rock and - . are called poking or logging stone

5. : Kettles Drifts occurring in the vicinity of a glacier and particularly - those lying near about the ice terminus are ordinarily found to , contain a number of depressions some of which may give rise to

. . 6. ;lakes or swamps Such hollows are known as kettles Varves These are layered clays alternating with coarser and finer

. sediments

- Other Important Processes and Features Associated with :Glacier

1. : -Niviation It is the process of quarrying of rocks mostly by frost.action

2. . Ablation Includes processes both evaporation and the melting of . snow and ice

3. : , Calving Within fiords glaciers come in contact with marine water - and blocks of ice are found to break off from the mass of the

. . glacier This process of wastage of glacier is known as calving

4. : , Serace Similar to a waterfall in a river in a steeper section of the , - - valley the glacier is broken up into rugged ice pinnacles and is . known as serace

5. : - . Iceberg These are floating ice hill on the sea water

6. : Crevasses These are cracks formed due to differential movement . , within the mass of glacier In German they are known as

. Bergschrund

7. : - - ,Nunatak A rock mass which projects through an ice sheet ,generally found at the margins of a sheet where the ice is thinnest

.is known as nunatak

CLIMATOLOGY :ATMOSPHERE Composition

1. ( 2) 78.08%Nitrogen N2. ( 2)-20.9%Oxygen O3. ( )-0.9%Argon Ar4. ( 02)-0.033%. 4 99.997%.Carbon Dioxide C These constitute5. ( 20) :Water vapour H Trace Constituents

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 2) Neon Ne Helium He Krypton Kr Xenon Xe Hydrogen H M

4) ( 20) ( )ethane CH Nitrous Oxide N Radon Rn :Highly variable constituents (03) ( 02) ( 02)Water vapour Ozone Sulphur dioxide S Nitrogen dioxide N ( ) ( , ) Carbon Monoxide CO Particles dust salt

: : Characteristics Nitrogen When the weathering of igneous rocks , . takes place it adds nitrogen in the atmosphere It is found between

50-100 . 50 . km but dominates the lower km

: 120 . 6 . 02, Oxygen It occurs up to km but up to km as while above . it occurs in dissociated form or O

: Carbon dioxide Absorbs heat radiation from the earth in the . : atmosphere It is transparent and keeps the earth temperature at

. 02 high level The rocks gradually remove away the C from the . , atmosphere It dissolves in water to form carbonic acid a

. . 02+ 20= 2 03. 60 compound i e C H H C The ocean contains times more 02 . C than the atmosphere

, , , : ; Argon Neon Krypton Xenon Chemically inactive present in tiny ; . : proportion known as noble gases Water Vapour Most variable in .; proportion and largely concentrated in the lowest Kms recycles in - . : 6 evaporation condensation It is mainly found in lowest region km

. . : of atmosphere Therefore it becomes less with height Neon Bright . , . Red Used in Neon sign tubelights and advertisement boards

: . Helium Chemically inert It is added in the atmosphere by the oil . 10 . fields The amount of helium has increased times Since it is

.chemically inert hence it can only be lost by escape in the space : 1500Hydrogen It is negligible in low atmosphere but present above

. .km Protons and electrons are found in hydrogen

(03) Ozone - Absorbs ultraviolet and infrared radiation and . . therefore increases the temperature above stratosphere Maximum 30-40 ' production of ozone occurs at km above the earth s surface

20-30 .but its maximum concentration occurs at km above the earth . Ozone hole was first sighted above Antarctica Ozone immediately . reacts with chlorine Variations in Atmospheric :Composition

1) :Variation with height 4% ► Water Vapour comprises up to of the atmosphere by volume

10 . ;near surface but non existent above km of the atmosphere 15-35 .;► Ozone is mainly concentrated between km 100-200 . ;► km is the nitrogen layer 200-1,100 . ;► km is the oxygen layer 1,100-3,500 . ;► km is helium layer 3,500 . .► Above km is the oxygen layer again

2) :Variations with latitude and seasons 30 , 02 ;► Above ° latitude north C is least 50 ► Ozone content is low over the equator and high over degree

, .north latitude particularly in spring

:Atmosphere can be divided into following layers; ; ; ; ;Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Ionosphere Thermosphere

; :Exosphere Magnetosphere Troposphere

:Troposphere

, ► It is the most important zone for weather phenomenon because :of

( ) . . 6.5 a Gradual decrease of temperature with height i e degree C . ;per km Temperature decreases except at winter pole

( ) 1.5-2 . b The lowest part of troposphere up to km is called friction , layer where topography greatly influences wind speed and

;circulation . ► It contains all the major atmosphere pollutants This is also called

;Connective layer where the clouds are formed 8 ► it roughly extends to a height of kms near the poles and about

18 . kms at the equator ► the thickness at the equator is greatest 90% ' ► it contains dust particles and over of the earth s water

vapour ► aviators of jet aeroplanes often avoid this layer due to presence .of bumpy air pockets - , ► The upper limit of the troposphere is called Tropo pause literally

. 17 means zone or region of mixing Its height is km during January 700and July over the equator and the temperature of this height is

C

:Stratosphere 50 ;► From Tropopause to about Km ,► It is an Isothermal region and extremely dry free with clouds

; water vapour and dust here air is at rest and movement is almost horizontal .► Some clouds found are called Mother of Pearls or Nacreous (03); - ,► Contains much of Ozone therefore called Ozono sphere

15 35 . especially between kms to km from the sea level The 02 combining of atmosphere oxygen with individual oxygen results in

.the creation of ozone ( 25 .) ► In the lower stratosphere up to km temperature remains

, 50 ;constant temperature increase gradually with height up to Kms 50 0 32 .and at kms becomes ° C or ° F

.► The upper limit of the Stratosphere is called Stratopause ► Winds decrease with height in the lower stratosphere and then

.increase with height in the upper stratosphere ► Feable winds and Cirrus Clouds are found in the lower

stratosphere

:Chemosphere 50 .► Chemosphere extends from troposphere to an altitude of kms

.Overlapping both homosphere and heterosphere . ► In this air glove occurs at night especially green and red It is a

.part of Stratosphere , . ► In this air glow occurs at night especially green and red

:Mesosphere 50 80 .► Height from Km to Km ► The temperature decreases fairly with the height with the

-90 .minimum temperature of about degree ( ); ► Mesopause the top of the layer above Mesopause temperature

increases with increasing height . ► The presence is because of meteoric dust particles

:Thermosphere ► The part of the atmosphere beyond Mesopause is known as

thermosphere wherein temperature increases rapidly with increasing .height

200 . 02 02 .► it is above km and N and are found ► its lower portion is composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen in

;molecular and atomic forms 1700 , 350► rapid temperature increase approaching degree C at

.kms : (1) ► thermosphere is divided into two layers (2)Ionosphere and

:Exosphere Ionosphere 80 . 640 . ► kms to kms and above ; ► Radio waves found it is a region of electrically charged or

ionized air lying next to Mesosphere ;► High electron density 150 .-380 . ;► kms kms known as Appleton - ;► Absorbs deadly X rays .► The northern lights or aurora borealis are found (99-130 ) ► This layer is called Kennelly Heaviside Layer kms here

- - interaction takes place between solar ultra violet photons with nitrogen . ► Sporadic Layer is associated with high velocity winds The bulk of .the atmosphere consists of electrically neutral atoms and molecules

, , At high altitudes however a significant fraction of the atmosphere . is electrically charged This region is generally called the

.Ionosphere It extends throughout the mesosphere and thermosphere but is

80 .most important and distinct at altitudes above about kilometres -Most of the ionization in the ionosphere is effected by pho

. ( . ., ) toionization Photons of short wavelength i e high energy are . absorbed by atmospheric gases A portion of the energy is used to

, eject an electron converting a neutral atom or molecule to a pair : , , of charged species an electron which is negatively charged and a

- . com panion positive ion Ionization in the Fl region is produced 02,0, 2. mainly by ejection of electrons from and N The threshold for

02- 102.7 .ionization of corresponds to a wavelength of nanometres 02 2 91.1 79.6 ,Thresholds for and N are at and nanometres . :respectively Exosphere

640 ;► kms and above , ► The atoms of oxygen hydrogen and helium form the tenuous

;atmosphere ► The density becomes extremely low and the atmosphere

. resembles a nebula because it is highly rarefied Aurora Australis - and Aurora Borealis are produced magnetic storms on the sun

. ' discharge electrified particles in the space The earth s magnetic

. ( ).poles attract these particles Aurora Australis the southern dawn ( ). Aurora Borealis the northern dawn

:Chemical Composition : (1) (2)► It is basically divided into two parts Homosphere and

Heterosphere

:Homosphere( ) a It represents the lower portion of the atmosphere and extends

90 - . upto the height of km from the sea level

( ) (20.946%), b The main constituent gases are Oxygen Nitrogen (78.084%). , - , , , ,Others are Argon Carbon dioxide Neon Helium Krypton

, , .Xenon Hydrogen etc( ) c The proportion of different gases is uniform at different levels in

. this zone

: Heterosphere

( ) 90 10,000 . a This zone extends from km to km

( ) : ( ) - b There are four parts of it i Molecular nitrogen layer it is dominated by molecular nitrogen and extends upward up to the

200 (90 200 ); ( ) : height of km to km ii Atomic oxygen layer extends 200 100 ; ( ) from to km iii Further upward there is helium layer which

3500 ; ( ) - extends up to the height of m iv Atomic hydrogen layer it is the top most layer of the atmosphere and extends up to the outer .most limit of the atmosphere

:Temperature is affected by) : l Latitude at high latitude there is low temperature and at low

, latitude there is high temperature due to longer and shorter . distances Thus equator will be affected due to isolation or 6 - 6sunstroke and tropics will be most affected between ° north °

. south Because the vertical motion is relatively rapid during its , passage over the equator but its rate slows down as it reaches the

; tropic

2) : ' , Altitude places near the earth s surface are warmer thus the temperature decreases with the increasing height above the sea

. . 1 6.5level because of the lapse rate i e every km decreases by . degree c

3) : : - 70 ; Continentality Continental Climate summer degree F winter - 28 ; - 42 .; : -62degree F range degree F Maritime Climate summer

; - 48 ; - 14 . 4)degree F winter degree F range degree F Oceanic Currents and Winds

PRESSURE and PLANETARY WINDS1) '- " :O S North South ;► Called Equatorial Low Pressure Belt , ► Intense heating with expanding air and ascending convection

;currents , , ► It is the closest point to the sun therefore the air is relatively

, , more hot due to which the air becomes less denser lighter and .moves upward

;► It is called DOLDRUMS or calm .► It is a Zone of Wind Convergence

2) 10*-15 :° North and South , ► Due to high pressure belt around this area there is subtropical

, high pressure belt where the air is comparatively dry light and .calm

, , ► This is very beneficial in maritime trade hence is called .maritime trade

, Since the air becomes hotter at the equator it raises upward and 30 . ,around degree north and south starts coming down Due to this

- . , . . 25 -35a high pressure belt is created Hence horse latitude i e ° ° , .north and south no wind blows

3) 30 - - :° North South ;► Subtropical High Pressure Belt .► Air is comparatively dry and winds are calm and light ► It is a region of descending air currents of wind divergence with

;cyclonic activity .► Referred as HORSE LATITUDE

4) 30 -60 :° ° North and South ► It is the area of temperate low pressure belt or the antitrade

. wind area There is rainfall all round the year and cyclones and - .anti cyclones are developed

, - ► Comparatively anti trade winds are faster in southern ;hemisphere than in the northern

, ► Due to Coriolis force they become South Westerlies in the north .and North Westerlies in the south

, 40 - -60In the southern hemisphere due to oceans between de gree degree South Westerlies blow with much greater force with

. regularity throughout the year Here three types of winds are :- 40 , 50 , 50 .found Roaring s Furious s and Shrieking or Storming s

5) 60 - - :° North South ► Two Temperate Low Pressure Belts which are also zones of

;convergence with cyclonic activity - ► The sub polar low pressure areas are best developed over

.oceans6) 90 - -° North South , ► Temperatures are permanently low are the Polar High Pressure

.Belt

-HORSE LATITUDE The dynamically induced subtropical high - 30 -35 (25 -35 ) pressure belt ex tends between ° ° ° ° latitudes in both

.the hemispheres- , . This belt separates two wind systems viz trade winds and

.westerlies- 30 -35 This zone ° ° is characterized by weak and variable winds and

. - calm It is known as horse latitude because of the fact that in ancient times had be sailed through the calm conditions of these .latitudes

DOLDRUM- , A belt of low pressure popularly known as equatorial trough of

, 50 low pressure extends along the equator within a zone of degree 50 . N and degree S latitudes This is the belt of calm or doldrums

. - because of light and variable winds This belt is subjected to seasonal and spatial variations due to northward and southward ( ). movement of the overhead sun summer and winter solstices Polar

:Belt , Temperature is permanently low so this region is the high pressure

. , belt In the northern hemisphere they blow north east and in , . southern hemisphere south east The polar easterlies blows towards

. the temperate low pressure belt They are extremely cold as they . come from Tundra and Icecap region They are more regular in the . : south than the north Planetary Winds Winds tend to blow from the

, high pressure belts to the low pressure belts are the planetary . ' : winds Coriolis Force or Ferrel s Law of Deflection

,► Instead of blowing directly from one pressure belt to another ( ) however the effect of the rotation of the earth Coriolis force tends

. ,to deflect the direction of the winds In the northern hemisphere winds are deflected to their right and in the southern hemisphere

.to their left ' .► This is known as Ferrel s Law of Deflection ► The Coriolis Force is about along the equator but increases

.progressively towards the Poles

:Trade Winds - ► These winds blow out from the Sub Tropical High Pressure Belt in the northern hemisphere towards the Equatorial low become North East Trade Winds and those in the southern hemisphere become

. the South East Trade Winds These trade winds are the most .regular of all the planetary winds

.► They blow with great force and in constant direction , . ► Therefore helpful to traders to sail Trade winds bring heavy

.rainfall .► They sometimes contain intense depressions ' ' ' ' ► The word trade comes from the Saxon word tredan which

.means to tread or follow a regular path - , ► They blow from north east towards the equator in the northern

- , hemisphere and from south east towards the equator in the . southern hemisphere

: . Permanent Winds They blow throughout the equator

:Westerlies , ► From the Subtropical High Pressure Belts winds blow towards the

.Temperature Low Pressure Belts , -► Under the effect of Coriolis Force they become the South

- Westerlies in the northern hemisphere and North Westerlies in the .southern hemisphere

► This warming effect and other local pressure differences have ,resulted in a very variable climate in the temperature zones

- .dominated by the movement of cyclones and anti cyclones , ► In the southern hemisphere where there is a large expanse of

, 40 60 ; ocean from degree south to degree south westerlies blow .with much greater force and regularity throughout the year

► There is much variation in the weather conditions in their poleward parts where there is convergence of cold and denser

.polar winds and warms and lighter westerlies . .► Their velocity increases south ward and they become stormy

. They are also associated with boisterous gales The velocity of the - :westerlies be cpme so great that they are called

( ) 40-50 ; ( )a Roaring forties between the latitudes degree S b Furious 50 ; fifties at degree S latitude and

( ) 60 ' . :c Shrieking sixties at degree S latitude Polar Easterlies ► It blows from the Polar Easterlies towards the Temperate Low

.Pressure Belts -► It is extremely cold winds as it comes from Tundra and Ice Cap

. .regions y It is more regular in the south than in the north . . ► It is defected to the right to become the N E Polar Winds in the

. . Northern Hemisphere and to the left to become the S E Poter .Winds in the Southern Hemisphere

60-65► These polar cold winds converge with warm westerlies near - -latitudes and form polar front or mid latitude front or mid latitude

, front which becomes the centre for the origin of temperate .cyclones

:Fohn and Chinook , - - Fohn is a warm dry and local wind Northern Alps Switzerland in ; .spring and called climate oasis

, - ► Chinook is a warm dry and local wind Eastern slopes in Rockies .in USA and Canada in winters 35 15 .► It increases temperature degree F within minutes .► It causes Avalanches , , ' '.► In North America it is called Chinook meaning the snow eater ► Chinook winds are more common during winter and early spring

( ) along the eastern slopes leeward side of the Rocky Mountains ( ) ( ). from Colorado USA in the south to British Columbia Canada

:Sirocco , , Sirocco is a warm dry and dusty local wind which blows in northerly direction from Sahara desert and after crossing over the

, ,Mediterranean Sea reaches Italy and Spain

► Becomes extremely warm and dry while descending through the .northern slopes of the Atlas Mountain

; ; ;► It is known as Khamsin in Egypt Gibli in Libya Chili in Tunisia ; ; Simoom in Arabian Desert Blood Rain in South Italy Leveche in

; .Spain Gharbi in Adriatic and Aegean Sea

:Mistral -► It is a cold wind which blows in Spain and France from North

; east direction especially in winter 56-64 / 128 :► The average velocity of mistral is km h to kmph Bora - ► Bora is an extremely cold and dry north easterly wind in Adriatic

, 128 196 Sea with a velocity of kmph to kmph . :► It is also called Tramontana and Gregale Harmattan - ► It is warm and dry winds blowing from north east and east to

.west in the eastern part of Sahara desert ► Called as Doctor in Guinea coastal of Western Africa ; ► Called Brickfielder in Victoria in Australia Blackroller in the Great

; ; .plains of USA Shamal in Mesopotamia Norwester in New Zealand

:Blizzard ► It is a violent stormy cold and powdery polar wind laden with dry

, ,-snow and is prevalent in North and South polar regions Siberia .Canada and the USA

. ► Northers in the Southern USA and Burran in Siberia Tropical : : 6 20Cyclones Typhoons It occurs mainly in the region degree and

degree North and South of the equator and are most frequent from . ' 100 . . . July to October It s velocity is m p h Torrential downpour is

. : ,accompanied by Thunder and Lightening Hurricanes Same feature , . ,but only differs in intensity duration and locality It has calm

, .rainless centres where pressure is lowest: 500 . . . Tornadoes Its velocity is m p h It appears as a dark funnel

. 250-1400 . . .cloud ft in diameter It is most frequent in spring

:Atmospheric Pressure ► Air has weight and therefore it exerts air pressure or atmospheric

. pressure Pressure is felt maximum at the surface and it decreases .with height

2.7 . . . 1013.2 , ► It is about kg per sq cm i e millibar water vapour , decreases the pressure the movement of the earth also affects

.pressure 1600 / ► At the equator earth rotates with a speed of km hour and

40,000 24 .completes a distance of km in hour ;► Speed decreases as it goes up and down 45 1100 / 0► At degree latitude speed is km hour and becomes

, 60 degree at the poles therefore after degree latitude air pressure .is constant

:Types Of Atmospheric Pressure( ) - - a Vertical distribution ofpres sure the pressure is highest at

300 surface and at every m above the earth the pressure decreases 34 . 5,500 . 1/4 by millibar At m pressure reduces to half and th at

11000 . ( ) - , m b Horizontal distribution of pressure In January sun is tilted towards south and therefore in the southern hemisphere there

- . is low pressure belt Therefore in Eurasia and North America high . , pressure is developed with low temperature In July at Atlantic and

Pacific ocean low pressure is developed especially Icelandic and . , Aleutianic On the other hand when the sun is tilted towards north

. low pressure is shifted to Asia and Africa However in the lower , , Asia Africa South Pacific Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean high

. pressure is developed

7 : ) ;► There are pressure belts i Equatorial Low Pressure Belt) - ;ii North of Capricorn High Pressure Belt) - ;iii South Of Cancer High Pressure Belt)66 ( - );iv degree North Low Pressure Belt Northern sub Polar region)66 ( - );v degree South low Pressure Belt Southern sub Polar region) ;vi North Pole High Pressure Belt) ,vii South Pole High Pressure Belt

Relation between Pressure and Wind:. l The temperature increases when wind expands and density

, decreases and when the temperature Jails winds contracts and . , ,density increases Therefore where temperature is increased density is lowered and any reduction in temperature produces high . pressure

2. , The earth rotates west to east and therefore it produces , centrifugal force and due to this force there is change in the

. :-( ) 'direction of the wind There are three laws related to it a Ferrel s : , Law In the northern hemisphere wind deflects towards right and in - . the southern hemisphere it is vice versa This means that in the

- , north em hemisphere the wind deflects clockwise and in the - . southern anti clockwise This is called deflection of wind and because of high and low pressure the wind tends to be deflected .instead of being straightened

( ) ' : b Buisballot s Law In north hemisphere at the right side of your , , backside there would be high pressure and at the left low . , - . pressure In the south it is vice versa This would help in

.determination of appropriate direction( ’ : Hadley s Law In the northern hemisphere the wind from north to

- , south deviates right and in the southern hemi sphere from south . to north deviates to the left The left from east to west does not

. : deflect according to this law Clouds Clouds are defined as , - aggregates of innumerable tiny water droplets ice particles of

, mixture of both in the air generally above the ground surface Acid :Rain

- . - 1 14 Acidity measured by pH PH scale runs from to measures the ( *) & ( ) balance of Hydrogen ions H Hydroxide ions OH in a 14 point

scale

- 7.Positive and negative balance is pH- , If there are more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ion the pH is less

, , than the solution is termed acidic the lower the pH the higher the . - - : 5.5 6 0. acid content Rainfall somewhat acidic pH to

:Condensation The process of change of water vapour into liquid form is called

. , condensation Therefore condensation is opposite to vaporization : Surface Tension water has the highest surface tension of any liquid . except mercury Surface tension is the attraction of molecules of

.each other

:Humidity water in gaseous form or water vapour in the . atmosphere is referred to as humidity It can also be defined as the

/ . : number of molecules of water unit volume Vapour Pressure Vapour , pressure is simply the pressure exerted by the water vapour . . content Its value increases as the temperature increases

: Specific Humidity Specific humidity is the ratio of the weight of ( ) ( moist vapour gms to the weight of moist air Represents the . actual quantity of moisture in a definite air It decreases fmm . 0.2 ./ ., equator to poles In Arctic it is gm kg while in equatorial

, 18 ./ . region it is gm kg It is used in Climatology

: Absolute Humidity Absolute humidity of the air is the mass or weight of vapour per unit volume of air

: Relative Humidity It is defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapour actually present in the air having definite volume and

( ) temperature Absolute humidity to the maximum amount the air .can hold

:Forms of Condensation : , Mist Forms on wet surface lakes or - rivers where the hu midity is high and condensation in evening

was led to wisps of mist over the fields and water especially in .sheltered spots

: Rime It is a deposit of white opaque ice crystals formed by the . 0freezing of super cooled water droplets on the surface below

. : . :degree C Smog Smoke and Fog Normal lapse rate6.5 / . degree C thousand m or3.5 / . degree F thousand feet

:Dew Point ► The temperature at which air becomes saturated is called Dew

.Point . ► The vapour is limited If the volume of vapour increases but

,there may be a point at which the vapour cannot be incorporated .this is called saturation point

. ► Dew points are the temperaing winter than summer

:Regional Distribution According to the ancient Greek thinkers the globe is divided into

: (1) ;three temperature zones on the basis of latitudes Tropical Zone (2) ; (3) ;Temperature Zone Frigid Zone(1) - (23.50 )Tropical Zone Extends between the tropics of Cancer N

(23.50 ).and Capricorn S- The sun is more or less vertical on the equator throughout the

.year- There is no winter around the equator because of high

.temperature prevailing throughout the year(2) Temperate Zone- 23.5 66.5 .Extends between ° and ° latitudes in both the hemispheres- There is a marked seasonal contrast with the northward and

- southward migration of the overhead sun The range of .temperature is exceptionally high

(3) Frigid Zone- 66.5 Extends between ° latitudes and the poles in both the

.hemispheres- ' More oblique sun s rays throughout the year resulting into

. - exceptionally very low temperature characterize it The length of 24 . -day and night is more than hrs Isanomalous Temperature The

^ difference ot observed temperature of a place and the mean temperature of the latitude passing through that places called

. - , 30thermal anomaly For example if the average temperature of °N 20 " " latitude is °C and the temperature of S place located on the 30 , 10 . - latitude is °C then the thermal anomaly is of ° If the observed temperature of a particular place is more than the mean

, temperature of the latitude of that place the thermal anomaly is , called positive thermal anomaly but if the observed temperature of

a given place is less than that of the latitude of that place then it .becomes negative thermal anomaly

- The equal thermal anomaly of several places is called isanomalous temperature and the lines drawn on the world map joining places

.of equal thermal anomaly are called isanomals

Water Vapour and Evaporation- ( ) The process of transformation of liquid water into gaseous from . - is called evaporation The process of conversion of vapour into

( ) ( , , ) . water and solid form ice snow frost is condensation

Latent Heat- Energy in the form of heat is required for the conversion of water

( ). into gaseous torm water vapor Heat energy is generally measured .in the unit of calorie

- (The potential energy of water is more than ice and that of vapour . is more than water This hidden amount of heating water is the

. latenheat

- ( ) Humidity Capacity The moisture content humidity of the air is .measured in grain per cubic foot or in gram per cubic centimetre

- - Evaporation is the main mechanism through which wa sher is . - converted into humidity Temperature and evaporation are directly positively related and hence humidity and temperature are also

. directly positively related- The moisture retaining capacity or humidity capacity refers to the

capacity of an air of certain temperature to retain maximum .amount of moisture content

- Humidity capacity is directly positively related with temperature

- , -Higher the temperature higher the humidity capacity and vice.versa

- The ratio of increase of humidity capacity also increases with the .increasing temperature

Absolute Humidity- ( ) The total weight of moisture contained water vapour per volume .of air at definite temperature is called absolute humidity

- Evaporation is the main mechanism through which water is . converted into humidity or vapour Temperature and evaporation are

. - directly and positively related The absolute humidity decreases .from equator towards thepoles and from ocean to the continents

- The possibility of preeipitation largely depends on absolute .humidity

- The air having moisture content equal to its humidity capacity is ' '. - called saturated air Generally absolute humidity does not change

. - with increase or decrease of temperature Specific Humidity It is ' defined as the mass of water vapour in grams contained in a kg

Qf air and it represents the actual quantity of moisture present in a definite air

- _ It is seldom affected by change in the air temperature measured in the units of weight

- , It is directly proportional to vapour pressure which is the partial pressure exerted by water vapour in the air and is independent of

', .other gases and is inversely proportional to air pressure- .It decreases from equator to pote ward- , ' In real sense specific humidity is a geographer s yardstick of a

basic natural resource water to be applied from equatorial to Polar . - Regions It is a measure of quantity of water that can be .extracted from the atmosphere as precipitation

- , 0.2 / ., , 18 / .In Arctic it is gm kg while in equatorial region it is gm kg

Relative Humidity ( ) RH Relative humidity is defined as a ratio of the amount of water

vapour actually present in the air having definite volume and ( . ., ) temperature i e absolute humidity to the maximum amount the

( . ., ). air can hold i e humidity capacity( = / ) Relative Humidity Absolute Humidity Humidity Capacity There is inverse relationship between air temperature and relative

, . ., humidity i e relative humidity decreases with increasing - .temperature while it increases with decreasing tem perature

When the humidity capacity and absolute humidity of the air are , the same the air is said to be saturated and relative humidity

. ( ) becomes lOO percent Relative humidity RH can be changed in : , two ways first if the absolute humidity increases due to additional

, .evaporation and secondly change takes place temperature : - .Importance of RH The possibility of precipitation depends on it

- High and low relative humidity is indicative of the possibility of . : -wet and dry conditions respectively Distribution of RH Equatorial

.regions are characterized by highest relative humidity- It gradually decreases towards subtropical high pressure belts

( 25 -35 ) -where it becomes minimum between ° ° latitude Latitudes .largely control seasonal distribution of relative humidity

- . . Maximum R H is found during summer season between 30 30 . °Nand °S latitudes Condensation- ( . ., )The transformation of gaseous form of water i e water vapour

( ) ( ) .into solid form ice and liquid form water is called condensation - .Condensation is opposite to evaporation- The temperature at which an air becomes saturated is called Dew

. - :point temperature Condensation depends on( ) ; a the percentage of relative humidity of the air and( ) .b the degree of cooling of air

Cooling of Air and Adiabatic Change 6.5Temperature decreases with increasing height at the rate of °C

1000 3.6 1000 . per m or °F per feet This rate of decrease of .temperature with increasing height is called normal lapse rate

A definite ascending air with given volume and temperature . - expands due to decrease in pressure and thus cools It is apparent

that there is a change in temperature of air due to ascent or . descent but without addition or subtraction of heat Such type of change of temperature of air due to contraction or expansion of air

.is called adiabatic change of temperature , .: ( )Adiabatic change of temperature is of two types viz i dry ( ) . - adiabatic change ii moist adiabatic change The temperature of

unsaturated ascending air decreases with increasing height at the 5.50 10 1000 rate of Fper feet or °C per m This type of change of

temperature of unsaturated ascending or descending air is called . - dry adiabatic rate The rate of decrease of temperature of an

ascending air beyond condensation level is lowered due to addition . of latent heat of condensation of the air This is called moist

-adiabatic rats- In this case temperature of an ascending air beyond condensation

( ) 3 1000level decreases and hence the air cools at the rate °F per . .feet This is also called retarded adiabatic rate

Stability and Instability of the Atmosphere- ( , , , ,Different types of precipitation dew rainfall frost snowfall

, .) hailstorm etc depend on stability and instability of the .atmosphere

- The air without vertical movement is called stable air while .unstable air undergoes vertical movement

- An air mass ascends and becomes unstable when it becomes warmer than the surrounding air mass while descending air mass . becomes stable The stability and instability depends on the

relationship between normal lapse rate and adiabatic change in .temperature

:Stability When the dry adiabatic lapse rate of ascending dry air is higher than the normal lapse rate and if it is not saturated and

" , does not attain dew point it becomes colder than surrounding air .at certain height with the result it becomes heavier and descends

This process causes stabilityof atmospheric circulation due to which ;vertical circulation of air is resisted

When the ascending parcel of air reaches such height that its , temperature equals temperature of surrounding air its further

. upward movement is stopped Such air is said to be in the state of .neutral equilibrium

:Mechanical Instability It is a case of abnormal conditions when (15 35the normal lapse rate is exceptionally very high degree C to

. .). degree C per lOOm The upper layers are cold and denser than , , the underlying layers therefore cold and denser upper layers

. automatically descend Such situation is called mechanical instability .and helps in the formation of tornado

:Conditional Instability When a parcel of air is forced to move , (10 1000 .upward it cool at dry adiabatic lapse rate degree C per m

5.5 1000 ), 6.5 1000 .or degree F per feet normal lapse rate is °C per m The air is initially forced to move upward but rises automatically . due to its own properties after condensation point is reached

: Dew The earth receives radiation fromihe sun during day and .reflects in the night

► When the earth reflects the heat the surface becomes cooleLand .the air around it also becomes cooler

► Then the water vapour in the air condenses and then is called ' '.dew : (1) ► But there are two preconditions there must be vapour in the ; (2) air and the surface must be cool enough to condense that

.water vapour ' , ► That s why after rainy season the water vapour content in the .air increases

, ► After the rainy season in the winter the air becomes cool and . . therefore adequate dews are formed in Oct Nov

:Fog ► It is a special type of thin cloud consisting of microscopically

small water droplets which are kept in suspension in the air near .the ground surface arid reduces horizontal visibility

► Fog is generally associated with inversion of temperature and .occurs in the morning hours but sometimes also continue till noon , .When there is a mixture of smoke and fog it becomes Smog

:Radiation Fog .► Radiation fog is formed when warm and moist air lies surface

Due to this situation overlying warm and moist aircools and the , dew point is reached with the condensation of water vapour around

( ) hygroscopic nuclei dust particles and smokes forms numerous tiny .water droplet and thus fog is originated

► When fog is combined with sulphur dioxide it becomes poisonous . .and causes human deaths Such fog is called urban smog

:Advectional Radiation Fog ► The fog formed due to mixing of warm moist air and cold air

due to arrival of warm and moist air over cold ground surface is .called advectional radiation

, ► The fogs occurring over sea surfaces are called sea fogs which , are generally formed near the coastal areas frequented by cold

.ocean currents

:Steam Fogs , Steam fogs are in fact advectional fogs which are formed when

cold air moves from land over oceanic surface and there is evaporation of large quantity of moisture from water surface to

. saturate the overlying cold air They are also called evaporation .fogs

:Upslope or Hill Fogs It originate when continental warm and moist air rises upslope

along the hill slopes because the rising air is saturated due to cooling and condensation of moisture around hygroscopic nuclei and

.forms fogs which cover the lower segments of hill slopes

:Frontal Fogs Fronts are formed when two contrasting air masses ( ) . warm and cold air masses converge along a line Warm air is

pushed upward by cold air and hence overlying warm air is cooled from below due to underlying warm air is cooled from below due to

. :underlying cold air and fogs originate after condensation Frost , .► When the temperature falls below freezing point it forms a frost

0 , Temperature either ° C or less than the water droplets take the . :form of ice cubes Rime

► It is a deposit of white opaque ice crystals formed by the 0 .freezing of super cooled water droplets on the surface below °C

RAINFALL Origin of Rainfall

, ► The presence of warm moist and unstable air and sufficient .number of hygroscopic nuclei are prerequisite condition for rainfall

► The warm and moist air after being lifted upward be comes saturated and clouds are formed after condensation of water ( ) vapour around hygroscopic nuclei salt and dust particles but still

.there may not be rainfall unless the air is supersaturated ► The process of condensation begins only when the relative

100% humidity of ascending air becomes and the air is further cooled through dry adiabatic lapse but first condensation occurs

. around larger hygroscopic nuclei only Such droplets are called .cloud droplets

:For condensation there are following pre conditions ;► The air becomes warm and goes vertical and then spreads ► To come into contact of warm air with high mountains and then to climb over then and to come close to the top layer of ice and

;become cool ;► To become cool by approaching the colder latitudes . ► To come in contact with colder air or currents

:Theories of Rainfall Cloud Instability

:Theory of Bergeron Findeisen This theory was postulated in 1933; .also called Icecrystal theory ► This theory is based on the fact that relative humidity of air is

greater with respect to an icesurface than with respect to water .surface

5 25 , ► Air temperature ranges between °C to °C then water droplets .become supersaturated

► The aggregation of ice crystals is more prevalent when air 0 50 temperature ranges between degree to degree C

► When the ice crystals fall and pass through layer of air with 0 , .temperature more than degree C they change into raindrops

:Collision Theory ► The Bergeron process could not explain the mechanism of rainfall .in tropical areas , ► The Collision Theory involving collision coalescence and sweeping for the formation and growth of rain drops was postulated by many

.meteorologists , ► According to this theory the collision may cause splitting and

.scattering of cloud droplets ► Longmuir modified this theory saying that the larger drops fall

.with greater velocity than smaller drops hence absorbing them

: Types of Rainfall Conventional Rainfall ► Occur due to thermal convention currents caused due to

.insolational heating of ground surface ;► Prevalent especially in equatorial areas , ► Warm air rises up and expands then reaches at a cooler layer

and saturates and then condenses mainly in the form of cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds and normally precipitation takes place in ;the second half of the noon

, ► Also rains in the tropical subtropical and little in temperate ;regions

:► But there must be two pre conditions Abundant supply of moisture through evaporation to air so that

;relative humidity becomes high

Intense heating of ground surface through incoming shortwave . electromagnetic solar radiations

: Features of Conventional rainfall1 . . It occurs daily in the afternoon in the equatorial region2.1 t is for very short duration but occurs in the form of heavy

.showers3. .They make Cumulonimbus clouds4.1 , . n hot deserts it is not regular but is irregular and sudden

:Cyclonic or frontal rainfall ► Occur due to upward movement of air caused by convergence of

extensive air masses ► It happens due to the convergence of two different air masses

. with different temperature The worm air rises over cold air and ;cyclonic rain occurs

. ► Cold air pushes up warm air and the sky is clear again

Orographic Rainfall occurs due to ascent of air forced by . : mountain barrier The preconditions are

( ) , a there should be mountain barrier across the wind direction so . .that the moist air is forced on obstruction to move upward e g

Aravali in Rajasthan is parallel to Arabian Sea and thus forms rain ; shadow area

( ) ; b there should be sufficient moisture in the air( ) ; c the height of the mountain also affects rainfall and( ) , ;d if the height is more but more distance from sea lesser rainfall , . if the height is less but nearer to sea more rainfall

Features of : Orographic rainfall . . . ► The windward slope E g Mangalore is located in the western

2,000 , windward slope and receives mm of rainfall whereas 500 .Bangalore is in rain shadow area and hardly receives mm

. 2,000 .rainfall Similarly Coast Ranges of North America receives mm ' .but eastern slope doesn t

► The maximum rainfall occurs near the mountain slope and . . . , 1520 .; ,decreases away from the foothills E g in Shimla mm Nainital

2,000 . 3150 . mm and Darjeeling receives mm rainfall because . 1000 .,Darjeeling is nearest to Himalayan slopes Patna mm 1050 650 .Allahabad and Delhi mm

, '► If mountain is of moderate height the maximum rainfall doesn t .occur at the top rather it occurs on the other side

► Cumulus clouds while the leeward side by Stratus clouds characterizes the windward slope of mountain at the time of

.rainfall ► The amount of rainfall increases with increasing height along the

windward slope of mountain up to a certain height but the amount of rain decreases with increasing height because of marked

. decrease in the moisture content of air This situation is called ' ';inversion of rainfall . :► This type of rainfall may occur in any season Inversion Point

24,000 7,000 . maximum rainfall line is at feet or m at the equator , 12,000 3600 .; 21,000whereas in the Himalayas it is feet or m at Alps

6,300 . 18,00012,000 .or m and at Pyrenees mountain feet

:Distribution of Rainfall ,► Rainfall is related with air temperature and atmospheric humidity

while humidity is closely related with temperature through the .process of evaporation

► The regions having high temperature and abundance of water . . .receive higher amount of rainfall e g Equatorial regions

► SubTropical regions also have the same conditions but the .western parts receive least rainfall due to anticyclonic conditions

970 . ► Mean annual rainfall for the whole globe is mm but is .unevenly distributed

100 . . . ► Some places receive less than mm of rainfall e g Hot deserts , ., 12,000 .like Kalahari Thar etc while some receive more than mm .like Cherrapunji in India

, ► The equatorial regions receive rainfall throughout the year while .the other areas have seasonal rainfall

► The Mediterranean region receives most of the annual rainfall . during winters

Other Forms of Precipitation1 . : 0 , Ice If the temperature of the entire atmosphere is below °C the

. condensation will lead to ice formation and snowfall2. : Snowfall The fall of larger snowflakes from the clouds on the

. ground surface is called snowfall It occurs when the freezing level 300 . is less than m from the ground surface These crystals reach the

, , ground without being melted in a solid form of precipitation as snow3 . : . . Sleet In U K it refers to a mixture of snow and rain but in

American terminology it means falling of small pellets of 5 . .transparent and translucent ice having a diameter of mm or less

4. : . Hail It consists of large pellets or spheres of ice In fact hail is a ,form of solid precipitation wherein small balls or pieces of ice

. , 550 Known as Hail or stones having a diameter of mm fall ! downward as hail storms They are very destructive and dreaded

form of solid precipitation because they destroy agricultural crops . , and claim human and animal life After condensation if the

0 , temperature is below degree C than the water drops would take . the form of hails

5. : Drizzle The fall of numerous uniform minute droplets of water 0.5 . . having diameter of less than mm is called drizzle They fall

continuously from low stratus clouds but the total amount of water .received on the ground surface is significantly

( )AIR MASSES AM

1. Meaning and Characteristics " An air mass may be defined as , a large body of air whose physical properties especially

, , , temperature moisture content and lapse rate are more or less ." . .uniform horizontally for hundreds of kilometres According to A N . . : " Strahler and A H Strahler a body of air in which the upward gradients of temperature and moisture are fairly uniform over a

." large area is known as an air mass An air mass may be so extensive that it may cover a large portion of a continent and it

may be so thick in vertical dimension that it may vertically extend .through the troposphere

► An air mass is designated as cold air mass when its temperature is lower than the underlying surface while an air mass is termed

warm air mass when its temperature is higher than the underlying .surface

.► The boundary between two different air masses is called front

. II Source Regions ► The extensive areas over which air masses originate or form are

called surface regions whose nature and properties largely determine the temperature and moisture characteristics of air

.masses ► An ideal source region of air mass must possess the following

:essential conditions ' ► There must be extensive and homogenous earth s surface so that ;it may possess uniform temperature and moisture conditions ; ► There should not be convergence of air rather there should be

divergence of air flow so that the air may attain the physical .properties of the region

► Atmospheric conditions should be stable for considerably long period of time so that the air may attain the characteristics of the .surface

'► There are six major source regions of air masses on the earth s :surface

1. ( Polar oceanic areas North Atlantic Ocean between , ),Eurasia and North America and Arctic region during winter season

3. ( ),Tropical oceanic areas anticyclonic areasthroughout the year4. ( , , Tropical continental areas North AfricaSahara Asia Mississippi

),Valley zone of the USA most developed in summers5 . ( Equatorial regions zone located between trade windsactive

), throughout the year and6. . . Monsoon lands of S E Asia

) :Ill Classification of AM There are two approaches to the , . ., ( ) classification of air masses e g a Geographical Classification and

( ) . :b Thermodynamic classification Geographical Classification ► The geographical classification of air masses is based on the

.characteristic features of the source regions ► Trewartha has classified air masses on the basis of their

, ., ( ) geographical locations into two broad categories viz i Polar air ( ), . mass P which originate in the polar areas Arctic air masses are

; ( ) ( ), also included in this category ii Tropical air mass T which . originate in tropical areas Equatorial air masses are also included

. in this category ► These two air masses have been further divided into two types :on the basis of the nature of the surface of the source regions

( ) ( ) a Continental air masses indicated by small letter V and( ) (' ') b maritime air masses m Thermodynamic Modifications and

Classification of Air Masses

► Thermodynamic modifications of an air mass involves its heating from below while passing through different surfaces away from the .source region

4 : ( )► The modification of air masses depend on factors i Initial characteristics of air mass in terms of temperature and moisture

: content( ) ii Nature of land or water surface over which a particular air mass

,moves( ) iii Path followed by the air mass from the source region to the

, affected area and( ) .iv Time taken by the air mass to reach a particular destination ( ) ► A warm air mass w is that whose temperature is greater than the surface temperature of the region visited while if the air mass

( ).is colder than the surface temperature it is called cold air mass k

Such mechanical modifications are introduced due to cyclonic and , anticyclonic conditions Based on the thermodynamic and ( ) :mechanical dynamic modifications air masses are divided into

1. ; 2. .cold air mass and warm air mass

: Fronts , Usually air mass from one region gradually moves to the . other region occupied by some other air mass When a warmer and

,a lighter air mass moves against a cold and more dense air mass . .the former rides over the latter Such a front is called a warm front , On the contrary if the cold air mass forces its way under a mass , of warmer air and pushes the latter upwards the front will be

. called a cold front

:General Frontal Characteristics ( ) : i Temperature Great difference . in temperature are recorded across a front But the change in the

temperature may be abrupt or gradual depending upon the nature . of the opposing air masses The width of frontal transition zone is

. dependent on the temperature contrast Besides the fronts are always characterized by the temperature inversion layers because

.of ascent of warm air over a wedge of cold and dense air mass( ) : ii Air Pressure there is an abrupt change in the pressure as well as

. the pressure gradient across a front( ) : .iii Winds Abrupt wind shift at the fronts( ) : :iv Clouds and Precipitation Frontogenesis

. The term was for the first was used by Tor Bergeron It is a process of regeneration of the old and the decaying fronts or it means the

. creation of altogether new fronts

Frontolysis: . The process means the dying of a front Fronts do not , come into existence out of a sudden rather they appear only after

the process of frontogenesis have been in operation for quite some . time In the same way the act of vanishing of the existing fronts is

. not accomplished suddenly The process of frontolysis must .continue for some time in order to destroy an existing front

Convergence of the wind toward a point or contraction toward a . ,line augments the process of frontogenesis On the contrary

, divergence of the wind from a point or is helpful to the process of .frontogenesis

Frontogenesis there for is likely to occur when fronts move into . regions of divergent air flow That is why in crossing the subtropical

, . high pressure regions the front generally disappears Cyclones facilitate development of fronts whereas anticyclones do not allow

. the formation of the fronts

:Classification of fronts 1. 2. 3.0 Cold front Warm front ccluded front 4. :Stationary front Cold Front

A cold front is a front along Which cold air is invading the warm . , air zone Since the colder air masses denser it remains at the

. ,ground and forcibly uplifts the warmer and lighter air mass In fact when pressure distribution is such as to force the cold air to

, advance and the warm air to retreat the zone of transition is . called a cold front The steepness of the front is closely related

. , with its velocity Higher velocity results in the steeper slope while . the lower velocity makes the slope of the front rather gentle The

1 : 50 1 :100. slope of the cold front varies from to Depending upon , the instability of the overrunning warm air convective clouds or even thunderstorms may occur along the leading edge of the cold . , front The type of front slopes backward instead of forward so there is no warning far in advance often approaching cold front and

. no preceding cloudiness until the front is near The cold front in general is associated with narrow band of cloudiness and

. . precipitation The cold front passes more rapidly The sky becomes . , clear soon after the passage of the front However the weather

. , produced along the cold front is valid At the actual front the clouds are of Nimbostratus and Cumulonimbus type which produce . ,heavy rainfall In certain cases precipitation falls ahead of the front . while on occasions it is behind the same If cold front moves , rapidly the secondary cold fronts may develop at some distance

. , behind With the passage of cold front the sky becomes rapidly . clear and the weather improves There is a sudden drop in the

. temperature The wind shift from south to west or northwest . generally accompanying the frontal passage There is marked . decrease in the specific and relative humidity The weather after a

, cold front has passed is dominated by subsiding and relatively cold . , air mass In winter the passage of a cold front is followed by a . cold wave which further reduces the surface temperature

:Warm Front 1 : 100 1 : 200.The slope of warm front is to . Cirrostratus clouds halos around the sun and the moon Mackerel

. sky is produced by Cirrocumulus clouds As the front approaches , . the viewer the clouds become lower and thicker The thick cloud

sheet overlying the surface position of the front gives steady .precipitation extending over a long distance ahead of the front

Warm fronts usually yield moderate to gentle precipitation over a . relatively larger area for several hours This is in conformity with

. the gentle slope of the front Convective activity is generally absent . , along a warm front The passage of a warm front is marked by a

. rise in the temperature and pressure The specific humidity arises . rapidly

Occluded Front: An occluded front is a front formed when a cold , front overtakes a warm front the cofd front moves rapidly than the . , warm front Ultimately the cold front overtakes the warm front and

. completely displaces the warm air at the ground A long backward .swinging occluded front comes into the existence

:There are two types of occlusion( ) , ( ) i Cold front occlusion which is most common and ii Warm front

. occlusion The weather that is produced along an occluded front is usually a combination of the cold front and the warm front weather

. : conditions Stationary Front It is a front in which the surface .position of the fronts do not move

:Zones of Frontogenesis . The fronts do not form everywhere There development is confined

. to certain defined zones Fronts usually develop in those areas of .the world where air masses have strong temperature contrasts

( ) : , i Atlantic Polar Front This is the most important zone which is . ,developed maximum in winter It is an area between Great lakes

, . ( ) :Iceland Portugal and West Indies ii Atlantic Arctic Front ( ) : . iii Mediterranean Front This front lies over Mediterra nean and

. ( ) :Caspian Sea region which develops in winter iv Pacific Arctic Front . This front lies between Rocky mountains and Great Lake regions In

, .winter it shifts equatorward , : ( ) In winter two pacific polar fronts develops i near the coast of

; ( ) . North America ii near the Asian coast The winter rainfall along the Pacific coast of North America is produced by the storms

. developed on these fronts The Polar fronts over western Atlantic 10 and Pacific deyelop degrees further north in summer than in

. winter The summer Polar Fronts develop over Eurasia in Middle

. North America In the southern hemisphere the average position of 45 . , the polar front is about degrees south in January In July there ( ) ( ) are two polar fronts i originating over South America and ii the

170 . other at degrees west

:CYCLONES

Cyclone is a system of low atmospheric pressure in which the . , barometric gradient is steep Winds circulate blowing inwards in an

anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise . direction in the Southern hemisphere Cyclones are classified into

: ( ) (2) two parts l Tropical Cyclone Temperate or Extratropical Cyclone

( ) : l Tropical Cyclone A system of low pressure occurring in tropical , ; latitudes characterized by its very strong winds found mainly in

, , . Indian Ocean Indonesia and Australia Tropical Disturbances are :classified into three parts

( ) a A Tropical Depression is a system with low pressure enclosed . 33 61 within few isobars and the wind speed is knot or tens and it .lacks a marked circulation

( ) b A Tropical Storm is a system with several closed isobars and a 115 .wind circulation of Kms

( ) c A Tropical Cyclones is a warm core vortex circulation of tropical origin with a small diameter often of an approximately circular ; shape they occur only in oceanic areas where the sea

27 . temperatures exceed degree C

: Different Names of Tropical Cyclones

- . & Hurricanes N America Caribbean

- Typhoons Western North Pacific- Willywillies Australia

- Bagulo Philippine Islands- Taifu Japan

- Cyclones Indian Ocean

Structure of the Tropical Cyclones: ► It is essentially radially symmetrical (1) ► It has six regions The eye is the centre of the storm which is

characterised by more or less circular with comparatively clear , , skies lowest pressure the highest temperature and highest relative

; humidities(2) The eye is surrounded by a wall of cumulonimbus known as

. ; eyeball Strongest wind is found(3) Spiral bands or Rainbands or Feeder bands contain many

;individual thunderstorms which produce heavy rainfall(4) Annular zone is characterized by cloudiness and high

;temperatures and low humidities(5) ; Outer Convective band(6) . Main cloudmass Horizontal structure of tropical cyclone

Eye the innermost or central portion of the mature cyclone is the ' '. 10 30 , eye It is about to km in diameter depending upon the size . . of the storm and is a more or less calm region with little or no

. clouds and some subsidence The eye or the calm centre can be : ( described variously as the Pressure eye where mean sea level

), ( ), pressure is lowest Wind eye light or calm wind conditions Radar ( ) ( eye the eye seen in radar echoes and the Satellite eye clear or ).dark spot seen in the cloud mass in satellite imagery

Eye Wall or Inner Ring ' 'Surrounding the eye is a tight inner ring . of hurricane winds This core of maximum winds is at the centre of a solid thick wall of towering Cumulonimbus clouds and is called

' '.the eye wall

Outer Ring An outer ring of cyclonic circulation lies beyond the , eye wall where the speed decreases steeply and clouds and rain

.diminish rapidly outwards

(2) : Temperate Cyclone ' '. It is also called Depressions It has low . pressure at the centre and increasing pressure outward It has

, , ,varying shapes such as near circular elliptical or wedge therefore . it is also called Low or Troughs or Mid Latitude Depressions

, 35Secondly they are formed in the regions extending between 65 . degree to degree latitudes in both the hemispheres

, , Thirdly Tropical Cyclone is confined strictly over sea whereas . Temperate Cyclone form over both land and sea

, Fourthly Tropical cyclone is produced in summer and autumn and . Temperate cyclone largely in winter

, , Fifthly Temperate cyclone has low pressure gradient whereas ; tropical cyclone has steep pressure gradient and

, ,finally rainfall in temperate cyclones is slow and continuous .whereas in tropical cyclone the rainfall is violent and torrential

:Anticyclone A system of atmospheric pressure in which the , isobars on a synoptic chart indicate a relatively highpressure in the centre and decreasingly low pressures outwards to the periphery of

. , the system The isobars are generally widely spaced indicating light . winds which may be absent near the centre Air movement is

clockwise in the Northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the . Southern hemisphere The term anticyclone was coined by Galton in

1861 Anticyclones do notexperience any precipitation and tend to be

. , dry It is characterized by larger slow moving and more persistent with a high pressure at the centre but with a weaker pressure

.gradient and light variable winds diverging from the centre '► They are usually circular in shape but sometimes also assume V

.shape ► They are much larger in size and area than temperate cyclones 75% .as their diameter is larger than that of the latter .► Anticyclones do not have fronts ► Winds descend from above at the centre and thus weather

.becomes clear and rainless

:Fohn Winds ( : ) Latin meaning growth A warm and relatively dry .wind which descends on the leeward side of a mountain range : Fohn winds are

- Chinook Andes and Rockies- Yamo Japan

- . Tramontane C Europe- Samun Iran

- Norwester New Zealand- . Berg S Africa - Santa Ana California- Zonda Argentina

: Depression Winds A moving wind involves air masses originating , , both on its poleward and equatorward side therefore both warm .and cold wind result

:Depression winds are1.Warm

- Sirocco Italy- Leveche Australia- Khamsim Egypt

- Gibli Tunisia- ( )Brickfielders Victoria Australia

2. Cold - Southerly Burster New South Wales- Pampero Argentina - Friagem or Surazo Brazil- Papagayo Mexico

- ( )Mistral Rhone Valley France- Levanter West Mediterranean

- Etesian East Mediterranean- Bora Adriatic Coast

: Convectional Wind They are basically desert winds with dusty and gusty surface winds

- Karaburan Tarim Basin -Haboob Sudan

- Harmattah West Africa: Tornadoes A rapidly rotating column of air developed around a very . intenselow pressure centre It is associated with a dark funnel

shaped cloud and with extremely violent wind blowing in a

; .counterclockwise spiral but accompanied by violent down draughts .Common in USA

ZONES :There are four principal climate regions

1. ( )Tropical hot2. ( )Subtropical warm3. ( )Temperate cool4. ( )Polar Regions cold

?What is a natural region Natural region is an area of earth throughout which there are

,similarities in conditions of relief, , . rainfall temperature vegetation and human activities : Climate Zone

: Equatorial Region , ( . ),Also called Amazon type Selvas in S America ; . which in Portuguese means forest winters of the Tropic Area under

0 10 .this climate region are from ° ° North and South of the equator ( ), . , In Central America Panama in S America come Brazil there it is

, . : . .called Amazon low land Coast Guyana In Africa Congo basin i e , , , , , , , , Liberia Ivory coast Ghana Togo Nigeria Gabon Congo Zaire Gulf

. : , , of Guinea In South East Asia Malaysia Indonesia New Guinea and . :25-30 75 90 ; parts of Philippines Temperature oC or ° ° F average

26 . 3 temperature is ° C Annual range of temperature is ° C

: 100-250 . . Rainfall cm and is of convectional type Mean monthly 15 . . rainfall is cm and humidity is very high

: . Natural Vegetation Equatorial Rainforest type

. , , , ,Leaves are found viz Mahogany Ebony Rosewood Greenheart , , , . Cinchona and Rubber Coconut Palms Mangroves Oil Palms

: , , Important Tribes Semang in Malaysia Kubus in Sumatra Daykas in , , .Borneo Pygmies in Congo Basin Amazon Indians in Brazil: ( ) Climate InterTemporal Convergence Zone ITCZ is dominated by

, , warm moist maritime equatorial and maritime tropical air masses . yielding heavy convectional rain

:Hot Zone 10 30 , :Between ° ° North and South this comprises

( ) :a Tropical Monsoon or Indian Type: , , , , . ,Regions India Pakistan SriLanka Bangladesh S China , , . , , .Thailand Myanmar N Australia Cambodia Laos and Vietnam

: 2646 , Temperature Between March and June ° C between June and . 4620 , . . 200 . , 17 Oct ° C between Nov to Feb ° C Annual temp range ° C

: 300 . 60 ..Rainfall Maximum cm Heavy summer rain up to inches

: . . . , ,Vegetation Monsoon forest i e Deciduous forest viz Teak Rosewood , , .Deodar Bamboo Sal

( ) :b Tropical Marine: , . . , , 6 Regions Central America N E Australia West Indies C astal low

, . .lands of Brazil and East Africa E Malagasy and Philippines: 29 , 8 . : Temperature ° C annual temperature range °C Rainfall Summer

4080 , . :rain upto inches both convectional and orographic Vegetation . , , , , .Deciduous forest viz Teak Rosewood Deodar Bamboo Sal

( ) /c Sudan Type or Savanna or Tropical grassland :Continental

: 720 515 & . .Region ° N and most ideally ° N S of equator In S ( America Brazilian highlands Savanna region is locally called

), , , , ,Cerado parts of Bolivia Paraguay Llanos Valley of Columbia , .Venezuela Argentina

, , . ,In Central America Cuba Jamaica Caribbean Islands In AfricaSudan , , , , , , , ,Mali Guinea Niger Senegal Chad Ghana Congo Kenya Tanzania

, , , . Zimbabwe Angola Uganda Dahomey In Australia Northern regions . : 32 , 21 and Queensland Temperature In summer ° C in winters ° C 1 . . 22 37 . and annual temperature range is PC Average Temp ° ° C

: ; 25150 . .Rainfall Convectional type of cm Humidity high in summers: , , , (Vegetation Elephant grass Bottle trees Baobaps Savanna tropical

). grass

: ( ), ,Tribes Masai or Kraal in African Grassland Kikuyus in Kenya .Hausas in Sahara and Llanos in Venezuela

( ) :d Sahara region or Tropical Desert climate 25 . It is a region of land which has less than cm of rainfall in a

. : 1 . . . ; 2.year It has three types Tropical Desert e g Sahara Temperate . . ; 3. : or midlatitude desert e g Gobi and Turkistan Cold desert Tibet : . and Tundra Regions In US lower California and Mexican Desert In

. . , (S America Atacama Desert In Africa Namib Sahara Desert main , , , ,countries which come in this are Tunisia Libya Algeria Egypt

, , , ) (Sudan Mali Niger Chad and Mauritania and Kalahari Desert in ). , . Namibia and Angola In Asia Iranian Arabian and Thar Desert In . Australia The Great Australian Desert

: 1049 ; ( )Temperature °C maximum temperature in Jacobabad Pakistan 51.7 , ' 58 , is up to ° C in California s Death Valley is °C highest is in

58.7 . 39 .Azizia °C Annual temperature range °C: , , . Vegetation Shrubs Cactus Spines Prickly Pear

: ( ), ( ),Tribes Tuaregs Western Sahara Desert Bedowins Arabian Desert ( ), ( ). Bindibus Australian Desert Bushmen Kalahari Desert

/ :Temperate Zone Climate 30 45 Between ° ° N and S There are :three types of climates in it

( ) :a Western margin or Mediterranean type: 30-40 . : , , , ,Regions ° N and S In Europe Spain Portugal Israel Turkey , , , . : , Southern France Greece Syria Lebanon In Africa Morocco North

, , , .Algeria Tunisia Upper Libya Upper Egypt . : .In N America large parts of California . : . : , ,In S America Central Chile In Australia Adilade Melbourne

.Northern Island of New Zealand: 20-26 7-5Temperature In summer °C and in winter °c

: 20-30 .Rainfall inches mainly in winters , ( .Four important winds are Sirocco in Sahara Santa Ana S

). : California Mistral and Bora in MediterraneanVegetation Chapparel , . .in California Malleg Scrub in Australia Maguis or Garigue in France

, . , Macchia in Italy Fymbosch in S Africa Mediterranean forest and . . , , , ,shrub Olive trees Citrus Fruits Evergreen Forest Myrtle Rosemary , . , Laurel Holly Madrona and Cork Oak

( ) / / b Central Continental Light summer Temperate / :grassland Steppe Type

: , . , Regions North Coastal Africa Morocco N Algeria Tunisia and North .of Bengasia in Libya

: 65 . : 25-75 .Temperature °F Rainfall Light Summer rain cm: ; ,Vegetation Steppe or Temperate Grasslands Oaks of Spain .Eucalyptus

( ) / / / :c Eastern Margin China Type Gulf Type Natal Type: 25-40 & ;Region °N S

, . ( ,In Asia areas of North and Central China S Japan islands Kyushu ), .Shikoku and portion of Honshu Southern Korea

. : .In N America South Eastern States of US . : , . , . .In S America South Paraguay N Argentina Uruguay and S Brazil : , .In Africa East Central Coastal Regions specially Natal area of S

.Africa : . In Australia New South Wales and South Queensland

: 21 -27 Temperature It varies between ° degree C in summer and 5-2 . between ° C in winters

: 75-125 ., (45 ) Rainfall cm rainfall is heavier in summer inches than in . winter

: ( ), , , ,Vegetation Warm and Wet forests Deciduous Pines Beech Oak , , , , , , ,Magnohas Camehas Camphor Eucalyptus Mulberry Mate Walnuts

.Bamboo

( ) / :d Temperate Grassland Prairie Type: 4050 & : ; : ,Region °N S North America Prairie South America Pampas

( );from Andes mountains to Atlantic Ocean. : ( ) : ; : S Africa Velds Transvaal Europe Pustaz in Hungary Asia Steppe in

( . . ) : , (Russia S W Siberia and Mongolia Australia Downs MurrayDarling ). Basin

: 18 24 4 2 . Temperature in summers to °Gand in winters to °C

: , 2565 . Rainfall in spring and early summer cm and of convectional . : . type Vegetation short grass

: , ( . ), ( .Tribes Kirghiz in Central Asia Red Indians N America Hottentots S ).Africa

:Cool Temperate Zone :It is of four types

( ) / / :a Western Margin British Type Marine West Coast :40 60" & ;Region ° N S: ( . , , , , ,Europe W France Belgium West Germany Denmark Luxemburg

, , . )Netherlands British Isles S Norway upto Baltic Sea. : ( . . . N America W Canada and N W USA Washington and Oregon

)State of USA. : ( . . ).S America S W Coast of Chile Puerto Montt to Cape Horn

: , , Australia Islands of Tasmania most parts of Victoria and south . , : : 8 -0 ; : 18-island of N Zealand Temperature Winter ° ° C Summer

25 . : , ; °C Rainfall Throughout the year but maximum in winters of ; 50-120 .; cyclonic type average cm sometimes windward side it is

250 .cm: ; , , , , , ,Vegetation Deciduous Forest Oak Elm Maple Beech Ash Birch

, , . ; Poplar Hornbeam Chestnut In New Zealand Kaury tree is found in . , , , , , N America Douglas Fir Redwood Sequoir Western Hemlock Western

, .Cedar Sitka Spruce

( ) / / /b Central Continental Siberian Type Taiga Type Cool / : Temperate Central Type Corniferous Type :55 70Region ° °

; , . , ,Northern Hemisphere South Alaska S Canada parts of Norway , , . , . .Sweden Finland N Russia N Siberia and Sakhalin island

: 50 15 .Temperature in winters upto °C and in summer °C: 25-100 . .Rainfall cm and is of cyclonic type : ( , , , , ,Natural Vegetation Coniferous Pine Fir Hemlock Larch Cedar

) 5 . ,Spruce and evergreen trees shed their leaves after years Here . ,Timber is called Delwood Lumbering is done especially in Canada

harvesting is also done

( ) / :c Eastern Margin Lauretian Type:45 60 ;Region ° ° North Hemisphere

: . ( In North America St Lawrence low land therefore called Lauretian ) , , .Type and East USA Eastern Canada New Foundland

: , . In Asia Manchuria Amur river region of Siberia and in N Japan . : , 3 17 region of Hokkaido Temperature in winters ° to ° C and in , 18 -24 .summer ° °C: 50-125 . : Rainfall cm Vegetation Coniferous trees and Deciduous

, , , , , , , ,trees like Maple Beech Ash Chestnut Elms Spruce Fir Larch .Korean Pine

( ) / / :d Cool Temperate Interior Tundra Cold Desert: 65 , Region above °N Southmost parts of Canada Saskatchewan and

, . ,Manitoba Province of Canada N Central and mid West of USA , , . , , Alberta Alaska N Scandinavia Iceland Spitzbergeu in Svalbard

, . , . : 19island E Europe Western Russia and Siberia Temperature °to 18 : 25 , .°C Rainfall up to cm and of cyclonic type

: .Vegetation Bush Tundra and Grass Tundra: . , , Tribes Eskimo Igloo Transport by Dog Driver Huskies boat like . Kayak and Umyak

:Cold Zone: 65 -90 , ; , , Region ° ° North Arctic or Polar Canada Alaska Icecaps of

. :29 40 ; 10 .Greenland Temperature ° to °C in winters in summer °C : , 10 .Rainfall very light in summer inches

: ; , .Vegetation Turidra Mosses Lichens: , , Tribes Samoveds in Arctic circle Yaktus in Trans Baikalia Chukchis in . Siberia

/ Grasslands Continents Countries1. - .Prairies N America2. - Pampas S America3. - Pretoria S Africa4. - Veld S Africa5. - Steppes Eurasia6. - Downs Australia7. - Pusta Hungary8. - . Cantaburry Grasslands N Zealand9. - Manchuria Grassland China

OCEANOGRAPHY

: Distribution of Sea 36,10,60,000 . 71% ► Hydro sphere is sq km about of the lithosphere

(3/4 ).th of the globe 5,09,950,000 . . ( ).► Total surface area of the globe is sq km Lithosphere (16,50,00,000 . ); ► Important oceans are Pacific Ocean sq km Atlantic

(8,20,00,000 . ); (7,30,00,000 . ).ocean sq km Indian Ocean sq km ( ) 3800 ► Average depth of the ocean hydrosphere m and average

840 .height of lithosphere is m from the sea level ► The height and depth of lithosphere and hydrosphere are

.represented by HYPSOGRAPHIC or HYPSOMETRIC CURVE 4 :► The ocean basins have relief zones

1) Continental shelves2) Continental slopes3) Deep Sea plains4) Oceanic Trenches

:Continental Shelf ;► It is partly submerged in water while partly exposed 100 ; ► Its average depth is fathoms . . 1 3 ;► Its slope is gentle i e from ° to ° towards the sea 8.6% , It is of total area of ocean basins but the highest area is in

. . 13.3%, 5.7% 4.2% ;Atlantic i e in Pacific and in Indian ocean ► The shelves are narrow where high mountains are close and

;parallel to the coast . . 16► The narrowest shelf is in western coast of South America i e . ;km because of Andes mountain

. ► The shelves are wider where the coast lands are wide plains The 48 . . . 96average width is km The widest is in North America i e from

120 .;to km ;►It is mainly created by marine erosion and fluvial deposits

Continental Slope: 5"60 ;► Slope is ° 40 . ; 30 ; 62 . ; 5 -► °near St Helena °at the Spanish Coast ° near St Paul °

15 .° near Calicut 8.5% : ► It constitutes of total area of the ocean basin Atlantic

12.4%, 7% 6.5%.ocean Pacific ocean and Indian ocean 20 50" ► Most extensive continental slope are found between ° N N

80 70 . latitude and on ° N and °S Most important continental slope is .the SubMarine Canyons

, ; ► Due to steep slope marine deposits doesnttake place Deep Sea :Plains

3000 . 6000 . 75.9% ► Found in the depth of m to m and constitutes of ;total ocean basin

80.3% , 80.1% , 54.9% .► in Pacific in Indian Ocean in Atlantic Ocean

:Ocean Deep or Trenches 57 ;► There are deeps in the world . . 32,19 6 ;► Highest in Pacific i e in Atlantic and in Indian Ocean

Trenches1. 11,022 .Mariana or Challenger Trench North Pacific m2. 0,882 .Aldrich or Tonga Central South Pacific i m3. . — 10,475 .Swire or Philippine Trench N West Pacific m4. 8,385 .Nares or Puerto Rico Trench West Indian Island m5. 10,498 .Kurile Trench Kamchatka m6. . 7,631 .Tizard or Romanche Trench S Atlantic m7. 7,450 .Java Trench Indian Ocean m8. 10,447 .Karmadee Pacific Ocean m9. 8,025 .PeruChile Trench Pacific m10. 7,679 .Aleutian Trench Pacific m11. 6,562 .Middle America Pacific m

:Submarine Canyons ► It has originated because of various types of earth movement ► Are long narrow and very deep valleys or trenches located on the continental shelves and slopes with vertical walls

.resemblirflefriecontinental Canyon Submarine Canyon

1. It is similar lot the youthful river valleys on the land but are deeper2 The course is generally straight3 13 8%The gradient of are steeper near islands i e , , ► They have coarser materials which includes clays silts gravels

.and pebbles

:Distribution of Submarine Canyons 102 .► There are as many as submarine canyons ► Generally they are more abundantly found along the straight

. coast than highly indented and crenulated coastline ► They are more commonly found Off the east mm of US from

.Canada to Cape Hatteras ,► They are also found off the Californian and Mexican coast

, , , , .Mediterranean east coast of India Aleutian lands Japan Philippines

: 1) :Reliefs of Ocean Basin Pacific Ocean : :► It is one third of the globe has a triangular shape 4572 ► Average depth is m ( 2,000), ► It has highest number of islands more than grouped in

:three categories1. : , , Continental Islands Aleutian islands Chilean islands British

( );Columbia islands of Canada2. : , Island Arcs and Festoons Kurile islands Japanese Archi3. : , ,Scattered and Smaller Islands Hawaiian islands Fiji islands

( ), Micronesian islands Marshal island Continental Canyon

1. .It is lesser deeper2. ' .It s course is dendritic3. .It is less steeper4. .The width is lesser , ,► Important seas in the Pacific ocean are Bearing sea Okhotsk sea

, , , , , ,Japan sea Coral sea Yellow sea Java sea China sea Tasman sea .Arafura sea

2. :Atlantic Ocean 1/6 (8,20,00,000 .) ► of the geographical area km sq and half the area ;of Pacific ocean ► It is located between North and South America in the west and

;between Europe and Africa in the east ' ' ;► It is S shaped ► Its width is minimum between Liberian coast and Cape Sauroque

(256) .;km 24% 915 :' .► About of Atlantic is m deep

:Continental Shelf in the Atlantic Ocean 2.24 . 80 .;► Width km more than km , ► It is narrowest at the bay of Biscay Cape of Good Hope and the

. . 5 10 Brazilian Shelf i e ° S to °S latitude and widest near New Foundland , ,► Important Continental Shelf are found at Hudson Bay Baltic sea

, , , , , .North sea Davis Strait Denmark Strait British Isles Iceland St , , , , . , . , .Helena West Indies Trinidad Falkland S Orkneys S Shetland S , . , , , . Georgia S Sandwich Canary island Cape Verde St Pierre and

, .Miquelone island Madeira island

:Mid Atlantic Ridge ► Dolphin Rise and Challenger Rise north of Equator , ;► Wyville Thompson Ridge or Challenger Rise south of equator ;► Telegraphic Plateau between South of Greenland and Iceland , , , , .► New Foundland Azores Rise Sierra Leon Para Rise Unea Ridge ; ( 8,000► In North Atlantic North American Basin Puerto Rico Basin . ).m deep ; ;► In the South Atlantic east South American Coast Argentina Basin

; ; ; . South Atlantic Ridge Walvis Ridge Cape Basin Cape Town

Indian Ocean ;► It is smaller than the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean 4,000 .;► Average depth is m ;► Formed by the blocked mountains of Gondwana land : , , ,► Important seas are Mozambique Channel Red Sea Persian Gulf

, , ;Andaman Sea Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal . , , ► Important islands Madagascar Sri Lanka Suqutra or Socotra

, , , , ,Island Zanzibar Island Comoros Island Mauritius Reunion Island , , Rodrique Island Caragos Island Chagos Archipelago and Diego

, , , , ,Garcia Island Mayotte Island Seychelles Island Victoria Mahe , , . , ,Addabra Island Prince Edward Island St Paul Maldives

, , , .Lakshwadeep Andaman and Nicobar Christmas Island Crozet Island

:Ridges

1. : 320 . :Mid Oceanic Ridge Average width is km and includes . ; Lakshwadweep Chagos Ridge or Maldives ridge It is called Chagos

. 30 ; St Paul Ridge between Equator and °South It is called . 30 50 ; 50Amsterdam St Paul Plateau between ° ° South latitude After °

; :it bifurcates Western branch is called Kergulian Gaussberg Ridge 48 63 . ° ° South latitude eastern branch is called the Indian Antarctic

. ridge2. : , Central Ridge Socotra Chagos Ridge also known as Charlesberg

, 5 Ridge emerges from the central ridge at ° South latitude and extends in NORTHWESTERLY direction in almost accurate shape upto

. . . GARDAPHOOL Peninsula of N E Africa3. : Seychelles Mauritius Ridge bifurcates from the main ridge around 18 ° South latitude near Mauritius island and runs upto Amirante

. island4. : 40 ; 40 48 Madagascar Ridge It extends upto °S latitude at ° ° South it '. 5.90 : is called Prince Edward Crozet Ridge East Ridge Extends from the Continental Shelf off the Irrawadi river mouth and runs in

, 90 almost northsouth direction parallel to ° east longitude and upto 40 , . .° south where it merges with Amsterdam St Paul plateau

BASINS :Pacific Ocean

1. : 5,000-6,000 . Philippines East PHILIPPINES to South Japan m

2. 10 32 : 4,000 .Fiji ° ° S latitude m3. 5,000 .East Australian Australia and New Zealand m4. 5 -24 4,000 .Peru ° ° South latitude m5. 20 -50 4,000 . South west Pacific ° ° South latitude m

: Atlantic Ocean . l LabradorBetween Greenland in North and New , . ., 40 -50 4,0004500 .Foundland in South i e between ° °North m

2. 12 -40 5,0006,00 .North American ° ° North latitude m3. 30 , Brazilian °South latitude from equator east coast of Brazil in the

4000 west to above Para rise in the east m4. 50 . 5,000 .Spanish From Iberian peninsula to °N m5. 10 -23.5 . 5,000 .Cape Verde ° °N m6. 5,000 .Giunian From Giunia Ridge to Sierra Leonne m7. 30 . 5,000 .Angola From equator to ° S m8. 5,000 .South and North Canary Near Morocco m

:Indian Ocean 1. 6,658 .Oman Near Oman m2. .Arabia Between Laccadine and Socotra3. 3600 .. Somali Between Socotra and Seychelles m

4. 3,6006,391 . Mauritius m

5. Mascarene Between Madagascar and Seychelles

6. 3,600 .Agulhas Natal Near Corozet Ridge m

:Temperature of Ocean Water , With respect to temperature there are three layers of ocean from

:the surface to the bottom in the Tropics1. 20 -25 .First layer temperature ° ° C2. Thermocline layer or middle layer it is characterized by rapid rate .of decrease of temperature with increase in the depth

3. . 24 ., Third layer colder than the above two layers Within hrs the 1difference between maximum and minimum temperature is only °

, ' '.C in the ocean this is called the daily range of temperature ,► Annual range of temperature it means bigger the size of ocean

. ' lesser the annual range That s why Atlantic ocean records higher annual range of temperature than the Pacific ocean because the

.size of Atlantic is smaller than Pacific

:Factors affecting the temperature of oceans1. .Latitude regions near the equator will be hotter2. , .Size of waters bigger the size of ocean lesser the annual range3. Prevailing wind4. Currents ► The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is at 0.5 .the rate of ° F per altitude

22 (73 ) 20 ; ► The average temperature becomes °C °F at ° latitude at 40 , 14 (57 ); , 0° latitude the temp is °C °F near the poles temp is °C (32 ).°F 17.2 (63 ), ► The average temperature of all the oceans is °C °F in

19.4 (67 ), Northern Hemisphere ° C °F in the Southern Hemisphere 16.1 (61 ).°C °F

:Vertical Distribution of Temperature : ► The temperature will get lesser from surface to bottom Sun is the major source of heating but infact the solar rays very

20 . effectively penetrates upon m depth and they seldom go 200 . .beyond m depth

: Salinity It is defined as the ratio between the weight of the .dissolved material and the weight of sample sea water

► Generally salinity is defined as the total amount of solid material . . in gm contained in one kg of sea water and is expressed at part

1000 30 .means gm 35% 10 30 ► The average salinity of is recorded between ° ° latitude in .the southern hemisphere

40 60 ► The zone between ° ° latitude in both the hemisphere records 31%-33%lowest salinity where it is

1. :Pacific Ocean , 34.85%;► Near the equator salinity is 35% 15 20 ► It increases to between ° ° latitude in the north

; , 36% . .hemisphere But in the southern hemisphere it increases to i e ;more than sea

, , ► Besides salt silver gold and radium also occur but in minute .proportion in sea water

0.3 ( ), 0.006 ( ) 0.0000002► These elements are silver gold and / /1000 . mg metric tonne or part million

2. :Atlantic Ocean 35.67%;► average salinity is 15 20 ;► highest is between ° ° latitude 5 , 34.98% 15 , 36%;► in ° North latitude salinity is and in ° North it is 15 , 37.77%.► in ° South salinity is

3. :Indian Ocean 0 10 , 35%;► from ° ° North latitude salinity is 10 30 , 33.5%;► ° ° North the salinity is , 40%; , 3641%. ( ► near Persian Gulf highest is in Red sea In the

, , . . 14% landlocked sea lowest salinity js in Caspian sea i e in the . ? . .northern part But in the Kara Bnpa bav salinity is highest i e

170%). ( ), 220%. , 240%, ► near Salt Lake US salinity is In Red sea salinity is in

( ) 330%, , 238%.Lake Van Turkey is in Dead sea it is

: Distribution of Salinity the average salinity in the oceans and 35%. the sea is

: , Horizontal Distribution on an average salinity decreases from . 35% equator towards tne poles The equator accounts only of .salinity

20 40 .. ► The highest salinity is observed between ° °N because this , , zone has high temperature high evaporation but low rainlall . . 31%, , 34%, least i e near Manchurian it is this salinity in Manchuria is .severe because of Oyashio current coming from Berring Strait

, ► in the Southern hemisphere lowest is near the Peruvian and . . 33%.Chilean coast i e

:OCEANIC DEPOSIT

1. : 2 -256 ; Gravels its diameter mm mm are sediments and are 256 . ( ), -64deposited near the coast on the mm diameter cobbles

., -4 ., - 2 .mm pebbles mm granules mm

2. : Blue Mud materials derived through the disintegration of rocks . ,rich in Iron sulphide It is especially found in Atlantic ocean

35% Mediterranean sea and Arctic sea and has of calcium carbonate

3. : , 32% RedMud rocks rich in Iron oxides contains of calcium , carbonate and found at Yellow sea Brazilian Coast

4. : ( ) Green Mud contains green silicates of potassium K and ( ) 0-56% 3 Glauconite form of iron and contains of CaCo and found

, , mainly in Japanese Australian and African coasts at the depth of 100-900 . fathoms

5. : Calcareous Oozes contains lime and generally found is of two kinds. : 80% 3, ,a Peteropod Ooze has of CaCo found in tropical oceans

, ;especially Canary island entails mid Mediterranean ridge. : 64.46 , 1.64% , b Globigerina Ooze Ca silica found in tropical and

2,000-4,000temperate zones of Atlantic ocean between the depth of .fathoms

6. : (85. 35%) Red Clay has silicates of alumina in abundance and , . oxides of iron calcium

: Ocean Currents

: Atlantic Ocean

:Warm Currents 1. : North Equatorial Current it is formed between 10 . ( ) , equator and ° N latitude It has two branches a Antilles is diverted northwards and flows to the east of West Indies island and

( 20 40 .helps in the formation of Sargasso sea which is between ° °N ). & latitude Sargasso seaiia maxjmmn salinity in Atlantic and mean

28 ; ( ) temperature is ° C b Caribbean current enters Gulf of Mexico .and becomes Gulf Stream

2. : 20 . South Equatorial Current it is ° S latitude from the equator It .basically originated under the stress of the trade wind

3. : , Counter Equatorial Current it flows from west to east also called .Guinea stream or Compensation current

4. : , 20 . Gulf Stream originates in Gulf of Mexico around ° N latitude It has three branches

( ) , , 24a Florida Current the average temp of water at its surface is °C 75 , 36%. 30 , or ° F while salinity is At ° N latitude its temperature falls

6.5 43.7 ;upto ° C or ° F( ) , 1513. b Gulf Stream was first discovered by PoncedeLeon in The

Florida Current after having water of Antilles current is known as ( );Gulf Stream beyond Cape Hatteras Near Washington

( ) , 45 45 . c North Atlantic Drift or Current ° N latitude and ° W , . longitude the Gulf Stream is divided into many branches All the / . branches are collectively called North Atlantic Drift Current It has

:two branches( ) , i Northern branch it has two branches one goes towards

Norwegian sea and second one goes towards South Iceland and ,here it is called Irminger Current

( ) ii Eastern branch one branch enters Mediterranean sea near

Gibraltar and second branch is .called Rennell Gmren near Bay of Biscay

, 410 ,After Sargasso sea the temperature is reduced to ° C and here . , a round Gulf of St Lawrance near Halifax the Gulf Stream is called

' '. 40 Cold Wall It loses its original characteristic near ° N latitude . 5. :because it meets the cold Labrador current Brazilian Current

40 . flows up to ° S latitude and merges with Gold Falkland Current

:Cold Currents 1. : Labrador Current originates in Baffin Bay and ( ) 50Davis Strait and merges with Grand Bank Gulf Stream around °

. W longitude Big icebergs are found near New Foundland and Grand .Bank

2. : Canary Current flows along the western coast of North Africa .between Maderia and Cape Verde

3. : 30 .Falkland Current °S latitude4. : South Atlantic Drift is the Eastward continuation of Brazilian

40Current 0 . S latitude5. : Benguela Current flows from South to north along the western

. .coast of Africa Later merges with south Equatorial current 3 : ) ; ) Sargasso Sea has currents a North Equatorial Current b Canary

; ) .Current c Gulf Stream ; 20 -40 Water is very calm and motionless found between ° N ° N . 35 - 75 . 37%.latitude between ° ° W longitude highest salinity is

Pacific Ocean :Warm Currents

1. : North Equatorial Current originates of the western Coast of Mexico .and flows in western lie direction and reaches the Philippine coast . . This originates because of Californian Current and NE Monsoon It is joined by Kuroshio Current near Taiwan and counter equatorial . current near Japan

2. : South Equatorial Current originates due to SouthEast Trade winds . , .and flow from east to west bifurcated near New Guinea

3. : . Counter Equatorial Current it extends upto Panama Bay Its , 27.5 34.5%. 4. :average temp is ° C and the salinity is Kuroshio System

startefrom Taiwan from the Bering Strait and has five currents ( ) 30 ; .a Kuroshio Current ° N latitude from Taiwan to Raiku Ridge( ) 42 ( b Kuroshio Extension ° N latitude and Oyashio current a cold

).current( ) c North Pacific Drift up to Aleutian Current and becomes a part of .it

( ) ; d Tsushima current between Japanese sea and western coast of . Japan It is warm and enters Japan sea by the name of Tsushima . Current

( ) e Counter Kuroshio Current between Hawaiian island and American . coast

5. : 40 ; .East Australian Current ° S is warm6. : 3 - 30 ; .Counter or El Nino Current ° ° S along Peruvian Coast

:Cold Currents1. : .California Current near Mexico

2. : ' ' ' ' . Peru Current is also called Hobalt or Humboldt Current Annual 14 17 .temperature is ° °C

3. : 40 West Wind Drift also called roaring s between Tasmania and . 40 50 .South American Coast ° ° S

4.0 : . yashio Current known as Kurile Cold current From Berring Strait ; 50 to Arctic sea divides into two parts at ° N latitude one merges

with Aleutian and Kuroshio Current and second moves upto the .Japanese coast

Indian Ocean The currents flowing in the Indian Ocean change their flow direction . twice a year due to North east and South West Monsoon winds

:Warm Currents 1. : 5 ;North East Monsoon Current ° N latitude . 2.1originates in the Bay of Bengal reaches to Arabian Sea ndian

: 2 - 8 : Counter Current ° ° S latitude mainly concentrated to Zanzibar . to Sumatra

3. .South West Monsoon Current4. : 10 - 15 ; Indian Equatorial Current ° ° S from Australian to African

. Coast and is obstructed by Madagascar One major branch flows , ' ' . southwards known as Agulhas Current which is warm

5. : ; Mozambique Current it is a part of Indian equatorial joins Agulhas 30 .Current near ° S latitude

6. : 40 ; 110 ; ' 40 ';West Wind Drift ° N latitude ° East known as Roaring s one branch flows as west Australian cold current along the Western Coast of Australia and near the Tropic of Capricorn turns towards

.the left

Ocean Tides ,► The rise and fall of sea water due to gravitational forces

. centripetal of the Sun and Moon are called tides The sea waves .generated by the tides are called Tidal Waves

► The earth rotates from west to east and revolves around the sun . , following an elliptical orbit Similarly the moon rotates from west to

. east and revolves around the earth following an elliptical orbit The period of the farthest distance between the moon and the earth

(4,07,000 ) ' '. km is called APOGEE While the period of the nearest (3,56,000 ) ' '.distance km is called PERIGEE

12,800 (8000► The surface of the earth with its diameter of km ) 6400 miles is km nearer to the moon then its centre

3,84,800 (2,40,000 ) ► The centre of the moon is km miles away from . ' 3,77,600 the centre of the Earth The earth s outer surface is km .away from the outer surface of the moon

► Therefore the gravitational force of the moon will be maximum at ' , the earth s surface facing the moon while it will be minimum at .the opposite side of the earth

' ► Consequently the water of the earth s surface facing the moon is . attracted and pulled and high tides occur At the same time low

.tide is formed at the opposite side of the Earth , ► Therefore two tides and Ebbs are experienced twice at every

' 24 .place on earth s water surface within hours . 24 52 . The moon Thus the tide centre takes hours min to come

.under the moon ► The average difference in water level between high and low tides ' ' .at any place is called AMPLITUDE of the tide 13 . ► The tidal range is generally m In the Mediterranean and

, Baltic the range is very small but highest tide is experienced in ( ), 1520the Bay of Fundy East Canada the tide may rise m

:Types Of Tides1) : ,Spring Tides The spring tides are the highest when the moon

. earth and the sun are in the straight line They occur at new and ; 1 . full moon especially on Jan it is highest The straight line is

' ', ' '. called SYZYGY and this position is called CONJUCTION When the position of earth is in between sun and moon it is called

' '.OPPOSITION2) : . . , Neap Tides The position is quadrature i e sun earth and moon

. ' are in a position of right angle They occur at the moon s first and . . 7 8 third quarter i e on the th and th day of every fortnight and the direct force is produced by the sun and the Working in opposite

. 20%direction and thus low tide is formed The height neap tide is .lower than general tides

3) : , Tropical and Equatorial Tides like the sun there is also northward and southward position of the moon in relation to the equator of . the earth If the sun completes its northward and southward

( 365 ), 29.5position in one year nearly days the moon completes it in (1 ). days synodic month When there is maximum declination of the , ' moon to the north of the equator the moon s rays fall vertically on

( ) the tide centres near the Tropic of Cancer hence spring tides are . caused Such tropical tides move westward along the Tropic of Cancer and also occur along the Tropic of Capricorn which is . opposite to the Tropic of Cancer The tides occurring along the

' '.Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn are called the Tropical Tides4). .Apogean and Perigean tides5). .Daily and Semidiurnal Tides6). .Equinocital tide

:Theories related to origin of Tides1. .Equilibrium Theory by Newton2. .Progressive Way Theory by William Whewell3. . . .Canal Theory by G B Airy4. . . .Stationary Wave Theory by R A Herish5. .latitudes

:Coral Reefs . They are significant sub marine features They are formed due to accumulation and compaction of skeletons of

' '. limesecreting organisms known as Coral Polyps Coral Polyps thrive 250 25in the Tropical Oceans confined between N to °S

Coral Reefs are formed due to formation of a shell calcereous at

. suitable depth :Preconditions for formation of Coral Polyps

( ) a corals are formed mainly in Tropical Oceans because they 20 require high mean annual temperature ranging between °C to

21 68 70 ;°C or °F to °F their survival( ) . . 200-250b corals do not live in deeper waters i e not more than

60-77 . , ( ) feet or m below the sea level because of two factors i due ; ( ) ;to lack of sufficient sunlight and ii due to lack of oxygen

( ) ;c there should be clean sediment free water( ) ;d fresh water is also required( ) e a very high oceanic salinity is also injurious for growth because

3 27-such water contains little amount of CaCo Salinity should be30%;( ) f the corals grow in open seas and oceans but die in lagoons and

.small enclosed seas because of lack of supply of food

:Types of Coral Reefs

1. Fringing Reef2. Barrier Reef3. Atoll

1. :Fringing Reef ( ) i in between land and continental shelf and it is closed to the shore

( ) ii the upward slope is steep and vertical while the landward slope ; is gentle

( ) iii though fringing reefs are attached to the coastal land but -sometimes there is gap between them and in this gap water boat

; channel( ) . . .iv Fringing coral reefs are generally long but narrow in width E g

, , ( Sakan island Southern Florida Mehetia Island of society group of );island

( ) .v it develops along the continental margin

2. :Barrier Reefs( ) i the largest coral reef off the coastal platforms but parallel to

;coast are barrier reef( ) 45 , ii the average slope is about ° jiome barriers are characterized

1525 ;by ° slope( ) iii it is separated from the coast by a much wider and deeper

:channel or lagoon( ) iv the reef is partially submerged( ) , 240- 340 ; ,v in this the lagoon sometimes its depth goes upto feet( ) , vi examples are Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland it

1920 . 1200 2/3 stretches upto km or miles which covers of the .coastal length of Queensland province of Australia

3. :Atolls( ) i Atolls are similar to barrier reefs except that they are circular in

;shape( ) ii enclosed by a shallow lagoons without any land in the centre( ) ;iii generally found along an island( ) 240-420 40-70iv the depth of lagoons ranges between feet or

;fathoms( ) 3 :( ) : v Atolls are of types a True Atoll characterized by circular reefs

enclosing a shallow lagoon( ) . b Shapeless reefs

( ) .c Coral Pinnacles small ridges which rise within the lagoon

:Theories Regarding Origin of Coral reefs1. .Subsidence theory of Darwin2. .Standstill theory by Murray3. .Glacial Control theory by Daly

WORLD SOIL SYSTEM The soil system is the product of environmental and biological

, ( ), processes in interrelation with climate vegetation flora animals ( ), , fauna underlying rocks topography and time which affect the

.biosphere

Components of soil

1. (5 -12 %) Living organisms and organic matter

2. (38- 47 %) Mineral matter

3. (15- 35%) Soil solution

4. (10-15 %)Soil atmosphere

Regolith - .Loose and unconsolidated weathered rock materials

Soil Structure- The aggregation of individual soil particles in the .form of lumps or clusters is called soil structure

1.Translocation , of materials through illuviation capillary action , , , upward movements melanization leucinization compaction and

. induration Darkening of the colour of a section of soil profile . through organic matter is known as Melanization Lightening of the

colour of a section of the soil profile mainly in the of of the soil profile mainly in the zone of maximum eluviation is known as

. Leucinization The hardening of a section of the soil profile such as , , , , . kahkar pan iron pan calcrete alcrete silcrete etc is known as

. Induration The process through which water percolates downward , thereby removing humus soluble bases and sesquioxides from the

.upper horizon is known as Leaching

2.Transformation of ( materials it includes processes like , , , , ,audification neutralization oxidation reduction solution precipitation

, , , , hydration dehydration hydrolysis decomposition humification and . mineralization The formation of soluble organic metallic complexes

and the dissociation of clay humus thereby making them . susceptible to leaching is known as Podzolization In seasonally

, heavy rainfall region the silica is removed from the upper soil . rather than the iron or aluminum thereby leading to Laterization In

, an anaerobic or water logged condition the reduction of iron takes .place and this process is known as Gleyisation

: Classification of Soils

, Primarily soils can be classified into Zonal Azonal and Intrazonal , soils

zonal soils are fully matured soils which have developed under the . conditions of good soil drainage over a long period of time

Azonal soils do not have well developed soil horizons but there is . uniformity in the soils from top toottom

Intrazonal soils .are those that are formed in waterlogged areas Intrazonal soils have high content of calcium carbonate soluble salts

.and sodium

Zonal soils :can be classified as follows1. ( . . Laterite soils These are found in high rainfall areas e g equatorial

) . rain forests having hot and humid conditions It is also found in . areas of wet and dry conditions They are charectrerised by

, . , leaching accumulation of sesquioxides Crust formation acidic . nature and red color

2. Red soils these soils are also found in tropical areas having high . rainfall They are highly leached having residues of iron and

. .aluminum oxides This deeply weathered soil is low in fertility

3. : Red and yellow soils Found in regions having high temperature . , and abundant rainfall This soil is affected by leaching podzolization . and laterization and has a well developed horizon It is susceptible

to erosion and gives a good response to agriculture when mixed .with fertilizers

4 Black soils these soils are formed on the basaltic bed rock formed . because of lava flow Such soils are highly water retentive and are

. good for production of dry crops

5. Red Desert soils Found in arid tropical areas and is characterized , , by underdeveloped horizon coarse texture and moderate to high

. fertility This soil becomes productive when irrigation is applied and . salt content is rationalized The most important characteristic of .these soils is the saline nature and encrustation of its surface

.Because of excessive dryness lime is brought to the surface

6. Chernozem Found in temperate grassland areas of the world . which receives low and light precipitation Thick accumulation of humus gives it a characteristic black color and therefore it is also . known Black Earth The moderate rainfall which the region receives

, resulting in balanced leaching and evaporation does not allow the . ,humus to percolate Further it is characterized by clayey texture

. basic nature and high fertility

7. Chestnut As these are found in the arid margins of the , Chernozem belt they have lower humus content are of lighter color

. and fertile than the chernozems

8. Seirozems These are found in the mid latitude continental deserts . of central Asia and N America and are characterized by poor

, , horizon development low humus content lime concentration and . .grey color Under irrigation they become productive

9. Podzols These are found in humid mid latitude forests and the . coniferous forest regions having moderate to low rainfall Melting of

snow in these colder regions allow adequate water flow for leaching . to take place resulting in high acidity Thick forest vegetation allows

.slow organic matter decomposition and subsequent podzolization , Though they have low fertility but it can be enhanced by the .addition of lime and fertilizers

10. : Grey Drown podzolic soils These are found in the mid latitude deciduous forests on the western margin of continents and parts of

. East Asia They are characterized by lesser leaching and acidity and . .more Humus content than podzols They are reasonably fertile

11. Tundra soils These are found along the polar margins in the . , Tundra region These are characterized by acidic reaction slow

, chemical and organic changes homogenous soil profile and low . fertility This is a permafrost region arid is affected by water .melting and logging during summers

Azonal soils can be classified as follows Soils of a different classification expressed in terms of soils of .above classification

- .Entisols Azonal soils- Inceptisols Alluvial soils

- Aridisols Desert soils- Mollisols Chestnut and Chernozem- Spodosols Podzols

- Alfisols Grey Brown podzolic - Ultisols Red brown podzolic- Oxisols Laterite soils- .Histosols Peaty or Bog soils

( )World Biomes Flora and Fauna

Tropical Evergreen Rainforest Biome ( Also called optimum biome optimum condition for development of ). .plants and animals It has largest number of plant species .Trees are the most significant members

: . Creepers or climbers Belong to the category of Vines Long woody . climbers are known as Lianas Another type of climbers is Epiphytes

. which do not have their roots on the ground surface The epiphytes ,provide certain habitats to micro organisms such as planarians

, , , , , , ,earthworms snails woodlice millipedes centipedes termites ants , , , , , grasshoppers earwigs scorpions snakes tree frogs lizards and a

. , , host of insect larvae Micro epiphytes include moss lichens algae .etc

: Vertical stratification There are five layers of strata from the ground surface to the uppermost canopy of the tropical evergreen

:rainforest biome

1 . ( ) (3090 ) Top layer or dominant layer Tallest trees m

2. ( ) (25 -30 ) Second layer or codominant layer Tress m

3. Third layer Small trees

4. Fourth layer Herbaceous and shrub layer

5. . Fifth layer Herbaceous plants and ferns : Animal life Vertical stratification of the floral biome has largely . affected the life forms of animals Even animal life shows

. ,stratification Upper air animal community Birds like Asian Falconets , , , , , swifts seviftlet curassows tinamous opossum kinkajous and

. : , ,armadillos etc Main canopy animal community Toucans parakeet , , .barbets contingas and bill birds etc

. Middle zone flying animal community Mostly flying birds and . insectivorous bats Middle zone climbing animal community Squirrels

.and civets

, , Large ground animal community Mouse deer cassowaries and . ,members of pig family Small ground animal community

, , Insectivorous such as Argus pheasant peacocks and fowls such as . Guinea fowl

Monsoon Deciduous Forests number of plant species is less in the tropical deciduous biome than the tropical evergreen rain forest

. biome There are four strata or layers in the vertical structure of :the tropical deciduous forests

1. Uppermost Trees2. Second layer Trees3. Third layer Shrubs4. . . Herbaceous plants Most trees are deciduous Shrubs of the third

.stratum are evergreen

, Trees have large hydromorphic leaves or small hard xeromorphic . ( leaves The large hydromorphic leaves enable the trees to trap

, more and more rainfall during wet seasons but these large leaves . are shed in dry periods to conserve moisture Where as small and hard xeromorphic leaves enable the trees to withstand dry weather .) and water deficiencies There are numerous lianas and epiphytes .but they are less in number than the rain forest biome

Animal life There are comparatively less number of animal species .than the rain forest biome

( Very small animals microorganisms to very large bodied animals , , , , .like elephants horses hippopotamus rhinos lions etc The biome represents the largest number of domesticated

. ( mammals because of the development of agriculture The lions of , ,Gir forest of Gujarat together with other animals like leopards

, , , , spotted deer sambhar deer Indian gazelle Nilgai antelope wild . boar etc are now endangered species because of enormous

.) destruction of the Gir forest Ecosystem

Savanna Biome :Vegetation has three distinct layers1. .Ground strata Grasses and herbs2. .Middle layer Shrubs and woody plants3 (Top or canopy layer Trees Savanna grasses Hyparrhenia elephant

), , , .grass Panicum Pennisetum Aridropogen and African Trees have in built mechanism to reduce evapotranspirationreduced

, .size of leaves sunken stomata and thickened suticles etc Tress may have very deep roots which can penetrate deeper into

. ( ) soil for water Some trees are fire resistant pyropytic as they have . thick bark and thick budscales The savanna biome is characterized

by the monotony of tree species as there are tree species as there . , , ,are very few tree species per unit area Acacia Baobao Isoberlinia ( ). Pom palm African Savanna Eucalyptus such as Eucalyptus

( ), Marginata and Eucalyptus calophylla Australia Pine ). treesJHonduxas

Animals African Savanna has the largest number and greatest . ,variety of grazing vertebrate mammals in the world African Buffalo

, , , , . Zebra Giraffe Elephants Antelopes Hippopotamus etc South American and Australian Savanna do not have large number of

.grazing mammals similar to the African savanna is invariably found. 50 Marsupials Around species of Kangaroo are found in Australia

.)varying from the Red Kangaroo to the small species of Wallaby .South America Large grazing mammals including deer and guanaco

, , , , Toucans parrots night kingfishers parakeets wood peckers are also .found

, , , , Savanna Birds Courses bustards game birds ostrich gazelle and . emu

Mediterranean Biome Vegetation has sclerophyll characteristic as .they are stiff and hard and the stems have thick barks ,Range from Mediterranean mixed evergreen forests to woodland .dwarf forest and shrubs : . Shrubs are differently named Maquis or Garrigue S Europe

.Chaparral California Fybos or Fynbosch Africa Malle Scrub Australia , To withstand dry conditions they have some Xeromorphic structure

, , .thickened suticles grandular hairs sunken stomata etc , , ( ) Trees Evergreen Oak Deciduous Oak Jarrah Australia and shrubs

, , , .like Arbutus Pistacia Rhammus Ceratania etc , , , , ,Animals Mule deer Chilean Guanaco Squirrels Wood rats Wolf , , , , , ,Mountain lion Grizzly bear Rabbits Cyote Chilean Fox Lizards

, ( , , ), ( ),Snakes birds kites falcons hawks Quagga a type of antelope ( ) Bontebok a type of antelope

Temperate grassland Biome Vegetation in this biome comprises ( ). perennial grasses family Gramineae

— . Grass steppes Tussock forming species of Steppe Semi arid .Xerophytic Steppe which is associated with Chestnut soil

. North American Pampas humid and sub humid Pampas Important , , , grasses of Pampas include Briza Lolium Paspalum Panicum and .Bromus etc

. : , (Velds of S Africa This may be classified into Themada Veld having ), ( , red grasses Sour Veld having grasses like Aristida Eragrostis and

.) ( Llyparrhenia etc and Alpine Veld having Festuca and Bromus along ) , , , with Themada veld Animals Buffalo pronghorn antelope wild , , , , . horse saiga antelope guanaco wolf coyote Kangaroo and

. .wallaroos are found in Australia Rhea is a bird found in Pampas . Bisons are found in N America

The Boreal Forest Biome or Taiga biome Adapted to the extreme environmental conditions of the Siberian

.type of climate of this Biome .Richest source of softwood in the world

( , , , ), Important trees include Pine white red scots and jack Fir ( , ), , , , .Douglas Balsam Spruce and larch Birch Poplar and Alder

, , , , , Animals Caribou Moose Timber wolf Lynx Red Squirrels Owls and .Hawks

Tundra Biome Lithosols in this region only supports vegetation like mosses and

. , , lichens Animals Musk Ox Arctic Foxes and Stoat Reindeer and .Caribau

. . , .Birds Waterfowl Ducks Swans Geese and Ptarmigan

Natural Regions of the World: Introduction A natural region is a group of areas where the

, , , conditions of relief temperature rainfall natural vegetation and .consequently the cultural environment are more or less similar

7 :There are regions of the world1. Equatorial Region2. Savanna Region3. Hot Desert Region4. Mediterranean Region5. Temperate Grassland6. Coniferous Forests7. Tundra Region

1. :Equatorial Region : Location it stretches along the equator in the form of a belt 10 10 . roughly between the latitude of °Nand °S It includes the . ; Amazon lowlands and the coast of Guyana in S America Congo

, , basin and Guinea coast of Africa and Malayasia Indonesia New .Guinea and South Philippines of the Asian Continent

:Natural Environments( ) : , 27a Climate It is a hot wet climatic region temperature about °c

. . throughout the year Diurnal ranges are also not significant It is a . humid region where the humidity is very high Rainfalls throughout

the year but is heavier after the position of Equinoxes on two 21 ' 23"1 . .occasions after s March and Sept No change in the season

150300 . Average annual rainfall between cm Rain is of conventional .type

( ) : b Natural Vegetation Forest is the natural vegetation and are the ' , .world s densest forests also known as Selvas

( ) : c Animal life The tsetse fly is dangerous because of its poisonous . , sting The Hippopotamus Rhinocerous and the Elephants are found

. . in abundance Hippos are found in swampy areas Other animals , , , , , are the Gorillas Chimpanzees Monkeys Apes Sloths Lizards and

.Jaguars are also found

2. :Savanna Region: Location The Savanna regions are located on either side of the

. 10 20 Equatorial Forest Region They lie between ° ° latitudes in both . the hemispheres The biggest area of Savanna is found in Africa . . and Sudan Savanna region is also called sudantype region The

Savannas are the grasslands of the tropical zones and are also . :called Tropical Grasslands Natural Environments

( ) : a Climate It is generally hot and the average temperature is 37 . ,about °c and is generally dry Diurnal ranges are generally higher . rainfall is seasonal and is received mostly in summers It is a .region TradeWind Belt and the trade wind winds are Dry Belts 25150 .Average rainfall is between cms

( ) : b Natural Vegetation it is a region of seasonal rainfall and the . , main vegetation is the grass Trees of medium height belonging to

, . the deciduous variety are also found here The trees shed their . leaves during winter The Savannas are natural grasslands and look

. 4 . . . like Park Lands Average height of the grass is mts e g Elephant . ; grass Other types of grasses are Campos in Brazil Llanos in the .Orinico basin and Parkland in Africa

( ) : 1 .c Animal Life native animals are of two types Grasseaters , , , , , Giraffe Zebra Gazelle Bear and Antelopes Elephants Wild

. 2. ,Bufalloes and Rhinoes Flesheaters Lion , , , , . Tiger Leopard Panther Hyena Jaguar and Puma Other animals are

, , , , .Ostrich Kangroo found in Australia Chinchilla Capybra Viscacha etc

3. :Hot Desert Region

: 20 30 Location hot desetrts are located between ° ° latitude in both . the hemisphere on the western coast of the continents They are . also called Tropical Deserts They are different from the midlatitude

, deserts and cold deserts hot deserts are found in High pressure . belts along the Tropics in the trade winds region Distribution Of

: ( ) ; ( )Hot Deserts i Asia Thar desert and the Arabian Desert ii Africa ; ( ) . The Sahara and the Kalahari iii N America Lower California and

; ( ) . ; ( ) Arizona states of USA iv S AmericaAtacama desert v Australia The . Great Australian desert The Sahara desert of Africa is the biggest

. hot desert of the world The Hot desert regions are located in the , subtropical high pressure belts which are not favourable regions for

. rainfall

: ( ) : Natural Environments a Climate Very high temperature because , , of dryness of air cloudless sky intense insolation and high rate of

. ' evaporation Coastal strips don t have high temperature because of . , seabreezes and cool currents Trade winds are dry relative humidity

. . is low Rain is of conventional type

( ) : ,b Natural vegetation Xerophytic type plants Cactus , , .grass scrubs weeds and bulbous plants are found hereTreesdate . plants are found in Oasis The desert plants have leaves of needle , , shape hairy and waxy

( ) : c Animal Life Camel is the most common animal found in the . , , , , desert Other animals like Antelops Jackals Foxes Hyenas Badgers

. , , and Rabbits Burrowing animals Snakes Lizards Ants are also found .here

4. :Mediterranean type Region: Location This region is located on the western margins of the

30 40 . continents between ° ° latitudes in both hemispheres Shifting of . wind belts is the basic cause of this type of climate Rainfall is in

. .winters This region is also called Winter Rain Temperate Region The Mediterranean coast land is the single biggest area of this

.climate and hence the region is known as the Mediterranean Type : , , , Areas Europe Coastal regions of Spain Portugal France Italy and ; , , ;Greece Asia Coastal regions of Turkey Israel Syria and Lebanon

, Africa Coastal region of Algeria Tunisia and Morocco in the North . ;and South Western tip of Cape Province of S Africa in South

;Australia Southern and Southwestern Coastal regions of Australia . ; . . N America Western margin of California S America Central Chile

: ( ) : Natural Environments a Climate this region is transitional between the Dry Sub Tropical Trade Wind belt and the Rainy Cool Temperate

. , Maritime Westerlies belt During summers the wind belts shift Poleward and the area comes under the influence of Dry Trade

Winds and during winters it shifts Equatorwards and comes under . , the influence of Rainy Westerlies The average summer temp is

20 26 , . between °c to °c relative humidity is low Rainfall is received during winters from the OnShore Westerlies with temperate

. 3575 . cyclones The normal rainfall is between cm Sunshine is . : always abundant and winters are mild Local Winds Sirocco also ; ; ; known as Chili in Tunisia Ghibli in Libya Leveche in Spain Khamsin

; ; in Egypt and Malta Gharbi in the Adriatic and Aegean sea Mistral .and Bora

( ) : . :b Natural Vegetation it is of evergreen type Vegetation types are1. : , Evergreen broad leaved forests Eucalyptus in Australia Evergreen

. , , .Oaky in S Europe Red Wood in California Jarra and Karri2. : , , . .Bushes and Scrubs Laurel Myrtle Lavender etc are bushes

, .Maquis Chaparral and Mallee are the scrubs3. : , Evergreen Coniferous trees Found in highland areas are tall and

, , .have needle shaped leaves Pines Firs and Cedars etc

5. :Temperate Grassland

: 40Location are situated in the interiors of the Continent between ° 55 ; and ° latitude in both hemispheres are known by different names

: ( ); ( . ); in different regions Steppes Eurasia Pampas S America Velds ( . ); ( ). : : S Africa Downs Australia Areas Asia Manchuria and Russian

; : ;Turkestan Europe Southern part of European Russia and Hungary . : ; . :N America South Central Canada and North Central USA S America

; : . ;North Argentina and Uruguay Africa Transvaal state of S Africa : .Australia Murray Darling Basin of the Province of Southem Australia

: Natural Environments

: Climate Temperate Grassland of North have a different climate , compared to that in the Southern hemisphere because of the

. location

6. :Coniferous Forests

: 55 70"Location it is found only in Northern hemisphere between ° to latitude and is bordered by temperate grasslands in South and .Tundra region in North

: : ; : Areas Asia Northern Siberia Europe Northern part of European , , ; . : Russia Poland Finland and Sweden N America Northern Canada

. from Labrador coast to the Eastern boundary of Alaska These ( ). forests are also known as Taiga Russia

: ( ) : Natural Environments a Climate temperature below freezing (45 ) . .point °c during winters During summers average temp is

15 . 25-75 .°c Rainfall between cm

7. :Tundra Region: 65 .Location arc cold deserts situated roughly beyond °N latitudes 10 0" .Summer isotherms of °c and c denotes the limits of Tundra

: . : Areas N America Northern coastal region of Alaska and Canada and ; : islands near coastal fringe of Greenland Europe Northern

, , Scandinavia Iceland Spitsbergen Islands and North coastal region of ; : .European Russia Asia Northern coastal region of Siberia

: ( ) : ; Natural Environments a Climate very low temperature winters are , long and severe while summers are short and cool the Sun does

2 3 .. , not set for to months in summer Average summer temp is 12 , 25 .°c rainfall is light and hardly cm

( ) : , b Natural vegetation temp is too low for germination of seeds and . the area is marshy where soil is permanently frozen Xerophytic

: ,vegetation is found bush tundra scrubby bushes like Alders , ; , Birches Willows and Junipers grass tundra Moss Lichens and

; , , .Sedge flowering plants Poppies Lillies Buttercups and Violets

( ) : . , , , , c Animals Reindeer Caribou MuskOx Blue Fox Sable Polar Bear . , , and Lemmings Marine Animals like Seals Walruses Whales and

, . : variety of Fishes like Salmon Halibut etc Insects many mosquitoes .and insects

WORLD ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

Agriculture Agricultural Typology

1 . Nomadic . Simplest form of pastoralism Herds graze on natural . vegetation Pastoral nomads depend primarily on animals rather

. than crops for survival Seasonal pattern of movement of Nomads along with their herds between mountains and lowland pastures is .known as Transhumance - . Fulani W Africa - ( )Masai East Africa Tanzania and Kenya - Nuba Ethiopia - Tuareg Sahara

- Hottentots Botswana - Bedoins Saudi Arabia, - Khirghiz Kazakhs and Kalmuk Central Asia

, , - Yakuts Samoyeds Koriaks and Lapps Scandinavia

2. Simple Subsistence Farming Better known as Shifting cultivation Slash and burn agriculture A plot of forest is set on fire and

. cleared and the cultivation is carried for sometime When land gets , ( ) exhausted they shift to other areas Field rotation It is known by

. different names in different regions - Milpa Central America - Roca Brazil

- Ladang Malaysia - Humah Indonesia - Kaingin Philippines - Taungya Burma

- Chena Sri Lanka - .Jhum or Bewar India

3. Sedentary Subsistence Agriculture In Tropical lowlands Crop rotation along with field rotation

Subsistence farming along with cultivation of cash crops and collection and sale of forest products Prevalent in South East Asia and West Africa

4. ( )Intensive Subsistence Agriculture Oriental Agriculture Marked by intense rice cultivation , . . .Usually in Monsoon lands East Asia South Asia and S E Asia Intensive cultivation on wet lowlands and terraced uplands supports

dense population This agricultural system is of two types( ) i Dominated by wet paddy( ) ( , , ii That without paddy dominated by sorghum sugarcane maize

.).etc

5. Subsistence crop and livestock farming Farmers produce crops and raise livestock mainly for their own

, , ,subsistence and sell nothing to the local market Turkey Iran Iraq .southern Mexico etc

6. Mediterranean Agriculture , , ,In bordering areas of Mediterranean sea California Central Chile . . , . .S W Africa and S Australia It includes cultivation of cereals and vegetables with the aid of

, ,seasonal precipitation along with plantation crops of olives figs . dates and grapes Farming is both subsistence and commercial and

( also involves livestock farming small animals which graze on ). .highlands Olives and grapes are most important commercial crops

.It is a major wine producing area

7. Livestock Ranching Characterized by commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive

. area ( Ranches have a continuous vegetative cover either native grasses

, ). or legumes such as Lucerne cloves and alfalfa : They are known by different names in different areas Llanos

( ) ( ) ( )Venezuela Sertao Brazil Pampas Uruguay and Argentina ( ) Patagonia Argentina Karroo of South Africa

. Semiarid areas of Australia and New Zealand In Europe ranching is , .not common but some ranches are found in Spain and Portugal

8. Extensive Commercial Grain Farming- Wheat cultivating regions of the world- ( ) It is a wheat monoculture region spring and winter- Highly mechanized cultivation- , Extensive farming means large size of holdings greater use of

. ( ) machinery and little labour employment Steppes Eurasia Prairies ( . ) ( ) ( . ) N America Pampas Argentina Veld S Africa Cantebury Plains ( ) ( ) ( )New Zealand Pustaz Hungary Downs Australia

9. ( )Mixed Farming Commercial liverstock and crop farming- .Integration of crops and liverstocks- ( , , Extensive use of agricultural inputs fertilizers manures techniques

.)etc- .Wide varriety of crops are grown- , . ( ),In Europe N America to the immediate west of Appalachians

, , . . .South Africa North East Argentina S E Australia and New Zealand

10. Commercial Dairy Farming- . Prevalent on permanent pastures of temperate regions- , , It is characterised by high productivity commercialization and high

. labour intensity- . . , , , (N E United States NW Europe Australia New Zealand North

), , , . , .Island parts of Argentina Middle Chile S Africa Russia and Japan

11. Market gardening or Truck farming- .Fruit and vegetable farming in suburban areas- , Though farming is capital Intensive and scientifically managed it is

done on small and intensive scale- Prevalent in USA and North Western Europe

12. Collective Farming - Collective farms in Russia are known as Kolkhuzi and state farms

.as Sovkhozi- .In China there are state farms which are known as Communes- . Israeli collective farms are known as Kibbutzim- This type of farming is still managed and aims at egalitarian

.agricultural social system

13. Plantation Agriculture- Cash crops are produced in a highly capitalised and centralized

. cultivation system on large scale for exports- It is prevalent in tropical areas especially in equatorial rain forests

and monsoon lands-- , , , Important plantation crops cotton sugarcane coffee rubber and

. tobacco- Plantation agriculture is a colonial legacy in the third world

.countries

CROPS

Wheat- Originated in Asia Minor and Middle East Temperate and

Subtropical crop- Grown mechanically on extensive farms- .: 15 ( 15.5 Temp °C July isotherm of °C marks the northern limit of

) wheat cultivation in the northern hemisphere- ( Where wheat could not be grown in winter because of extreme

), .cold It is grown in spring- ( ),Best wheat comes form Chernozem soils Ukranian Black Earth

brown prairies and grey brown podzolic soils of the deciduous forest . regions

- ( ) The Polder Lands reclaimed from sea Belgium and the Netherlands with their fertile marine clay or riverine silt gives high

. wheat yields- , An open rolling topography with adequate drainage is needed

, Terraced wheat farming is unusual except in Japan and China- Spring wheat is grown in colder north of the Canadian Prairies and . , in parts of the Continental steppes and Siberia Elsewhere winter

.wheat is grown- :Hard Red Spring Wheat , Colder and drier Russia Canada and

. USA- Hard Red Winter Wheat , .Southern CIS Danube Basin of C

, Europe wheat crescent of Argentina and central USA- Soft Red Winter Wheat Western Europe and the eastern states . of USA

- Soft White Wheat , , . , , Western USA Australia S Africa Chile Europe .and most of Asia

Rice- Grown under humid conditions in tropical areas receiving good

. rainfall

- (20 30 ) . (100-250 ).Requires ° °C of temperature Rainfall cm- Intensive cultivation is practiced in monsoonal Asia where it is

.grown for subsistence purpose- , Compared to wheat Rice has not much commercialized in the

.world trade

Barley- . Most ancient crop- Greatest tolerance for arid conditions- , grown in a wide range of climate topographical and soil

, . - :environment where wheat fails to survive Can be grown in1. Subarctic regions2. Semiarid regions3. High Altitudes4. Light Limey Soils- , ( )Used as human food animal feed and malting beer and whiskey- Major beer drinking countries are therefore major barley

. . , . , , . producers e g France U K Germany Denmark- ' . Europe accounts for half of the world s total production- . Russia and China are the major producers- .International trade is small

Maize-18-270 C of temperature-60-115 cm of rainfall- .Grown on wide range of soils- In mountainous areas where soils may be thin and slopes are

, . 75-90%steep maize can survive when other cereals fail to take root ' .of world s production is consumed for feeding animals

- Used for preparing industrial alcohol- , , USA China Brazil are major producers

Rubber- ' ' .It is the latex of Hevea brasiliensis tree- , .Other latex plantsbalata funtunia elastica and gutta pecha- ;Rubber tends to become sticky in hot and brittle in cold weather

( . . )therefore it is vulcanized i e mixed with sulphur- 21-27 Needs °C of temperature-(50-250 ) , .cm of rainfall evenly distributed throughout the year

- , . Deep friable well drained soils are ideal Acidic soils are also .suitable

- Land should be flat or gently undulating- Rubber tree sheds its leaves annually despite its equatorial

. .habitat This is known as Wintering

Oil Palm- . - , Originated in W Africa Constant high temperature plenty of

. (200 .).sunlight and evenly distributed heavy rainfall cm- The crop is not ideally suited to small holder cultivation as it

requires regular attention in the field to combat pests and must .also be quickly processed

Coconut- - Tree of tropical coastlands High temperature and rainfall is

required

- : Ideal habitat sandy soil

- Grow best around the shores of Indian and Pacific oceans

- COPRA dried of the net- , Flower can be made into a fermented drink called Toddy widely

.used in Southern India and Malaysia

Groundnuts- . - Leguminous plant Originated in Brazil- (38Warm temperature and light to moderate rainfall is required cm , 6090 in coastal area with high humidity and cm in drier interior

) - region Grown in seasonally dry tropical and subtropical climates ( , , Savanna of West Africa monsoonal climates of India and China as

. .well as in Southern U S A- , In West Africa it is grown in rotation or intercropped with millet

.and Guinea corn by peasant farmers- - , Senegal has some large mechanized farms In USA the

, groundnuts are grown in the same regions as cotton which also .yields oilseeds

Soya Beans- - Traditional crop of China Warm temperate to cool temperate crop- 21 100Temperature requirement °C and moderate rainfall of cm- Moisture retentive soils are ideal but a low atmospheric humidity ( is better than a moist atmosphere require same conditions as

) maize- , .In USA they are grown extensively in the Corn Belt

Tobacco- 18 Temperature requirement more than °C- , , .Moderate rainfall and rich regularly fertilized soil is required- - Requires large labour force Tropical tobacco is poor in quality

than temperate

- . , High Quality Tobacco W Cuba Deli area of Sumatra and ( ) Connecticut valley USA

- Four main types of tobacco1. Virginia2. Turkish or Oriental3. Cigar4. Other tobacco

Fibers , , , , , ► Animal fiber sheep goats alpacas vicunas camels silkworms , , , , ► Vegetable fiber cotton flax jute hemp sisal and abaca , , , ► Artificial or Synthetic fiber Rayon Nylon Acrilan Polyster

Wool- A major export of the tern- Native of tropical America- ,Now grown in almost every country with a warm temperate

.subtropical or tropical climate- :1 . Types of wool Merino Finest wool of high quality2. Crossbred Medium grade3. , . Carpet Wool Coarse thicker and more variant in quality Produced , -in marginal sheep rearing areas like India Iran and Ethiopia Wool

( ).from animals other than sheep Angora Goats from Asia minor ( ), ( Kashmir Goats Pashmina Alpaca and Vicuna Animal related to

), . Llama Camel Hair- . Sheep farms are very large in Australia These are known as ' '.Stations- Australia In the interior sheep rearing is the principal agricultural

occupation while in more favoured areas sheep are part of farming . economy Drought is a problem

- Sheep production for wool in Europe is often a less economic form of land use than the of raising of sheep for meat or arable

farming

- Wool production declined but the woolen textile industry remained in the traditional areas in the industrial countries of the northern

, . hemisphere except for small scale development in India This position is almost the reverse of that in the cotton textile industry

. ( which is now dominated by the cotton growing countries May be because woolen industry requires fewer workers than cotton textile industry and markets for woolen goods are in the colder northern ).countries

Silk- 16Temperature more than °C

►Production cost is high in Japan and low in China- .Silkworms feed on Mulberry trees

Cotton . ►Origin Eurasia

- :Varieties1. ( , , ).Long staple Egypt Sudan Peru and USA2. ( Medium staple Bulk of world cotton output Mainly in USA and

).CIS3. ( . Short staple Mainly in Asia But many regions have now shifted to

).medium and long staple cotton- (25 ), (50-110 ) .Requirements Warm climate °C or more cm of rainfall- It does badly in wet conditions- Medium loamy soils with good drainage- .Bollworm and Boll Weevil are pests which destroy crops

Jute- . -Grown in hot tropical condition with plenty of moisture Heavy

rainfall and rich alluvial soil are favorable

Linen- , Grows best in cool temperate conditions

16-18 50-75 - From °C of Temperature and cm of rainfall From the ' ' stem of the FLAX plant

Tea- Native to hill slopes of Monsoon Asia- One of the hardiest tropical shrubs- Cultivation in the tiny tea gardens of China and the large tea

estates of India is basically similar- :1. ( ) Two main kinds of tea Black Tea from India and Sri Lanka Used in Europe and America

2. ( ): China Tea or Green Tea or Sencha Consumed in Far East: 1525 , 100 (Requirements Temperature °C rainfall cm evenly

), .distributed well drained acidic soils

Coffee- ( ) Native of Southern Ethiopian highlands Kaffa district Dutch

( )introduced coffee in East Indies highly flavoured Java Coffee- ( )Mocha from Arabian Peninsula- ( )Blue Mountain coffee Jamaica and other West Indies- : 1. . Species of the trees ArabicaMost important in world trade Grown in Brazil and East Africa

2. . .Robusta West African variety It is hard and poorer in quality3. , Liberica High yielding moderate quality

Cocoa- Indigenous to Tropical America- The consumption of cocoa is greatest where the standard of living is highest

- ( ) Varieties Cacao Carioua Tropical America and Cacao Forastero ( ) West Africa

- , .Unlike tea or coffee it thrives in a tropical lowland environment .Often grown with banana

Wine- Viticulture or vine culture- National drink in France and Italy- . . Rice wine is produced in Japan China and S E Asia Beer Barley

and Hops Cider Apple Barley Rum Molasses Brandy Grapes- ( Inferior grapes are dried in J the sun to form Currants Shores of

. ), ( ) ( )the W Mediterranean Sultanas Asia Minor or Raisins USA

Sugar- , . From Sugar cane Sugar beet or Sugar maple It is also extracted

. from the date palm and other palm trees- . Sugar Cane mainly from tropical countries- Sugar beet mainly grown in temperate countries- Sugar beet consumed locally

.Sugar cane important export commodity- ,Sugar cane is usually grown as a monoculture crop either in USA

, . Central and South America on moderately sized owner occupied , , , , farm as in Australia or peasant holdings by small holders who , . . . either own or rent small plots e g in the West Indies

Livestock- The British consume great quantities of lamb where as the

- continental Europeans eat mainly beef and veal Beef cattle . Hereford and Aberdeen Angus

- , . Dairy cattle Ayrshire Jersey and Guernsey

- Dual purpose Shorthorn and Galloway- ( ).Draught Zebu Asia and Africa- While beef cattle can be kept on relatively poor pastures at great

, distance from markets dairy cattle are confined to the most . favoured areas

- , For dairying the climate should with a moderate to heavy rainfall . and the ground should be moisture retentive Lowland areas are more suitable than Uplands

- , , ,In China dairy farming is poorly developed where as in Japan increasing westernization of the diet has led to the growth of dairy

farming- ' India has the world s largest cattle and buffalo population and is

.also the largest milk producing nation

Fishing- , .Vital source of food in countries like Norway Iceland and Japan- , , , ( , ,Fishing includes Fish Seals Pearls Crustaceans lobsters crabs

, ), ( , , , ),prawns shrimps Molluscs oysters mussels cockles clams Sponges and Seaweeds

- . ,Advanced countries where meat is easily available such as the U K . USA or Australia tend to consume little fish

- , Major commercial fishing grounds are located in the cool water of the northern hemisphere in comparatively high latitudes especially

.where warm and cold ocean currents meet- :Reasons for concentration in High latitudes

1. . Planktons which is readily available in cool shallow waters

2. Cool climate3. ,Physical and environmental influences like indented coasts

.sheltered inlets and estuarine coasts4. - Moderate or large population Sturgen and Cavier fishes are found .in Black and Caspian Sea

► .Types of fishes1. Salt Water Fish( ) ( ) . . , ,a Pelagic living at or near the surface e g Herring Mackerel

, . , ( , Sardines Pilchards Anchovies Menhaden Caught by drifters seine )nets

( ) ( ) . . , , ,b Demersal found in deep waters e g Cod Haddock Halibut ( )Hake and Tuna Caught by trawlers

2. Fresh water . . , Fish e g Trout Perch and Pike3. Anadromous fish ( , spawned in the inland rivers but spend most ), . . of their time in sea e g Salmon

- Who owns the Oceans Territorial waters over which a state has 19 full sovereignty are recognized as extending for km from the

.coast- 19 A further km contiguous zone is recognized in which the

.coastal state can take action against those who break the law- 320 ( ), A km of Exclusive Economic Zone EEZ which starts at the

. same base line as the Territorial waters- 320States may claim rights to seabed resources for at least km

and may extend these rights to the edge of the shelf as much 1280 .km in some cases

Forestry- A robber industry

- Forestry in some parts especially in Europe is more akin to .agriculture than to traditional methods

- :Types of forests1. Tropical Hardwood Forests - Evergreen rain forests and tropical

. monsoon forests

- .In monsoon forests trees are deciduous- . , , .Broadleaved and hardwood trees Teak Ebony Mahogany etc2. Coniferous Forests - Lies north of the temperate hardwood

. belt- , , , Conifers are tall straight evergreen trees with narrow needle like

. leaves Only a few conifers like Larch are deciduous- Most coniferous trees are softwoods and are light in weight- , , Although there is a wide variety of species in the Spruce Pine Fir

, and Larch families the trees usually occur in pure stands consisting .of one particular specie

- , Most dense luxuriant coniferous forests are found in Western . North America

- :Areas 1 . . ( , , Western N America California Washington Oregon and ) SW Alaska in USA and British Columbia in Canada Some of the

largest trees like gigantic California Redwood or Sequoias are found .in this region

2. . ( Central and Eastern N America more continental climate and thin soils of the Laurentian shield support less luxuriant and often more

) 3. ( scattered type of coniferous forest Southern USA Virginia to )Texas

4. . ( ) ) N Europe Scandinavia and adjacent Russia along with some , areas in north Britain Germany and Central Europe uplands

5. Asiatic Russia Much of Northern Siberia

:Transport , .Highways in Germany called Autobahns

- , , Some other European countries like Belgium France Italy and Britain have also constructed major highway networks known by ( ), ( ) various names like Auto routes France Autos trade Italy and

( ). - Motorways England Road network in USA are known as .Highways

- , Tourism has been facilitated by the construction of good long . . distance roads in many countries e g in South America Pan , American highway and the Brasilia Belem road connects the south

.to the Amazon

Rail transport- The first ever public railway was started between Stockton and

1825. Darlington in northern England in

- ,Gauges are used in rail construction according to the topography .the alignment of the track and the speed of the travel

- (1.51.7 ) . . On level ground surfaces Broad Gauge m is used e g Trans .Siberian Railway

- (1 ) Narrow Gauge m is mainly used in hilly areas where there are . . many sharp curves to deal with e g in SE Asia and many parts of . Africa

- (1.4 ) The Standard Gauge m is adopted over the greater part of . the globe because it is the most efficient for all purposes

- The fastest and the heaviest trains of the world are all found on . . , , , the Standard Gauge e g in the USA Canada China Middle East and .most of Europe

- . (Trans Siberian Railway which runs from St Petersburg formerly ) Leningrad and Moscow in the west to Vladivostok in the east is the

. most important railway in Asia The Trans Siberian Railway has its

, , connections with Odessa in Ukraine Baku in Caucasus Tashkent in , , Uzbekistan Ulan Bator in Mongolia Shenyang in Manchuria and

.Beijing in China

- ln Japan the Railway network is very good but still railways are , not financially prosperous because commuter trains are only used

. - in rush hours and run empty during much of the day In Thailand due to lack of high standard road network the railways are an

, , efficient form of passenger transport whereas in Malaysia where , , conditions of roads are good taxies buses and Lorries provide

cheaper and much faster transport and more direct communications .have greatly reduced the profits of railways

- The only Trans continental railway in South America is one which ( ) ( ) links Buenos Aires Argentina with Valparaiso Chile through the

. Uspallata Pass across the Andes

- ( )Australian Trans Continental Railway from Freemantle near Perth , , , to Sydney passing through Kargoorlie Adelaide Melbourne and

Canberra

- (The Canadian Pacific Railway runs from Vancouver British ) . ' ( ) . Columbia to St John s New Brunswick on the Atlantic coast

- The Canada National Railway runs from Vancouver to Halifax in . Nova Scotia

- Benguela railway which runs through Angola to the Katanga Zambia copper belt and the Tanzara railway from Zambia copper

– - belt to the sea at Dar e salaam are important railway routes in . Africa

- The densest railway network in Africa is in South Africa because of , . the mining of gold copper and diamonds

- In Europe the greatest railway densities are found in the industrial . regions of the Western Europe Belgium has the greatest railway .density in Europe

- In North America the greatest railway density is found in the east , , central USA and southern Canada south of the great Lakes and on

the Atlantic sea board where most of the main cities are linked by .rails

Water transport- Water transport has its edge over other modes of transport on

. , . . , , two fronts First that it uses existing routes e g rivers seas and needs no special tracks except in the case of canals and secondly

, .that it is the cheapest form of transport for large bulky goods

Inland waterways- , , Inland waters are basically of three types namely rivers rivers

, which have been modified or canalised and specially constructed .canals

- , , , Rivers like Ob Yenisey Lena Mackenzie have their courses through empty and inhospitable lands into the frozen Arctic Ocean

due to which these rivers despite of their great length and volume . have little economic significance

- , , , Rivers in Japan Indonesia Korea Philippines and New Zealand are of little navigational value because of the narrowness of the

.countries or smallness of the island . The Paraguay River which is an important route way for Landlocked

Paraguay is very difficult to navigate because of much silting and ' . frequent shifting of channel s position

- The importance of canals in inland waterways can be noticed in , regions of northern Europe where together with modified rivers

they form a very extensive network linking all the major industrial areas and providing a cheap form of transport for raw materials , . such as ores coal and grains

- Some important canals- , , , France Canal Burgandy Canal Marne and Rhine Canal and

.Rhone and Rhine Canal , ( Germany Mittelland Canal Kiel Canal between Baltic Sea and the

), , . North Sea Dortmund Ems Canal Ludwig Canal The Netherlands , ( Albert Canal North America Soo Canal between Lake Superior and

) , ( ), Lake Huron Welland Canal between Lake Erie and Ontario Erie .Canal and Houston ship Canal

Ocean transport . Major trade routes

- The North Atlantic route This is the busiest sea route and carries the foreign trade greater than that of rest of the world combined

. ,altogether Some of the largest terminals are located in Rotterdam , , , .Antwerp London New York Boston and Philadelphia

2. .The Cape of Good Hope route3. The Mediterranean Suez Asiatic route This route was once

considered as the lifeline of Britain The is route provides the fastest .way of transporting oil to Europe

4. The Panama Canal West Indian Central American route The Panama canal joins the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean and

" '.called as The Gateway to the Pacific5. The South Atlantic route6. ( ) The Trans Pacific route Honolulu Hawaii Islands is the

' '.convergence point and known as the Crossroads of the Pacific

Air transport North America

- .The greatest amount of air traffic is found in the USA- Great distances and the high standard of living have ensured a

.large potential market for air services- : The USA is served by four large air corporations the United

, , Airlines Tran world Airlines Pan American Airlines and Eastern Airlines

- The largest airline company in Canada is the Trans Canada .Airlines

Europe- ' . London s Heathrow airport is the busiest in the world

:Major Airlines

- , Britain British Airways

- Virgin Atlantic – , The Netherlands KLM

– , Germany Lufthansa

- , Italy AlItalia

- France Air France, ( ) -Norway Sweden and Denmark Scandinavian countries SAS

: , , Rest of the world Japan Japan Airlines India Air India Australia , , , Qantas Russia Aeroflot Singapore Cathay Pacific Pakistan

, .PIA Bahrain Gulf Air

WORLD REGIONAL AGRICULTURE Europe and CIS

: Wheat Despite their intensive system of wheat cultivation by , which yields sometimes three times as high as those of the

, , average extensive wheat farm are obtained Western European .nations are not wheat exporters, , , , Ukraine France Turkey Germany Romania and Italy are major

. producers

- . The continent as a whole is the greatest wheat importer Mainly , , .comes from Canada the USA Argentina and Australia

- Denmark which used to be a wheat exporter has switched to ,dairying and market gardening

:► Areas in Europe where wheat is grown1. ( )Steppes Ukraine Black Earth2. The Paris Basin3. TheLombardy Plains of Italy4. The Puztaz of Hungary5. The lower Danube Basin of Romania and Bulgaria6. Scania in Sweden and7. Central Spain

- :Characteristics of wheat cultivation in Europe1. High yields2. ( High cost of production There many countries have subsidized

)wheat cultivation and imposed tariffs on imported wheat3. .Grown on great varieties of topographical and climatic areas

:Rice , , In the North Italian Plain the Ebro Basin of Spain the Rhone . Delta of France and scattered areas in the Balkans . Corn Used as a green fodder or winter feed as silage West

European countries are the chief importers of maize where it is . used as an animal feed and for industrial uses

Cotton . .C I S- : Leading producer Uzbekistan- . Azerbaijan and Armenia also grow cotton- The large state and collective farms are highly mechanized and

. almost all of the cotton is grown in irrigated fields- , The hottest area in Central Asia where the relative humidity is

, . very low have the highest cotton yields

- , Cotton textile industry around Moscow Others Leningrad the , ,Baltic states of Estonia and Latvia and Ukraine Armenia

Flax- , - Largest producer CIS Second largest Poland Areas North

European Plain- . . Largest producer in W Europe France Production in Belgium and

, , the Netherlands long famous for their high quality Linen has . declined North Ireland is the traditional linen manufacturing area

Silk- , Silk manufacture originally based on locally produced silk is now

.dependent on important supplies- , Frances Italy and Switzerland Traditional silk manufacturing

.countries are major importers- , ,Manufacturing centers Lyons Grenoble France Milan Italy Krefield

, Germany Britain Wool- ( CIS has largest number of sheep in the world mostly in Asiatic

) .Russia but has lower wool production than Australia- Most textile production are in European Russia including Moscow

, ( ) ( )and Leningrad Kiev Ukraine and Alma Ata Kazakhstan, , ,Britain Italy Germany and France are only minor producers today

. but once they were important

Tea- , Many of the large British tea companies which have been in

, ,business for generations especially in Mincing Lane in London blend and market tea as well as own tea estates in various parts

. ' of the Commonwealth More than half the world s tea trade goes

, , . through London where much is loaded packed and re exported CIS countries also grow some tea for home consumption

Wine- ' About two third of the world s wine come from the Mediterranean

. countries

- . Italy and France Greatest producer and consumers

- . France is a major exporter but is a net importer of wine Types of Wine

1. - ( )Asti Turin Italy2. -( )Chianti Tiber basin Italy3. -( )Marsalis Sicily Italy4. -( )Champagne Paris Basin France5. , ( )Burgundy Upper Rhone Saone Valleys France6. , ( )Beaujolais Upper Rhone Saone valleys France7. ( ) ( )Cognac Aquitaine brandy basin France8. ( )Sherry Cadiz Spain9. ( )Malaga Port of Malaga Spain10. ( )Port Oporto and Douro basin Portugal11. -( )Tokay Hungary12. - ( ) Hocks Germany Rhine- , Apart from climate pedagogical factors and the unrivalled wine

preparation skills handed down from generation to generation have .contributed to the superiority of the wine industry

- , In Spain the major vine growing areas are along the coasts in , , ,Valencia and Andalusia and in the river basins of Ebro Douro

, .Tagus Guadiana and Guadalquivir- . Frelburg is the centre of the German wine industry

Sugar Belt- Sugarcane is the major source of sugar in tropical and subtropical

, areas where as the colder countries of temperate region are . dependent on Sugar beet for local sugar production Russia and

.other countries of CIS are jointly the largest producers- Ukraine Grows it in a belt between Kiev and Voronezh along with

. , , ,the northern shores of the Black sea Poland Germany Italy, , .France Britain Czech Republic and Slovakia are major producers

, , Spain Belgium the Netherlands and the Scandia region of Sweden . are other producing areas

Olives . - , , ,Mainly grown in the Mediterranean shore land Italy Spain Greece , , , .Tunisia Turkeys Portugal Morocco and Syria

: Tobacco , , , Greece Turkey Bulgaria Italy and Poland

North America: Wheat USA

- . Grown mainly by extensive mechanized farming- . Average yield is not high- , , Leading wheat states Kansas North Dakota Nebraska and Montana- : 1. Varieties and their regions Hard Red spring wheat N and S

, , Dakota Montana and Minnesota2. , , , , Hard Red winter wheat Nebraska Kansas Missouri Oklahoma and . . N Texas

3. , , , Soft Red winter wheat Illinois Indiana Ohio Pennsylvania and .most of mid Atlantic states

4. Soft White wheat Region Around Michigan and Huron and on the ( , , )west coast California Columbia plateau Oregon and Idaho

- .Kansas is the leading wheat producerCANADA- 95% Almost all the wheat from Canada is spring wheat and of the

, total comes from the Prairie provinces of Saskatchewan Alberta and .Manitoba

- :Factors that have contributed to the rise of Canadian Prairies1 . Availability of extensive cheap land2. Extensive Railway network

3 . ( )Fertile Prairie soils Chernozem4. Undulating Topography

5. ( Suitable Climate early melting of ice because of Chinook Wind )results in longer growing season

6. ( , Access to Markets handled through Winnipeg Port Arthur and Fort . . William on L Superior and the Great lakes St Lawrence water

) ( ) ways Corn Maize USA- Corn leads all other crops in total acreage and a highly developed

, Corn belt has evolved south of the great lakes- ( It is the largest maize producer and exporter especially to Japan

)and North West Europe- , , , .Corn belt includes Ohio Indiana Illinois Iowa and Minnesota- , Corn belt is by no means a monoculture region but it is a highly

.developed mixed farming region- .One of the most prosperous agricultural regions of the world- Iowa leads in corn production followed by Illinois

- Com and animals have led to the development of such large cities , . , , as Chicago St Louis Omaha Cincinnati and Kansas City

Cotton- Several important changes have altered the entire economy of the

. old cotton belt The most important has been the westward shifts in . , .cotton growing Advantage of west fertile soils climate and labour .Texas is the largest producer

- Sheep are relatively unimportant- .Lamb is not a favorite meat in USA- , The sheep are kept in the drier western states the greatest

concentration being on the Edward Plateau of Texas

- Woolen textile (industry is located in North England extreme ) North East USA

Dairy Farming - The chief dairying region is the Hay and Dairy , Belt south of the Great lakes in the states of Wisconsin Dakota and

.Minnesota- Wisconsin leads every state in almost all categories of dairy

. products

Beef Cattle- .Greatest beef producer in the world- .Large local demand and therefore little surplus for export- . Cattle are raised in W Prairies and then taken to cattle fattening

.areas- , . . Processed in towns such as Chicago St Louis Omaha and Kansas

. CityPigs- ' Most of America s Pigs are found in the Com Belt- . Americans and Canadians consume a great deal of pork- ( )Greatest rearing area Corn Belt Iowa and Missouri

Fishing CANADA and USA

1. :North West Atlantic Fishing Grounds- ' It was traditionally the world s richest Cod fishing region- Centered on the Grand Banks- , Fishes like Cod Herring and Mackerel are caught in the surface

( ). , , waters Pelagic Halibut Haddok Hake and Flounder in the deeper ( ).waters Demersal

- ( Inshore fishing shellfish and crustaceans important in the ). urbanized North East

- :Reasons for the development of fishing( ) a Vast continental shelf( ) b Convergence of cold Labrador and warm Gulf Stream off New

Foundland( ) .c Lack of natural resources on land( ) d Cool temperate climate not only favors large scale commercial

, .fishing but also the preservation and storage of fish- .Fishery and Marine industry- ( , Important in the Maritime Provinces of Canada Nova Scotia New

, )Brunswick Prince Edward Island

2. - . North East Pacific Alaska to California

- , . Salmon most valuable species but greatly depleted

- ( ) Amongst Demersal found in deep water fish Hake is important- , .In recent years catches of Alaska Pollack has become important

Tuna and Sardine Off California

USA- , , , Leading fishing states Alaska Massachusetts California Delaware

and New Jersey- , , Major fishing ports Gloucester New Bedford Baltimore- Crustaceans and Shellfish are an important part of the American

.fishing industry

Canada- , . Salmon Cod and Lobsters are important fishes

– Cod at Newfound land and Lobsters at Nova Scotia

– Salmon New Brunswick and Nova Scotia

- -Fishing in British Columbia is centered at Vancouver Inland . , . , . , . ( , ,fisheries R Skeena R Fraser Gr Lakes Gr Slave lakes Salmon Trout

). Eel

- Canada largest producer of Newsprint. ( , , ) Pines Centered at Quebec Toronto Montreal and Ottawa

- ' Bowater s plant of Comer Brook is probably the largest newsprint .mill in the world

Asia: Rice ( ): 1. ( ) ( )CHINA Areas Chang Jiang Yangtze Kiang and Xi River Si Kiang .Basins

2. South East Coastlands

3. ( ) Sichuan Szechwan Basin

4. ( )Hill slopes south of the Chang Jiang Yangtze .Rising of dietary standards has given wheat a greater prominence

BANGLADESH Rice fields in the Ganges Delta region are nil .irrigated

: JAPAN High Yield and produced in Northern Honshu , ,Malaysia large paddy settlement Schemes Kubang Pasu Kedah

, .( )Tanjong Karang Selangor Irrigation schemes

Wheat CHINA1. Hwang Ho Basin2. Manchuria- Flood control measures have helped wheat cultivation on the

( ) northern side of the Chang Jiang Yangtze Kiang

- Wheat is the staple food of the Northern China as rice is of the . southern China

- ( . ) Also grown in North Korea and Japan N Honshu Maize India and . China Barley Upper Ganges Basin

:SOUTH EAST ASIA :Rice 1. ( Indonesia Mostly in Java rich volcanic ). ( ) ( ) soil Raised as either Sawah wet Paddy or Huma dry paddy

2. , , Mekong Delta Annam coastland Tonle Sap area of Cambodia and .Vietnam are all natural sites for paddy cultivation

:Oats North China Manchuria and around Hwang Ho Millet and , , Sorghum Southern and Western India North Eastern China Indo

, . , , ( . ), China peninsula S Borneo Myanmar Japan S Honshu Eastern . Kamchatka Peninsula

:Tea SRI LANKA- 1870 Introduced in s after blights had destroyed almost all coffee

.trees in the Central Highlands , Yields are low though the tea is of high quality

- Competition has increased for India and Sri Lanka because of rise ( .)in production in East Africa Kenya etc

- . CHINA Export is much smaller than those of India and Sri Lanka

- ( ) , ( ) . Areas Chang Jiang Yangtze Valley Sichuan Szechwan Basin

- . Tea gardens are small

- .Oolong Tea is produced in Taiwan - , .INDONESIA Java introduced in Sumatra as well

- .Black tea is exported to the Netherlands - BANGLADESH Exported through Chittagong

- Main areas Surma Valley - ( Peninsular MALAYSIA Cameroon Highlands Picking is done by ) immigrant Tamil women from southern India and Sri Lanka

Coffee- ( )Java coffee Java and Sumatra- ( ) - , , , Mocha Yemen India Malayasia Vietnam and Philippines also

. grow coffee Cocoa- . . Papua New Guinea is the main S E Asian producer

- ( ) Also grown in eastern Sabah Malaysia

Sugarcane- , ( ),India Pakistan production has increased because of irrigation

( ), , ( . .China Si kiang basin Taiwan Thailand leading producer in S E ), ( , , )Asia Philippines Panay Negros Cebu and Luzon islands

- ( )Sugarbeet Northern China Plantations in South East Asia

► Rubber plantations were established in most of the South East .Asian countries

► Philippines is the only South East Asian country which grows no rubber .► Thailand presently is the largest producer of rubber in the world ► Immigrants from China and South India flocked to South East

. , Asia to get work on the estates As a result of immigration while 10% people of Indian extraction account for about of the Malaysia

. 38% population the proportion of Chinese people is around in .Malaysia

► Malaysian estates and plantations are perhaps the most efficient . and wellrun in the world Government in Malaysia had allowed the .large estates to coexist with small holdings

► Where as political stability in Malaysia has led to better , developmental performance on various economic fronts other

countries in South East Asian have witnessed retarded growth , because of prolonged struggles for independence confiscation of

, .estates struggle for power and frequent incidents of coups

RubberMALAYSIA- Most important crop in Malaysia- , , Expansion of rubber growing efficient methodology research and

replanting along with establishment of Rubber Research Institute in Kuala Lumpur and political stability have led to

.the growth of rubber industryINDONESIA- ,Since most of the lands in Java were owned by peasant farmers

.most of the rubber estates were set up in Sumatra - . THAILAND Presently the largest producer in the world

- Grown in southern region because seasonally dry climate in other .parts prevent rubber growing

- Grown mostly by smallholders and small estate owners of Chinese .extraction - CAMBODIA Rubber was grown mainly in the east of the country

but production has been interrupted by the war and subsequent .political instability - VEITNAM Main Area North East of Ho Chi Minh city

- , .SRI LANKA After tea rubber is the most important export crop

Palm Oil- . MALAYSIA Largest producer in the world Grown on estates as well

.as on small holdings- INDONESIA Mainly in southern Sumatra

( )Copra Coconut, , Philippines Indonesia India and Sri lanka along with Papua New

, . Guinea Fiji and New Hebrides

Groundnut- - )India largest producer China North China Plains- Also grown in Indonesia and Myanmar

Soya bean- : China North China Plains and Manchuria

- Japan and Indonesia also grow Soya bean

Olive- Turkey and Syria Tobacco- , Turkey and South West Asia South Asia and South East Asia- China and India are major producers- Greece and Turkey produce aromatic Turkish tobacco Indonesia

.also produces tobacco

: Dairy Cattle- . India largest producer of milk in the world

- . Japan has a large number of important dairy industries

- Dairy Industry is not well developed in China because of .traditional reasons

Sheep: - , , Middle East including Turkey Iran Afghanistan and some , . other countries is the leading sheep farming region in Asia Sheep . rearing is also important in dry areas of India and China as well

- China kept on extensive farms in the western province of Xinjiang ( ) Sinkiang and in Inner Mongolia

:Pig - . China Most important pigrearing country

- , , Also important in Korea Japan Philippines and continental South .East Asia

South America:Rice Brazil

1. . Greatest rice growing nation in the southern continents

2. ( , Growing in SE Brazil heavy precipitation swampy coastal lowlands ) and abundant sunlight

Wheat Argentina1. Method of cultivation similar to USA and Canada2. Greatest concentration in the wheat crescent of the Pampas from

Rosario to Bahia Blanca3. Dense network of railway supports transportation to costal ports . , of Buenos Aires and Bahia Blanca Outside Argentina only Uruguay and Central Chile have considerable wheat cultivation

Maize, Argentina Brazil and Mexico Coffee Brazil Factors for the rise of the

:Brazilian coffee industry

1. ( )Land well drained and rolling plateau2. ( ) . . Climate Warm and Humid The prevailing S E trade winds from

. .the S Atlantic Ocean blow onshore and are favorable ( ) ,Fazendas or coffee estates are usually located at some elevation

. .away from the cold valley bottoms This is to avoid chilling frosts3. : . Soil Variable soils of SE Brazil are suitable for coffee production ( ) Terra Rossa is the best among them

4. Labour and land tenure Most of the land in Brazil is owned by , . rich land owner comparatively little land is in small holdings

5. . - Accessibility Intricate system of roads and railways Sao Paulo is ( )the centre ofthe coffee trade Its outport is Santos

- , ( ) Sao Paulo Santos and Rio De Janeiro all in SE are the most . prosperous in Brazil Now it is increasingly grown further north in

.Minas GeraisColumbia- , Chief coffee centers Medellin Manizales and Tolima- Columbian coffee has an excellent flavor and fetches higher prices

.than Brazilian one- , Ecuador Venezuela and Peru are the chief producers

- .In Central America coffee is the chief crop having high yields , Mexico El Salvador and Guatemala are the major coffee producers

( )Also in the Blue Mountains of JamaicaCocoaBrazil- Growing region Bahia and Esparto Santo

- The red clay soils of the crystalline rocks are ideal for the cropEcuador- , , ,On Guayaquil Lowlands Other producers Venezuela Peru Columbia

and Trinidad and Tobago . ( . .Central America W Indies grown on abandoned banana lands e g

) , ,Costa Rica Other producers in Central America are Mexico Haiti Dominican Republic and Costa Rica

Wine Chile Central valley around Santiago Argentina Around Mendoza and

San JuanCottonBrazil- .Production mainly from North East and South East of the country- . Plantations have also been established in the Chaco

- .Not a major textile producerPeru- ( Has a long cotton growing tradition Mainly in the oasis

)settlements in the Atacama Desert , , , . Other Producers Mexico Columbia Nicaragua other C American . states and W Indies Wool Argentina

- In the dry windy plateau country of Patagonia

- ' Majority of Argentina s production is of medium and poor grade wools

Uruguay Fairly important wool producer . Other producers Brazil and Chile There is little woolen textile

. manufacture in Latin America

Fisheries- Fisheries are less developed in the temperate waters of the

. southern hemisphere- , . , In Argentina S Africa Australia and New Zealand meat is more

. popular- Tropical waters have less potential for fishing in general because

. fish of commercial species are fewer- . Well developed in regions off Peru and Chile- . Anchovies are common- . Upwelling cold waters help Plankton development- . Bulk of fish caught not used for food but for fertilizers- (The rise of fishing industry has endangered the Guano bird

) droppings rich in phosphate industry because the birds can no . longer find sufficient food in coastal waters

- ' Chile s catch is mainly used for industrial purposes rather than . food

Forestry- .Huge reserves exist but relatively unimportant producing area- ( Brazil is the only major commercial timber producer but wood

. comes from Parana pine rather than Amazonian forests This is because of difficulties in transporting the logs to the main industrial

and population centers in the south east and also because of the .) greater versatility of conifers for industrial use

- . Columbia and Haiti produce timber mainly for fuel- .Chile and Argentina have mall production of industrial woods- , Brazil Argentina and Paraguay are major producers of Quebracho wood

Africa

Wheat- , It is of little importance except in the extreme south in parts of

( , , Cape Province and in northern Africa Egypt Morocco Algeria and ). Tunisia

- , . Elsewhere in Africa maize is much more important than wheat

Rice- ( )Egypt Nile Delta and valley

, Though Basin irrigation is still used huge dams like Aswan have .helped in the development of perennial irrigation system

- , . . ., , , , Minor producers Congo C A R Guinea Sierra Leone Liberia Ivory , . Coast Mali and Madagascar

Maize- . .S Africa is the major producer- Production is often small in African countries but the crop is

relied on as a staple food and therefore has an importance in the .economy greater than mere production figures would indicate

, Oat and Barley in Africa these are grown in eastern southeastern .and southern pockets

Millet and sorghum - . Millet is an important subsistence crop It is often called Durra or Guinea

.Corn - , , , , .Main producers Nigeria Sudan Niger Chad Mali and Egypt Vegetables( ) ( ) ( )a Starchy tubers i Manioc or Cassava Zaire and Nigeria( ) ( , . . ii Yams common food crops in Africa S E Asia and the Pacific

islands and are grown by shifting cultivators and subsistence ). , , , .farmers Major producers Nigeria Togo Benin Ivory Coast

Fruits( ) ( ) ( ( )a Tropical fruits i Dates Desert areas of Sudan and Algeria ii

( . )Bananas W Africa( ) ( )iii Pineapples Zaire and Ivory Coast( ) b Sub tropical and warm temperate fruits Citrus fruits like Grapes . .in S Africa

Spices- Clove Pemba and Zanzibar- ( Vanilla Malagasy Elsewhere Vanilla is grown in Mexico and

) Indonesia

Tea- , , Kenya Malawi Mozambique and Uganda

- Kenyan tea is of high quality and is grown on highlands around . Nairobi

Java coffee ( ) , ( )Indonesia Mocha Yemen- , . Ivory Coast Zaire and Cameroon are chief producers

- , . Kenya Uganda and Angola also grow coffee Cocoa- , , - Ghana Nigeria Ivory Coast and Cameroon Mainly on small

. holdings

- ( ) Brazil and Ivory Coast new producers have higher yields than . Ghana and Nigeria

- (The greatest concentration is in the cocoa triangle including , ) Accra Kumasi and Takoradi Forests

- , . Nigeria Ethiopia and Sudan are major timber producers

- ,Many countries have turned to commercial extraction Nigeria , Cameroon Gabon and Zaire

- Forests are less extensive and often less luxuriant than in Latin .America or South East Asia

- , Though largest forest area is in Zaire Basin transportation is .difficult

AustraliaWheat- Major Exporter

- Method of cultivation similar to USA and Canada

- ( Yields are low Wheat farms are not all that prone to climatic hazards in the southern continents as they are in the north ) because of maritime locations

- . Irrigation is necessary in Victoria and NS Wales

- Wheat cultivation is intensified in the Riverina district of the ( . ) MurrayDarling Basin and in Swanland W Australia

Wine- . , . Chiefly from S Australia around Adelaide

- Minor area Murray Darling Basin of Victoria and New South Wales . Centered at Mildura

Wool- Leading producer

- Two third of produced wools belong to Merino Class

- , Concentrated in New South Wales especially in the rolling Downs . on the western side of the GreDividingRange

- . New Zealand has astonishing numterjifsheerj Maritime climate , . and better pasture are helpful Out of total threefourth belongs to ( ). the Rodney Marsh British New Zealand fleeces are the heaviest

Forests- Australia has little natural forest It has some reserves in the

,moister south east and in Tasmania- ( ) Major tree type Eucalyptus poor quality timber Also possess

. ( valuable Jarrah and Karri Found in south west of the country in . ) Swanaland in W Australia

- Australia has few local softwood resources but many conifers have . been planted in order to provide larger supplies

- . ( New Zealand has some small softwood reserve Most in less .)fettled south island which has Kauri Pine

POPULATION Anthropological geography By comparing the biology of man with that of other animals and so

( ) determining the degree of their relationship Taxonomy and by looking at fossils and so determining their age and development

( ), .Paleontology the evolution of man can be predicted .Geochronological evolution of mankind

( ) ,Paleocene and Eocene Prosimains pre monkeys Oligocene , Prosimians decreased during this period Miocene Dryopithecines

( ), ( ;group of apes End of Miocene Ramapithecus progressive animal , with rounded dental arcade and human like teeth was clearly a

), ( ,human ancestor Pliocene Australopithecines southern ape man ), upright in stature and used crude tools Pleistocene Homo erectus

( ), erect walking primitive man Late Pleistocene Appearance of ( . Neanderthal skulls more massive than that of present man Their

.tools were finely constructed than homoerectus Second interglacial stage other Pleistocene Appearance of modern

.Homosapiens .An early group of Homosapiens are called Cromagnon

Races of the world , Races can be primarily classified into Caucasiod Mongoloid and . negroid

Caucasoid- .Skin colour reddish white to olive brown- - Stature medium to tall Head long to broad and short- Face narrow to medium broad- Hair light blonde to dark brown- Eye light blue to dark brown- .Mainly found in Europe- , ( ),Also along the northern belt of Africa Asia Minor Turkey

, .Afghanistan Iran to Baluchistan and Northern India- , , , , Subraces of caucasoid Mediterranean Ainu Celtic Nordic Alpine

.and East Baltic- , . some composite races Armenoid Dinaric Predominantly white

, . ones include Australian Indo Dravidian and Polynesian Residual . mixed type include Nordic Alpine and Nordic Mediterranean

Mongoloid- , .Skin colour saffron to yellow brown some are reddish brown- .Stature Medium tall to medium short- ( )Head Predominantly broad Brachycephals- .Face Medium broad to very broad- .Hair brown to brown black- , .Eye brown to dark brown medial epicanthic fold very common- .Mainly Asiatic or oriental race- , Also found in central eastern and SE Asia and western parts of

( .), ( ,Americas Red Indians etc Arctic region Eskimos in Canada ).Greenland and Yakuts in Siberia

- .Sub races include classic mongoloid and Arctic mongoloid- Composite races include those that are predominantly mongoloid

, . like Malaya mongoloid Indonesian mongoloid and American Indians

Negroid- Skin colour brown to brown black- - , Stature tall to very short Head predominantly long height low to

. medium- Face medium broad to narrow- Hair colour brown black- , .Eye brown to brown black vertical eye fold common- .Characterized by prognathism that is protrusion of the jaw- ( ) . . .Some are also affected by steatopygia bulky hips e g Hottentots- , .Sub races include African Negro Nilotic negro and Negrito- Composite races including those that are predominantly negroid

.like Melanesians and papuans- Secondary subraces include Bushmen of Kalahari and hottentots of

.southern Africa 8,000 . By B C hunters and gatherers had migrated from Africa

, through out Europe and Asia to Australia and across the Bering . Strait and southward the length of America Only Antarctica was . totally uninhabited by mankind Major revolutions like Agricultural

(10,000 ). (1779 . ) Revolution years before Industrial Revolutions A D and (20 ) Medical Revolution th century were marked by distinct rise in

.world population

Factors affecting distribution of population- Availability of arable land and water The plain areas having fertile

soil and appropriate climate for the cultivation of crops are the . regions of high density of population Areas having incidence of

. anthropogenic innovations like irrigation etc also tend to have high . population density

- Area of civilization The longer a place has been continuously used , . ( . .by farmers the larger is the density and the population E g

)Eastern China plains and Indo Gangetic plains- : Accessibility Accessible places are those that can easily be

. connected by transportation to other places Such areas always . tend to have high population A higher relief would result in lower

. 56 ' population density percent ofthe world s population is confined . 200 . 20 to an altitude of less than m Only about percent of the

' world s total population is found in regions with an altitude of more 500 . than m Japan provides the classic example of relationship .where the demographic relief is opposite of its physiographic relief

- : Restrictions of National boundaries Crossing of international boundaries by the people of one country to another are not

. allowed by the proviso of international law Most governments restrict immigration and several countries control emigration as

. well Therefore the population density is not uniform throughout the .world

,Inhabited regions of the world are known as Ecumene areas .whereas the uninhabited areas are known as Non Ecumene areas

Population Distribution The world can be divided into densely and sparsely populated .areas

Densely populated regions are those having density greater than . hundred persons per square kilometers It includes the following

- ( , , . ) areas East Asia China Japan S Korea and Taiwan

- ( , , , )South Asia India Pakistan Bangladesh Sri Lanka and Nepal- ( , , , , ,North Western Europe France UK Germany Netherlands Poland

, , , , , ).Belgium Luxembourg Ireland Denmark Spain Portugal and Italy- ( )Eastern North America NE USA and SE Canada

, :Apart from the above four following regions also have high density- , .Deltas of Mekong Menam and Irrawady- ( Indonesian island of Java high population density is because of

)rich volcanic soil- . Linear concentration along the Nile Valley in Egypt Ring of

.settlement around Lake Victoria and the coastal area of Nigeria- .Central Mexico- , .Coastal areas of Venezuela Brazil and Argentina

Sparsely populated :areas are as follows- , ( Desert arid and semiarid areas generally they are thinly

populated by nomadic hunters and gatherers like the Bushmen of .).Kalahari and nomads like the Badawins of Arabia and Sahara etc

Exceptions occur where towns have emerged in deserts owing to ( . . the mining of gold and other precious metals e g Kalgoorlie and

.) - Coolgardie in Australia and Cripple Creek in USA etc Ice caps and . ( , cold regions Very sparsely inhabited usually by hunters like

) Eskimos Exceptions occur where minerals are available and men ( . . have settled there to exploit them e g iron ore in Gallivare in

, .)Sweden gold in Yukon Valley and Fort Yukon in Alaska- . ,Mountainous Regions Exceptions occur where minerals are found

. (like some pockets in Peru and Bolivia In Kishtwar Bhadarwah & ), district of J K mining of precious stones have led to the

.emergence of settlements ,In tropical regions where climate at lower altitudes is not conducive

, most of the towns cities and settlements have developed around 2000 ( ), ( ),m above sea level Addis Abab Ethiopia Kampala Uganda

( ), ( ), ( ), ( )Nairobi Kenya Quit Euador Ooty India Kandy Sri Lanka

:Most populated countries in worldChinaIndiaUSAIndonesiaBrazilPakistanRussiaJapan

BangladeshNigeriaMexicoGermanyIranEgyptUKFrance

( )ASIA countries in sequence of their populationChinaIndiaIndonesiaPakistanJapanBangladeshVietnamPhilippinesIranTurkeyThailandMyanmar. S Korea. N Korea

UzbekistanNepalAfghanistanIraqTaiwanMalaysia. S Arabia Sri Lanka

KazakhstanYemenSyriaCambodia

Factors affecting distribution of population- Availability of arable land and water The plain areas having fertile

soil and appropriate climate for the cultivation of crops are the . regions of high density of population Areas having incidence of

. anthropogenic innovations like irrigation etc also tend to have high . population density

- Area of civilization The longer a place has been continuously used , . ( . .by farmers the larger is the density and the population E g

)Eastern China plains and Indo Gangetic plains- : Accessibility Accessible places are those that can easily be

. connected by transportation to other places Such areas always . tend to have high population A higher relief would result in lower

. 56 ' population density percent ofthe world s population is confined . 200 . 20 to an altitude of less than m Only about percent of the

' world s total population is found in regions with an altitude of more

500 . than m Japan provides the classic example of relationship .where the demographic relief is opposite of its physiographic relief

- : Restrictions of National boundaries Crossing of international boundaries by the people of one country to another are not

. allowed by the proviso of international law Most governments restrict immigration and several countries control emigration as

. well Therefore the population density is not uniform throughout the .world

,Inhabited regions of the world are known as Ecumene areas .whereas the uninhabited areas are known as Non Ecumene areas

Population Distribution The world can be divided into densely and sparsely populated .areas

Densely populated regions are those having density greater than . hundred persons per square kilometers It includes the following

- ( , , . ) areas East Asia China Japan S Korea and Taiwan

- ( , , , )South Asia India Pakistan Bangladesh Sri Lanka and Nepal- ( , , , , ,North Western Europe France UK Germany Netherlands Poland

, , , , , ).Belgium Luxembourg Ireland Denmark Spain Portugal and Italy- ( )Eastern North America NE USA and SE Canada

, :Apart from the above four following regions also have high density- , .Deltas of Mekong Menam and Irrawady- ( Indonesian island of Java high population density is because of

)rich volcanic soil- . Linear concentration along the Nile Valley in Egypt Ring of

.settlement around Lake Victoria and the coastal area of Nigeria- .Central Mexico- , .Coastal areas of Venezuela Brazil and Argentina

Sparsely populated :areas are as follows- , ( Desert arid and semiarid areas generally they are thinly

populated by nomadic hunters and gatherers like the Bushmen of .).Kalahari and nomads like the Badawins of Arabia and Sahara etc

Exceptions occur where towns have emerged in deserts owing to ( . . the mining of gold and other precious metals e g Kalgoorlie and

.) - Coolgardie in Australia and Cripple Creek in USA etc Ice caps and . ( , cold regions Very sparsely inhabited usually by hunters like

) Eskimos Exceptions occur where minerals are available and men ( . . have settled there to exploit them e g iron ore in Gallivare in

, .)Sweden gold in Yukon Valley and Fort Yukon in Alaska- . ,Mountainous Regions Exceptions occur where minerals are found

. (like some pockets in Peru and Bolivia In Kishtwar Bhadarwah & ), district of J K mining of precious stones have led to the

.emergence of settlements ,In tropical regions where climate at lower altitudes is not conducive

, most of the towns cities and settlements have developed around 2000 ( ), ( ),m above sea level Addis Abab Ethiopia Kampala Uganda

( ), ( ), ( ), ( )Nairobi Kenya Quit Euador Ooty India Kandy Sri Lanka

:Most populated countries in worldChinaIndiaUSAIndonesiaBrazilPakistanRussiaJapanBangladeshNigeriaMexicoGermanyIranEgyptUKFrance

( )ASIA countries in sequence of their populationChinaIndiaIndonesiaPakistanJapanBangladeshVietnamPhilippinesIranTurkeyThailandMyanmar. S Korea. N Korea

UzbekistanNepalAfghanistanIraqTaiwanMalaysia. S Arabia Sri Lanka

KazakhstanYemenSyriaCambodia

: WORLD Major Producing Regions

Rice Production China India

Vietnam Bangladesh

Thailand Myanmar

Brazil Philippines

Japan

Wheat Production China India USA France Russian Federation Canada Australia

Germany Turkey Pakistan Cereals China USA India France Indonesia Russian Federation Canada Brazil Germany Australia

:Barley Germany Canada Russian Ferderation France Turkey Spain UK USA Denmark China Maize USA China Brazil Mexico Argentina

Romania India Italy Indonesia Canada

:Oats Russian Federation Canada USA Australia Poland Millet India Nigeria China Niger Burkina Faso

:Rye Russian Federation Germany Poland Belarus Ukraine Sorghum USA India Nigeria Mexico China Argentina Sudan Australia Ethiopia

Burkina Faso

: Sugar Cane Brazil India China Pakistan Thailand Mexico Australia Columbia Cuba USA

:Tea India China Sri Lanka Kenya Indonesia Turkey Japan Vietnam Iran Bangladesh

:Wine France Italy Spain USA

:Jute India Bangladesh China Myanmar Uzbekistan Nepal Tobacco China India USA Turkey Zimbabwe Greece Indonesia Italy Malawi

Pakistan

:Coconuts Indonesia India Philippines Brazil Mexico

: Natural Rubber Thailand Indonesia Malaysia India China

:Freshwater Fish China India Brunei

IndonesiaUSAThailand

Russian FederationVietnamJapanNorway

:Marine FishChina

ThailandVietnamMyanmarIndiaIndonesiaMexicoMalaysia

South Korea

:SilkChinaIndia

Uzbekistan Brazil : Crude Oil USA Saudi Arabia

CISIranMexicoFisheriesChinaPeruJapanChileUSARussia

: World Mineral and Power Resources and IndustriesAsia

JAPANCoal- ( . . ), ( ), ( ).Chikugo N W Kyushu Ishikari Hokkaido Johan and Ube Honshu - . - Has to import coking coal High Production costs and low quality

coal makes mining unprofitable and Japan relies heavily on . imported oil and on HydroElectric Power Lignite Deposits are fairly

.well scattered throughout Japan ( . . .)Hydro Electric Power H E P

- , Lack of coal and oil a rugged topography well distributed heavy precipitation and an enormous industrial demand has lead to the . . .development of H E P

- ' It s unstable geological situation with frequent earth quakes are a deterrent to the building of really large dams even if the mountain

.streams were large enough to warrant them- . . .H E P plants In Japanese Alps

' Thermo Electricity It contributes twothird of Japan s total energy . , , requirement IronOre Imported from Philippines Malaysia India and

.Australia Copper Japan produces appreciable quantities but has started

. importing now Found in north and north east of Tokyo and northern .Shikoku

Zinc Central and Northern Honshu , Japan also produces Lead Gold and Sulphur

Industries- .Shortage of industrial raw materials and solid fuels- Indented coastline and many large ports- .Technically biased educational system- :Regions1. ( )KEIHIN Region Kwanto Plain- TokyoElectrical Engineering- , , YokohamaShip building oil refining Petrochemicals - , , . KawasakiMarine engineering cement glass2. ( ) HANSHIN Kinki Plains Industrial conurbation comprising of Osaka

. - , , . -Textiles Kobe Shipbuilding Oil refining and Petrochemicals Kyoto , .Handicrafts Porcelain

3. ( ) ( ).ICE BAY Region Dominated by Nagoya Nobi Plains- , , , .Nagoya Textiles Machinery Automobiles Locomotive Aircraft- Hamamatsu Musical Instruments4. ( ) .KITAKYUSHU Northern Kyushu Based on Chikugo Coal fields- . Centered at Yawata Kokura and Moji Extends southward to

. - , ,Fukuoka and Nagasaki This region specializes in Steel Ships .Machine parts and Textiles

5. Other Industrial Cities- . - .Muroran Iron and Steel Akita and Nigata Oil refining- Hiroshima Engineering- ( ) <= .Hakodate and Sapporo Hokkaidu also have ome industries

CHINA Coal- 1 . - , .A types of coal are found Shanxi Shaanxi and Inner Mongolia

, , . - Also in Gansu Henan Hebei and Shandong Manchurian coal fields , , . - ( )including those at Jilin Liaoning Heilongjiang Szechwan Sichuan

. , , , basin Coal mining centres Fushun Fuxin Kailan Hegang - .HydroElectricity Projects both for power and flood control

- . ,Several dams along Hwang Ho Other projects on Yang Tze Kiang .Si kiang and some in Manchuria

Iron Ore Largest deposit Manchurian deposits at Anshan Other regions

( ) - Maanshan and Tayeh Lower Yangtze Iron Steel Industries are , , , , ,centered at Anshan Taiyun Shanghai Wuhan Chongquing

, , , . Guangzhou Shandong Xinjiang Hainan Islands Copper Western and SW China Tungusten

- - One of the largest producers in the world Hunan and Jiangxi , , . ,Lead Manganese and rock salt are also found Kaolin or China clay

a fine clay formed by the alteration of granite by metamorphism is .found in huge quantities

Industrial Regions1 . ( )Manchuria Iron Steel Engineering- . Centered at Anshan Fushun Shenyang These three forms Mukden

2, Triangle Tianjin Beijing- , Tianjin Shipbuilding Chemicals- , 3.Beijiing Light Industry Textiles and Machine making Shanxi

' .Baotou Based on China s largest coal field Shanxi and Shaanxi , . Centered at Baotou Taiyuan and Datong These three are centers of

.Iron and steel industry4. ( ). - Lower Yangtze Kiang Oldest industrial centre Shanghai Cotton

( ). 5. ( Textile also a premier port Wuhan Area Central Yangtze Kiang ). - . and Han Basin Centered at Wuchang Hanyang Hankou These three forms the conurbation of Wuhan Main industries in this region

, , , .are Metallurgy Heavy industries Ship Building Railway Equipment6. ( Si Kiang Delta Region Centered at Guangzhou Canton Iron and

, , , , Steel Shipbuilding Textiles Chemicals Brewing Handicrafts Food .processing

7. ,SichuanCentered at Chongquing and Chengdu Iron and steel , Textiles Pulp and Paper

Other industrial cities In the mountainous Yunnan and the empty ( ) lands of Xinjiang Sinkiang isolation hamper industrial development

. , ,despite the rich mineral resources Some towns such as Anning ( ) ( ) Kiuchvan Iron and steel Yumen and Hangzhou oil refining and ( , ) .Kunming Chemicals textiles have industrial development

KOREA. . H E P North Korea Shuifeng Dam across Yalu River Iron Ore North

Korea Tungsten North and South Korea Mica South Korea

( )Industries South Korea- Taegu Electronics

- Pohang Iron and steel

- , Ulsan Petrochemical Shipbuilding- Changwon Machinery

HONG KONG Light Industries

SOUTH EAST ASIA Coal- - ( ) .Hongay Vietnam Omibilin Sumatra Indonesia- ( ) Samarinda Kalimantan Indonesia- Cebu Island Philippines

- ( )Krabi In kra Peninsula Thailand- . . Batu Arang and Sabah Peninsular Malayasia H E P Abu Bakar Dam

( ) Cameroon Highlands Peninsular Malaysia Iron Ore Malaysia and Philippines

, ( ) ( ) Copper Myanmar Sarawak Malaysia and Irian Jaya Indonesia

: ( ) , Tin Malaysia all fields in peninsular Malaysia Kinta Valley Larut , , . Plain Kelang Valley Jelebu Valley Smelting is done at Penang and

, ( ) Singapore Thailand Kra Peninsula Pukhet off shore Island Indonesia , , .Banga Billiton Singkep

.Also found in Burma and Vietnam Nickel Philippines and Indonesia

Tungsten Thailand Gold Philippines Chromium Philippines

: : , ( ) Petroleum Indonesia Sumatra Palembang Jambi Refineries and ; , ; Singapur Kalimantan Balikpapan Tanjung Irian Jaya Klamono

, , , , ,Brunei Seria Kuala Belait Myanmar Singu YenangYaung Indaw ( )Minbu Syriam refineries and Yangon refineries

, Malaysia Off shore Sarawak East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia

Industries- - , ( ,Singapore Oil Refinery Electronic Assembly Processing of Rubber

, ) - -Copra and Lumber ShipBuilding Tourism , Thailand Automobile Assembly plants Electrical Items , , , .Malaysia Furniture Soap Fertilizers Electronic Goods

, , Philippines Paper and Wood Products Electrical Appliances Fishery Industry

WEST ASIAN AND OTHER ASIAN COUNTRIES

Coal- - Iran Kermanshah Pakistan Quetta and Kalabagh

. .H E P , , , , , ,Pakistan Sukkur Mangla Guddu Tarbela Taunsa Triple Canal Project

Kotri

Chromium , Turkey Guleman Tithye Petroleum

- Major pipelines from inland fields or field on Persian Gulf to the .Mediterranean Coast

- , ( )Saudi Arabia Dammam Dharan Exported to Ras Tanura Bahrein . . -or Port Saida Oil refineries at Ras Tanura and Damman Iran

- - , - - , , - ( Masjid E Sulaiman Nafi I Shah Lali Agha Jari send to Abadan )on persian gulf and Kermanshah for refinery

- , . , .Iraq Alaband Khanaquin Kirkuk Refinery at Daura near Baghdad .New fields Gulf coast west of Basra and Mosul

- ( ), ( ), ( )Mediterranean ports Banias Syria Tripoli Lebanon Haifa Israel - ( KuwaitBurgan oilfields exported as crude oil through Mina Al

, , , . .Ahmadi Port Others Bahrein Qatar Abu Dhabi U A E

North America. . :U S A

Coal- Pennsylvanian Anthracite- Appalachian Bituminous

- . ( )Pittsburgh N Appalachians Iron and steel Capital of the world- . ( )Birmingham S Appalachians Pittsburgh of the south- ( , , , , ,Interior Provinces Indiana Illinois Iowa Missouri Kansas

, ) Oklahoma Arkansas

- ( , , )Gulf Provinces Texas Alabama Arkansas- ( , , , , .Rocky Mountain Provinces Utah Colorado Wyoming Montana N

, . )Mexico N Dakota- ( , , ) Pacific Provinces Washington Oregon California

- ( ) Alaska future reserves

. .H E P- ( ), , , Fall Line Appalachians Rockies Mississippi Basin Laurentian

, , . , , . Shield Great Lakes St Lawrence Grand coulee Dam R Columbia ( ), . ( ), Washington Bonneville Dam R Columbia Washington Hoover

( . ) . , Dam or Boulder Dam reservoir L Mead R Colorado Davis Dam and ( . ), . Parker Dam R Colorado in Arizona St Lawrence Seaway with

, , , ,generating stations at Beauharnais Cornwall Prescott Kingston ), . ( ), Montreal St Anthony falls Minneapolis Long Sault Rapids

( ). ( , ,Massena Dams along Mississippi and Missouri Fort peck Garrison , ' ). . .Fort Randall Gavin s Point Tennessee Valley Project on R Tennessee

Petroleum and Natural Gas1 . ( , )Midcontinental region Texas Oklahoma and Kansas- 1930 .Oklahoma City became the heart of American oil industry- . Also a great Natural gas area

2. Gulf coasts region- ( . , , )S Texas Louisiana Mississippi and Arkansas- . Extends under the continental shelf of the Gulf of Mexico

3 Rocky Mountain Regions- , , , . Wyoming Colorado Montana N Mexico- ( ,Mining difficult and expensive because of scattered deposits

)folding and faulting4. Californian Region- , . Centered at Los Angeles Long Beach and S San Joaquin5. ( , Appalachian and Eastern Interior Region Pennsylvania Kentucky

)and Ohio6. ( Alaska Region A pipeline for shipment to USA From Alaska to

)Valdez

Iron Ore1 . ( ) . . ( Lake Superior region Hematite e g Mesabi Iron ore is shipped

) from Duluth2 ( ) North East region Adirondacks New York and Cornwall ( ) Pennsylvania3. ( ) ( )South East region Birmingham Alabama Red Mountains4. ( ), ,Western region Scattered fields at Utah Iron Mountain Nevada

, ( ) Wyoming California Eagle Mountain Steelworks at San Francisco ( ) ( ) Los Angeles Pueblo Colorado Provo Utah Copper

- ( )Arizona Globe Morenci Largest single copper mine Bingham Utah - Montana Butte- ( )Nevada and New Mexico new Producers

Tin - . U S is very short of tin and therefore imports and stockpiles . - large quantities American stockpile release drastically affects tin prices Bauxite

- , Due to great bulk of the Bauxite concentration is due at . - ( ) - ( ) seaboard Locations Mobile Alabama Baton Rouge Louisiana

Lead , , , , , Rockies Ozark Plateau of Missouri Idaho Utah Arizona and .Colorado

Zinc , , Missouri Oklahoma Kansas

Tungsten , , Nevada Utah Idaho

Molybdenum . Leading producer Climax mine of Colorado is ' . probably the world s largest molybdenum mine

Platinum California

Mica Largest produces are Eastern Rockies and Appalachians

Sulphur ( )Texas major producer, .Silver Vanadium and Uranium are also found

Industrial Regions - - ( ,Southern New England Centered at Boston Boston Shipbuilding

, , )Textiles Shoemaking Footwear Machinery- ( )Lowell Providence Woolen Textile- ( )New Bedford Worsted Textiles- ( ) - ( )Fall River Cotton Textiles Hartford Aircraft and Armaments

Mid Atlantic States- , Depends upon Pennsylvanian anthracite Iron ore Coal and oil

( from Appalachians Industrial conurbation from New York to )Baltimore

, , .Iron and Steel industries Engineering electrical goods etc

- Pittsburgh Lake Erie region Iron and steel Region- ( ), ( ,Pittsburgh Iron Steel capital of the world Cleveland Steel

), ( ), ( ), Wearing apparel Wheeling Steel Akron Rubber East Liverpool ( ), ( )Pottery Buffalo Flour milling chemical metal goods

Detroit Region- Detroit Greatest automobile manufacturing region- , Centered at Detroit Lansing and Toledo Automobile and related industries

- ( Lake Michigan Region Chicago Focal point at the convergence of ) , roads and railways from all over the USA Iron and Steel Meat

, , , Packing Grain milling Agricultural machines Rail Engines and coaches- - Milwaukee Steel Engineering Textiles Gary Iron and Steel

- . (Southern Appalachian Region Birmingham Iron and Steel The . . ).region gets its H E P from the Appalachian fall line Eastern Texas

- . 'Industrial development dependent upon oil The area has world s .largest known deposits of Sulphur

- , .Known for Oil Chemical and cotton Industries

- Shift westward of cotton belt has provided raw material and .Created markets

- Assisted by the construction of Intra coastal waterway running .parallel to the coast

- , , Houston Oil refineries chemical plants synthetic rubber- . , Dallas and Fort Worth are twin cities lying in this region Dallas a

. major cotton market is known for clothing and fashion Fort Worth , . is known for Cattle aircraft and aerospace These two cities share ' the world s largest airport and are also major financial centers

.owing to vast oil wealth

- , Other Industrial Cities St Louis Meat Packing Flour Milling and Agricultural machines

- , , Kansas City Agricultural machine Aircraft Oil refining- , , , , . , , Omaha Cincinnati Indianapolis Denver St Paul Minneapolis and

, , Memphis these places have Flour milling Meat packing Cotton , .textiles Food processing and other agricultural industries

- , -New Orleans Oil refining Chemicals and Cotton textiles San , , , .Francisco Oil refining steel aircraft engineering food processing

- - , , ,Los Angeles and San Diego Oil refining steel aircraft engineering , food processing television

- , , , .Seattle Aircraft Lumbering Fish Canning aluminum smelting

CANADACoal , ( Cape Breton Island Vancouver Island Lies in British Columbia

) . and feeds the Sydney Steel Plants and Alberta

. .H E P- , , , , ,Vancouver Duncan Bridge river Arrow Lakes Corner Brook

, ( ). Kemono Churchill falls formerly Hamilton falls

- . - - St Lawrence Niagara falls Rapids at Salt Ste Marie Nipigon River ( )Port Arthur and Fort William- - ( . ) Winnipeg River Kitimat scheme R Nechaka Petroleum- ( Prairie provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan centered at

, ), , Edmonton Calgary and Turner valley Grand Bank Athabasca Tar . Sand

- Trans Canadian gas pipeline supplies gas from Alberta gas fields to . Toronto and Montreal Iron Ore

- ( ), ( . ) Knob Lake Labrador Steep Rock N of Lake Superior Baffin Island

, , , Copper Sudbury Flin Flon Sheridan Lynn Lake and Coppermine , , , , Nickel Sudbury Lynn Lake Hope Thompson Lead Zinc and Silver ( ). Sullivan Mines British Columbia Also in Manitoba and North West

Territories Industries1. - , . .Lake Peninsula to Montreal Good Accessibility Cheap H E P

, , ,American investment Toronto Engineering Automobile Chemicals , ( Textiles Pulping and Food processing Hamilton Birmingham of ) . ,Canada Heavy engineering and Iron and Steel Windsor Automobile

- Tyre making Kingston Locomotive

2. . , , St Lawrence region Montreal Ship Building Oil Refining Paper . .and Pulp and Food Processing It is a Leading Grain port

, , Quebec Marine Engineering Ship building Food Processing , Ottawa Saw milling Paper and Pulp

3. ( )Continental interior Canadian Prairie , , , Winnipeg Agricultural industries Fur Dressing textiles Edmonton Oil , extraction Natural gas

4. Vancouver Lumbering Timber industries Fish canning ( )Some other industries Paper Corner Brook Newfound land

, Aluminum refining Kitimat Iron and Steel Sydney Nova Scotia and Hamilton

urope and CIS

:Coal CIS: ( ) , , Donetz Donbas Ukraine Moscow Tula Russia Kuznetsk ( ) , , kuzbas Kazakhstan Karaganda Urals Kazakhstan Tungus and Lena

,Basin SiberiaBRITAIN

- , , , Scottish coalfields Lanark shire Fifeshire Ayrshire Midlothian , , , ,Pennine coalfield Northumberland Durham Yorkshire Derbyshire

. , . ,Nottinghamshire Midland coalfields N Staffordshire S Staffordshire , . Warwickshire Leicestershire Welsh coalfields S Wales

( ) German Rhur Westphalia Aachen Saar Cologne Lignite Bavaria ( ) ( )Lignite Saxony Lignite

FRANCE Pas de Calais Nord Alsace Lorraine BELGIUM Kempenland coalfields Franco Belgium and coalfields in

Sambre Meuse Depression POLAND Upper and Lower Silesia

, SPAIN Northern Spain around Oviedo , ,Other countries Erstwhile Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia Bulgaria

and Hungary

. . -H E P Dnieper Combined Scheme RUSSIA- ( )Two huge dams at Volgogarad and Kuybyshev River Volga- , , , ,Other dams at Irkutsk Bratsk Krasnoyarsk Beloyarsk Ufa Kuybyshev

, ITALY Italian Alps and Apennine Streams FRANCE Pyrenees Central , , Massive and French Alps Dams on Saone and Rhone Grenoble on

, Isere: HEP NORWAY

- .Per capita output of HEP is greatest in the world- ( ), ( ), Sharpsborg Oslo fiord Notodden South of Oslo Mo I Rana ( ) ( )Steel Works SWEDEN Trollhattan Falls Gota

, , ,GERMANY Grevenbroich Innerwerk Bitterfield SWITZERLAND Rugged , .glaciated upland and numerous falls rapid and lakes in ALPS

, ( ) Geothermal Energy Iceland Italy Larderllo Tidal Power Ranee ( , ) Estuary Brittanny France

Iron Ore- Krivoi Rog Ukraine- ( ) Kuzbas Kustanay Kazakhastan- ( . ) - ( , )Angara E Siberia Ural region near Magnitogorsk Russia- , , , Kiruna Gallivare Dannemoa Grangeborg and Kopparberg in Sweden- , , Lorraine Normandy Pyrenees and Central Massif in France- , , ( )Bilbao Santander Oviedo Spain- , ( )Scunthorpe Frodingham Britain- ( ) , Siegerland Germany Copper Ural Balkhash and Dzhezkazgan in

( ), CIS Aluminium Smelting at Invergorgon Scotland Holy island ( )Wales

( ), . ( ). Lead Lake Baikal Russia C Siberia Russia Also found in erstwhile Yugoslavia and Bulgaria

Zinc- Britain and Belgium are important Zinc smelting countries- Ireland and Germany also produces zinc

, ( ) Uranium France Russia Nickel Ural Russia Manganese Nikopolo ( ), ( ) Russia Chaitura Urals and Russian Turkestan

( ) , , , Chromium Urals Sarany in Russia Kazakhstan Finland Albania , , Tungsten Russia Portugal Austria

Industries GREAT BRITAIN

1. Midland Region- Centered at Birmingham- .Power presently comes from thermal electricity and imported oil( ) . ,a Based on S Staffordshire coal field Centered at Birmingham

, . Dudley Wolver Hampton These are known for Iron and steel and Glassware( ) .b Warwickshire coalfields Coventry Automobile industry( ) . ( ), c Leicestershire coal field Burton on Trent brewery Derby ( ), ( , textiles and Engineering Nottingham Hosiery Pharmaceuticals and

).Cigarettes and Tobacco

2. ( North East England Based on Northumberland and Durham ) ( ), ( )coalfields New Castle Shipbuilding Darlington Locomotives

3. , - Yorkshire Nottinghamshire and Derby shire Bradford and Halifax ( ), ( ), ( ' Worsted textiles Leeds Garments Sheffield World s largest

, )cutlery town Iron and steel and Engineering

4. Lancashire Region- ( ), ( ),Manchester cotton textile centre of the world Liver pool port

( )Birkenhead Ship Building

5. Greater London Industrial Region- ( ), ( , ).London Financial centre Thames Estuary Cement oil refineries

6. - ( ) Central Scotland Glasgow Iron and steel Port Glasgow ( ) ( )Shipbuilding Clyde side Shipbuilding

7. ( ) - Belfast Region Ireland Traditionally noted for Shipbuilding and Linen industry

8. ( South Wales A classic example of the effect of decline in the ).importance of coal and changes in industrial locations

- , , , Centered at Cardiff Swansea Port Talbot New Port

FRANCE) - , , a North East Industrial region lron and Steel Textiles Engineering

- Based on Coal fields Nord and Pas De Calais- ( ), ( , , Dunkirk Iron and Steel Lille cotton woolen linen and synthetic

).textiles( ) b Lorraine region

, Iron and Steel Rolling mills and tin plating- , , , .Centered at Metz Nancy Thionville Longwy( ) - c Greater Paris very wide range of goods( ) - . ( , ),d Isolated industrial towns St Entienne Armaments bridges

( ), ( )Clemont Ferrand Tyres Lyon Great silk making city

GERMANY( ) - ( ,a Ruhr Westphalia Region Essen and Dortmund Iron and Steel

), ( ),Heavy Industries Engineering Dusseldorf Heavy Chemicals ( ), ( )Gelsenkirchen Engineering Krefeld and Wuppertal textiles

( ) b Middle Rhine Area- , , Frankfurt Railway Engineering Electrical engineering Automobile

, engineering financial centre- , Mainz Leather Brewery( ) c East Germany- . . Based on Saxony coalfields and Stassfort salt deposits R Elbe

. - ( ), provides water transport Leipzig Optical instruments Dresden ( ), ( , )Porcelain Berlin Engineering Textiles and Electrical equipments( ) d Other cities of Germany- ( , ), ( , Hamburg Shipbuilding Marine Engineering Munich Beer musical

, ), ( , instruments scientific instrument Stuttgart Automobiles Optical ), ( ),equipments and watches Hanover Metal and Chemicals

( , )Achen Iron and Steel Engineering

BELGIUM- ( , ), ( ,Liege Iron and Steel Heavy industries Brussels Textiles

), ( , , chemicals and paper Antwerp diamond cutting Shipbuilding oil , ), ( )refining petrochemicals Ghent Linen textiles

LUXEMBURG- , , Major industries are at Esch Dudelange Differdange

THE NETHERLANDS - ( Rotterdam marine Engineering and ), ( ), (Shipbuilding Utrecht Light Machinery Eindhoven Electrical ), ( , ), Engineering and Linen Arnhem Rayon Tin smelting Amsterdam

( ), ( , ) Diamond cutting Rotterdam major port port industries Europort

( )Oil Refineries

SWEDEN- ' Stockholm Stockholm s engineering products can be transported

( by the Gota Canal to Goteborg premier port and leading ) - ( shipbuilding centre Eskilstuna Sheffield of Sweden Cutlery and )Ornamental goods

NORWAY- Leading industries Marine EngineeringShipbuildingFish canningPulp

- ( ), ( , ,and paper MoIRana Iron and Steel Oslo Pulp mills Shipyard , ), ( Chemical plants Fish canning Bergen and Stavanger Fishing and )Shipping

DENMARK- Centralized at Copenhagen in Zealand- , -Important industries Dairying Agricultural industries Aarhus

.Agricultural industries

SWITZERLAND- ( ), ( Basel and Baden Engineering industry Zurich Engineering and

), , ( Textiles Jura Towns La Chauxde Fonds Biel Le Locle Clocks and ).Watches

- HEP from the Italian Alps and natural gas exploitation in Emilia and the Po delta has contributed greatly to the industrial needs of . - ( , , , the north Genoa Iron and Steel Chemicals Textiles Automobiles , .), ( , , ), Fiat Lambretta etc Turin Automobiles Rail Coaches Aircraft Milan

( )silk textiles and Engineering works

Africa

: HEP Africa has least output of hydroelectricity but its potential is . the greatest in the world Much of Africa are plateaus dropping

abruptly to the coast or to rift valleys thereby forming natural .heads

- River fluctuation A problem in the savanna region

Petroleum Central and southern Africa are poor in petroleum resources because of existence of ancient crystalline rocks and

absence of sedimentary strata , , , Libya Dahara Beda Zelten South of Gulf of Sidra Algeria Hassi

Massaoud ( ) Nigeria Niger delta region Refinery at Port Harcourt Other

, Producers Egypt Gabon Iron Ore- , ( , . ), ( ),South Africa Liberia Bomi Hills Mt Nimba Mauritania Sourest

, Algeria West Africa including Sierra Leone and Nigeria

Copper ( Zambia and Zaire Katanga ) - , Zambia Copper Belt Mining Centres atNechanga Kitwe and

. Lumumbashi Tin- ( ), Nigeria centered at Bauchi and Jos on the Bauchi Plateau Zaire ( ) Manono and Maniema Bauxite Guinea Lead Morocco

, , Uranium South Africa Niger Gabon Nickel South Africa Manganese ( ), , South Africa Postmasburg Krugersdorp Gabon Ghana

( ), ( , )Chromium South Africa Rustenberg Zimbabwe Selukwe Kildonan ( ), Tungsten South Africa Cobalt Katanga District Zaire Kilemba

( ), Zambia Morocco

. ( ' ) _Vanadium S Africa World s largest producer and Namibia Gold . ( ; , , ), ,TJS Afnca Witai ersrand Odendaalrus Lydenburg Zimbabwe

, ( , ), ( )Ghana Zaire KiloMoto Mines Kasai Valley Sudan Red Sea Hills . ( )Platinum S Africa Rustenburg

, . , , , , ,Diamonds Zaire S Africa Ghana Namibia Sierra Leone Angola , . , Botswana Central African Republic Asbestos S Africa Zimbabwe

, , , . Phosphate Morocco Tunisia Togo S Africa

Industries- .Smelting and refining of copper in Zambia and Zaire- , . .Processing of rubber oil palm fruits etc in W Africa- Petrochemical industries Nigeria- . .S Africa Industrially developed country- ( , ,Main region Witwatersrand Iron and Steel Engineering

, ).Locomotives Chemicals Textiles- : ( ), , Other Places Salisbury new name Harare Par E Salaam Nairobi

.etc , , Such cities have cement brewing food processing and light

. industries mainly geared to import substitution

South America and Mexico

Coal- , . Like Africa S America with its pre Paleozoic rocks and rugged

, . Andean ranges has few coal reserves This is because coal is found in sedimentary strata of carboniferous and post carboniferous

..period- ( ), . . ( ) Concepcion Central Chile S E Brazil low grade coal Scattered

, .deposits are also found in uplands of Peru Columbia and W . ( Argentina Hydro Electricity Brazil At Paulo Alfonso on Sao Francisco

),. . . River in North East Argentina and Venezuela Significant H E P . producers

Petroleum- ( .), ( , Mexico Baja California etc Venezuela Gulf of Maracaibo inland

, , ). Puerto La Cruz Llanos Orinocco Delta Much oil is also shipped to .the Dutch islands of Aruba and Curacao

- ( Small oil Deposits Trinidad Famous for its Pitch Lake an almost in ) exhaustible source of viscous asphalt or bitumen Bermudez Pitch

.Lake of Venezuela is a similar phenomenon- . Columbia Caribbean coastal lowlands and Magdalena valley

- Ecuador Coastal lowlands and Amazonian region

- ( ).Peru both on coast and inland Lobitos and Negritos near Talara- . Oil refinery at Talara Upper Amozon basin at Ganzo Azul and is

.sent to the refinery at Iquitos on the Amazon for export down river- , Bolivia Eastern region at Camiri Rio Bermejo and Sanandita ( ) - Pipelines run to Sucre and Cochabamba Chile Near Punta Arenas

and on Tierra del Fuego- . Argentina largest producer after Venezuela Found near Mendoza .In the North West and in South

Paraguay has no oil resources but Brazil has recently found . significant oil deposits

Iron Ore- , , ( Brazil Itabira MinaGerais Carajas Iron and Steel works at Volta

, )Redonda Belo Horizonte- Venezuela Guiana Highlands- Chile Algarrobo

- Peru Nazca Marcona

( , ), ( ,Copper Chile Chuquicamata El Teniente Peru Morococha )Casapalsa

( ) Tin Bolivia Potosi and Oruro Also in Brazil and Argentina

Lead and Zinc Peru and Mexico

Nickel Cuba and Dominican Republic

( ), Manganese Brazil Amapa Mexico

Chromium Brazil Tungsten Bolivia

Industries- , ( )Argentina Brazil Best developed- ( Argentina and Uruguay Along the shore of Plate estuary

).extending inland as far as Rosario- , Buenos Aires Rosario and Cordoba

- - , , , Ship building La Plata Chemicals textiles aircraft steel- Pampas Lands Meat Packing dairying flour milling- ( )Brazil Chief region is in South East- , , , , Sao Paulo Steel Chemicals motor vehicle assembly paper cement

.and beer- -Rio De Janeiro Shipbuilding and aircraft engineering Belo

Horizonte Metallurgy and Iron and Steel

- , , In Chile main industries are at Santiago Valparaiso and Concepcion

Malthusian Theory of Population Growth , , 'Thomas Malthus the English economist and demographer in his An

' (1798) Essay on Principle of Population had propounded a theory . which traces an economic approach to demography According to

him population tends to increase faster than the means of . subsistence The fast increase in population absorbs all economic

' gains unless controlled by what he termed preventive and positive ' . checks He elaborated that if unchecked the population tended to

increase at geometric rate while subsistence increased at arithmetic . ' ' , ,rate Positive checks according to him included wars disease

. ' ' poverty and especially lack of food His preventive checks included ' , ' principally moral restraint postponement of marriage and vice in

, . which he included birth control abortion and adultery He was also , not in favour of contraceptive methods since their use did not

generate the same drive to work hard as would a postponement of .marriage

Demographic Transition Theory . . This theory was propounded by W S Thompson and Frank W Note . :stein It is characterized by five transition stages 1 Stage High and fluctuating birth and death rates and slow

. population growth

2 Stage High birth rates and declining death rates and rapid growth of the population

3 Stage Declining birth rates and low death rates and declining rate . of population growth

4 , .Stage Low birth and death rates and slow population growth 5 Stage Birth and death rates approximately equal which in time

.will result in zero population growth : Optimum population A country is said to have an optimum population if the number of people is in proper balance with the

.available resources

Population Problems Population problems of the Developing :Countries

1. Rapid growth of population2. Unemployment3. Poor standard of Living and Malnutrition4. Mismanagement of the Agricultural Resources5. Slow growth of the Industrial Sector6. Orthodoxy7. ( Problem of Under Population some of the under developed

countries are under populated leading to problems like shortage of , . . )skilled labour e g some countries of Africa and Latin America

Problems of the Developed Countries1. Long span of Life leads to smaller proportion of productive

.younger people2. Small work force3. .Rural people in these countries out migrate and settle in cities4. .Problems because of urbanization

► In India a voluntary Family Planning Policy has been adopted 1960 .right from the beginning of s

1970 ► In the s the Chinese government adopted a more rigid policy . and commenced a program to limit family size to two children By

1980 . the goal was changed to one child per family The marriage 24 26 age in China is generally over years for women and years for .men and pre marital sexual relations are uncommon

Most Spoken Languages of the WorldMandarinEnglishHindiSpanishArabicRussianBengaliPortuguese

Malay IndonesiaJapaneseGermanFrenchUrduPunjabiKoreanTeluguTamilMarathiCantoneseItalian

( )Wu ChinaJavaneseVietnameseTurkish

( )Min ChinaThaiUkrainianPolishSwahili

Major Religions of the World(" ') Most Adherents Christianity Islam Hinduism Chinese Faith( ) Confucianism and Taoism Buddhism Shintoism Judaism

Some Facts on Religion , ► Among the total population of Muslims in the world Sunnis

.constitute five times that of Shia population , ,► Shias are concentrated mainly in Iran bordering areas of Iraq

, , . .some in India Pakistan Syria and Lebanon etc

' , ► After the Japan s defeat in the Second World War Shintoism no .longer remained the state religion

► In Bali Island of Indonesia Hinduism is still prevalent as a .predominant religion

, , ► In China a matrix of intermingling of Buddhism Taoism and , Confucianism seemed to have developed being true to the Chinese

tradition of moulding the foreign influence rather than letting their own society get influenced or moulded by foreign penetrations

, ► Among the followers of the Christianity Roman Catholics may seem to be more widespread in comparison to their Protestants

.counterpart ► There are areas even within Europe where there exists almost a

. . . (48 %balance between Catholics and Protestants E g Switzerland 44 % ), (26% 24%Catholics and Protestants Germany Catholics and

), (36% 26% ).Protestants Netherlands Catholics and Protestants :► Areas dominated by Roman Catholics

1. , , ., , .Atlantic Europe Ireland France Belgium Spain Portugal2. , , , , Mediterranean Europe Italy Greece Monaco Vatican City San

.Marino3. , , , , , Central Europe Austria Slovenia Poland Hungary Croatia Czech

, , . 4. Republic Lithuania Slovakia In Latin America and French ( )speaking Quebec Canada

.► In Canada as a whole Catholics are in minority .► In USA Protestant population is larger than that of Catholics ► One isolated pocket of Roman Catholics does exist in the old

.world the Philippines , . , .► Protestants areas in Europe Great Britain N Ireland N

, , , , Netherlands Scandinavia Finland N and C Germany Denmark and .Estonia

. ► Protestants predominates among Christians of S Africa and .Oceania

► In Europe as one moves eastwards into the former so called Iron ( Curtain the virtual boundary between the Western and the

) Communist World from Trieste to Stetin in Eastem Europe Russian , Orthodox Church predominates where Russian speaking people .dominate

, .It covers East Europe Eurasia and the Caucasus , ► In Ethiopia in East Africa too the Christians virtually have an

.independent church , ,► In Europe Islam has its influence in the areas like Albania Bosnia

.and Southern Serbia , .► In Central Asia apart from tribal faith Islam is a major religion .,► Hinayana branch of Buddhism has its influence in Sri Lanka

, , , .Myanmar Thailand Laos and Cambodia , ► Mahayana school of Buddhism has its influence in Tibet Sin

, , , , , .kiang Mongolia Taiwan Japan Malaysia Brunei etc

Some demographic features of South Asia ( )Birth Rate descending order

MaldivesBhutanPakistanNepalBangladeshIndia

Sri Lanka

( )Death Rate descending orderNepalBangladeshPakistanIndiaBhutanMaldives

Sri Lanka

( )Doubling Period descending order Sri Lanka

IndiaBangladeshNepalPakistanBhutanMaldives

( )Life Expectancy descending orderMALE

Sri LankaMaldivesPakistanIndiaBangladeshNepal

FEMALE Sri Lanka

MaldivesPakistanIndia

BangladeshNepal

( ) Percentage Urban Population descending order

Pakistan

India

Maldives

Sri Lanka

Bangladesh

Bhutan

Nepal

: CONTINENTS AS REGIONS South America

11 55 ► Latitudinal extent °N ° S 35 81► Longitudinal extent ° W °W ( )► Largest country area wise ► Brazil ( )► Largest country population ► Brazil . ► South America and Latin America are different Latin America

comprises all the countries of South America along with Mexico and .Caribbean countries

, , , , ,► Countries Area wise Brazil Argentina Peru Columbia Bolivia , Venezuela Chile

► Landlocked countries Bolivia and Paraguay , ,► Countries according to the length of coast line Brazil Chile

, Argentina Peru : : , ,► Main rivers and their tributaries Amazon Madeira Tapajos

Negro: , ( ' Parana Paraguay Pilcomayo Uruguay forms Argentina s boundary

)with Brazil and Uruguay ( ) ( ) , Orinoco in Venezuela Magdalena Columbia Colorado Salado and

( )Negro in Argentina , ► In South America equator passes through Ecuador Columbia and

Brazil , , ► Tropic of Capricorn passes through Chile Argentina Paraguay and

Brazil ( ) ( )► Deserts Atacama Chile and Patagonia Argentina , ► Bolivian plateau It is an inter montane plateau also known as

Bolivian altiplano [ ► Physiographic regions Amazon Basin Equatorial rain forests

( ), , , (Selvas Catingas Plateau of Mato Grasso Campos Tropical ), , , (grassland Plateau of Borborema Sertao Brazilian Highlands Ancient

), ( rocks Gran Chaco Great low land having warm temperate forests ), , , and grasslands Serra De Mantiqueira Entre Rios Pampas

( ), ( ), ( Temperate grass lands Patagonia Desert Andes having Bolivian ) ( , , , , ,Plateau Peaks Bolivar Cotapaxi Chimbarazo Misti Ojas Del Salado

), , , Cerro Aconcagua Western Central and Eastern Cordillera Llanos ( ), , ( ' Tropical grass lands Guiana Highland Atacama World s driest

).desert . ► Brazil forms boundaries with all other countries in S America

except Ecuador and Chile ► Amazon Basin and Western Columbia around Isthmus of Panama are very high Rainfall regions

( ),► Peruvian coast because of cold Peru or Humboldt Current Northern Chile and western and southern Argentina receive least

.rainfall , , ► Brazilian coast Southern Uruguay area around Rio de la Plata

, ,and Buenos Aires in Argentina around Santiago in Central Chile , Peruvian coast mountain regions of Ecuador and Columbia are .densely populated

► Mediterranean climate and vegetation is found in Central Chile ► Livestock ranching is very important in Argentina ( ) .► La Paz Bolivia is the highest capital city in the world ( ) ► Brasilia capital of Brazil lies in the Campos region ( ) ► Sao Paulo Brazil is the largest urban agglomeration in the

.southern hemisphere ' '.► Coffee estates in Brazil are known as Fazendas .► Rio de Janeiro is known for Sugar Loaf Mountains ► Manaus major rubber collecting centre in the upper part of the

.Amazon Basin ► Belem situated near the mouth of the Amazon River and is a

chief port of the Amazon basin ( ) ► Recife Brazil is a port which exports sugarcane ( ) ' .► Chuquicamata Chile is the world s largest copper town .► Punta Arenas is the southernmost inhabited city in the world

Africa 37 35 ► Latitudinal Extent °N ° S

51 - 16► Longitudinal Extent °E °W

( ) , , , , , ,► Countries Area wise Sudan Algeria Zaire Libya Chad Niger , Angola Mali

, , , ,► Land locked countries in Africa Mali Niger Chad Burkina Faso ( ), , , , ,Central African Republic CAR Zambia Zimbabwe Malawi Burundi , , , / , .Rwanda Uganda Ethiopia Botsv ana Lesotho and Swaziland

( ) , , .► Longest coastlines Leaving Madagascar Somalia Mozambique S , Africa Egypt

( ) ► Namibia has a panhandle the protruding part in order to have . access to the Zambezi River It is a colonial legacy and is known as .Caprivi Strip

. , ► Lesotho is completely surrounded by S Africa where as . . Swaziland lies trapped between Mozambique and S Africa This

.makes South Africa a perforated state .Latest country to gain independence in Africa Eritrea

, , ( ► Equator passes through Gabon Congo Zaire Democratic Republic ), , )of Congo Uganda Lake Victoria and Kenya

, , ,► Tropic of cancer passes through Western Sahara Mauritania Mali , , .Algeria Libya Egypt

, , . ► Tropic of Capricorn Namibia Botswana S Africa and Mozambique

, , , ,► Colonial Rules in Africa Britain Egypt Sudan Uganda Zambia , . , , , , , Zimbabwe S Africa Botswana Nigeria Ghana Sierra Leone British

( ) .East Africa Kenya British Somalia land , ( , , ,France Algeria French East Africa including Mali Niger Barkina Faso , ), , , Benin Mauritania Morocco Madagascar French Equitorial Africa

( , . . ., ) , . ,Chad C A R Gabon Belgium Congo Zaire Germany Togo ,Cameroon

( ), , ,German East Africa Tanzania Italy Libya Italian Somalialand ; , ,Eritrea Spain Western Sahara Spanish Morocco , Potugal Portugese Guinea Angola and Mozambique

► Liberia was formed as a country of settlement of slaves from ( ).United States of America USA

► Capital of Liberia that is Monrovia has been named af V ter the .President Monroe of USA

.► Ethiopia and Liberia were never colonies : ( ),Physiographic features Atlas mountains Morocco and Algeria

.( ), ( ), Ahaggar mts Algeria Libyan Desert Libya and Egypt Qattara ( ) , ( Depression a deflation hollow in Egypt Western Desert West of

), ( ), . ( ), Nile in Egypt Sinai peninsula Egypt Tibesti Massif Chad Nubian ( ). ( Desert Sudan and Egypt Ethiopian Highlands Highest Peak Ras ) , . . ( ), . Dashan in Ethiopia Mt Elgon and Mt Kenya Kenya Mt Kilimanjaro

( ) ( highest peak of Africa in Tanzania near Tanzanian boundary with ) . ( ), ( Kenya Mitumba mts Zaire Katanga Plateau Known for Copper

), . ( ), deposits is inZaire and Zambia Muchinga mts Zambia Kalahari ( ), Desert Botswana Okavango swamps and Makagadikgadi salt pan

( ) , ( . ),because of internal drainage is in Botswana High Veld S Africa ( . ), (Drankensberg and Great Karroo S Africa Namib Desert because

), ( ), ( ),of cold Benguela current Bie Plateau Angola Congo Basin Zaire ( ), ( ), Adamawa Highland Cameron andNigeria Jos Plateau Nigeria Sudan

( ), ( ),region Savannah region south of Sahara Nimba Mts Guinea ( ) ( Fouta Djallon Guinea Sahel region Lying south of Sahara is a

. transition zone between Sahara desert and savannah region It is .the least developed region

, , ► Horn of Africa Countries including Eritrea Djibouti Somalia and . Ethiopia lie in a region having a horn shape

( , ).► Lakes largest Lake Victoria lies in Uganda Kenya and Tanzania Lake Victoria does not from part of East African Rift valley Lakes . . , . , . , . ,lying in rift valley LTurkana L Albert L Edward L Kivu L Tanganyika

. ( . )L Malavi also known as L Nyasa

Europe 36 71► Latitudinal Extent °N °N

63 10 ( ) 63 24► Longitudinal Extent °E °W excluding Iceland °E °W ( ).including Iceland

, , , , ,► Largest countries Ukraine France Spain Sweden Germany , , , .Finland Norway Poland Italy

, , ,► Landlocked countries Luxemburg Switzerland Liechtenstein , , , ., , . , ,Andorra Austria Hungary Czech Rep Slovakia Macedonia Moldova .Belarus

( ) ( , ),► Smallest Countries area wise Vatican City inside Rome Italy ( ), Monaco Bordering France and Mediterranean Sea San Marino

( ), ( ), inside Italy Liechtenstein Between Switzerland and Austria Malta ( ), ( Island in Mediterranean Andorra trapped between Spain and

).France on the Pyrenees mountain range

, ► Monte Carlo one of the biggest gambling centers in the world is .the capital of Monaco

( , )► Scandinavian countries Norway Sweden and Denmark

, , ► United Kingdom comprises Wales England Scotland and Northern .Ireland

, ► The British Isle including Wales England and Scotland forms the .Great Britain

.► Gibraltar is the territory of UK on the Spanish coast

► Ceuta and Melilla are Spanish territory on the African coast of .the Mediterranean Sea

( ), ( ),► Islands in the Mediterranean Sea Sicily Italy Sardinia Italy ( ), (Corsica France Balearic Islands, ) ,Majorca Minorca and Ibiza are part of Spanish territory Crete

( ), ( ), ( )Greece Malta Malta Cyprus Cyprus

► The physiography of Europe can be divided into North Western , , Highlands North Europian Plains Central uplands and Alps and

.southern highlands

, ► North Western highlands comprises highlands of Norway Sweden . and northern Britain Almost all of Norway lies in the highland

.region which is good for hydroelectricity but poor for agriculture . Norwegian coast is known for fiords Northern Sweden comes under

.the coniferous forest belt

► North European plains are vast stretch of plains extending from . France upto Russia The plain is drained by numerous rivers flowing

( , , ) , ( , )into North Sea Rhine Ems Weser and Elbe Baltic Sea Oder Vistuala .and Gulf of Boothnia

, ► The central uplands comprises Black Forest Swabian Jura and ( ), Bohemian Forest in Bavaria Germany Moravian heights in Czech

, , Republic Sudeten on Czech Poland border Carpathian mountains in , , . Poland Ukraine Slovakia and Romania The central Russian upland

is an isolated upland lying near the western boundary of Russia . with therest of Europe The plain area towards the east of this

upland is drained by Dnieper and Dniester rivers flowing into the . , Black Sea Pripet river a tributary of Dnieper has formed Pripet

. Marshes to the east of the central Russian upland The lowland lying east of Central Russian Upland is drained by Don flowing into

( ) the Sea of Azov marginal sea of Black sea and the Volga river .flowing into the Caspian sea

( ), , River Danube flows through Bavaria Germany Austria Hungarian , plain Yugoslavia and then along the Bulgaria Romania border into

.the Black Sea . ,Southern highland include vast stretch of Alps including S France

, , , Switzerland Northern Italy Dinaric Alps in Croatia Bosnia and . Herzegovina and Yugoslavia Other ranges include Transylvanian

( ), . ( ), . ( ),Alps Romania Balkan Mts Bulgaria Pindus Mts Greece , ( ), ( , Appenines in Italy Central Massif France Pyrenees France Spain

), . ( ).and Andorra Cantabrian Mts Spain

( ., ► A series of parallel ranges or highlands Cantabrian mts Old , , Castle New Castle Sierra Morena and Andalusia and Rivers like

, , , , Ebro DouroTagus Guadiana and Guadilquivir mark the topography . . of Spain R Ebro flows into the Mediterranean Sea where as the .rest flow towards the Atlantic Sea

. (5633 ) .► Highest peak of Europe is Mt Elburz m in the Caucasus

. (4807 ) ► Mt Blanc m is the highest peak in Alps lying on the border , .of France Italy and Switzerland

. (4478 ) .► Mt Matterhorn m lies on the Swiss Italian border

.► Pico de Aneto is the highest peak of Pyrenees

.► Corno Grande is the highest peak of Appenines

. .► Mt Tatra is the highest peak of Carpathian mountains

► Crimea is the land portion of Ukraine protruding into the Black .Sea

.► Strait of Kerch joins the Black Sea to the Sea of Azov

.► Strait of Bospurus joins the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara

.► Dardanelles joins Marmara and the Agean Sea

.► Strait of Otranto joins the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea

.► Strit of Messina lies between Sicily and the Italian mainland

( ) ► Srait of Bonafacio lies between Corsica France and Sardinia ( ).Italy

.► Ionian peninsula Greece Iberian peninsula Spain and Portugal Pymees range forms boundary between France and Spain Oder

, river forms boundary between and Germany Shetland Orkney and .Hebrides Islands are in UK Faroe Island forms part of Denmark

. Kaliningrad is a Russian enclave on the Baltic Sea Baltic States , , , .Estonia Latvia Lithuania Poland

Asia 80 10 ► Latitudinal Extent ° N to ° S 160 33► Longitudinal Extent ° W to °E .► Largest country area wise Russia ( ) .► Largest country population China ( ) , , , ,► Largest Countries Area wise Russia China India Kazakhstan

, , , , , , ,Saudi Arabia Indonesia Iran Mongolia Pakistan Turkey Myanmar .Afghanistan

.► Russia and Turkey lies both in Asia and Europe , , ( ) ► Equator passes through Sumatra Borneo Celebes Sulawesi in

.Indonesia . , ► Tropic of Cancer passes through S Arabia United Arab Emirates

( ), , , , , .UAE Oman India Bangladesh Myanmar China and Taiwan ( ) , ► Arrangement of sea North to South Sea of Okhotsk Sea of

, , , .Japan Yellow Sea East China Sea South China Sea ► Physiogaphy

:WESTASIA ( ); Rub Al Khali and An Nafud deserts Saudi Arabia Akhdar mountains

( ); , Oman Kuwait Qatar and UAE are more or less plain countries and ; ( ; ( ); Qatar is a peninsula Dead Sea Jordan Mesopotamia Iraq Syrian ( , );desert Iraq Syria and Jordan ( . ); ( . ); Pontus Mountains NTurkey Taurus Mountains STurkey Anatolia ( ); Plateau Inter montane plateau in Turkey Elburz mountains

( , . ); Caspian coast of Iran highest peak mt Damanad Zagros montains ( . ); ( . ); ( . );S Iran Dasht e Kavir desert N Iran Dasht e Lut E Iran

( ), ( , )Rivers Kizil Turkey Euphrates and Tigris Iraq Baghdad is on Tigris

:EAST ASIA Gobi desert lies south of plateau of Mongolia in Mongolia and .China

. . . Altai mts is near W Mongolia Chinese border Takla Makan desert ( ); ( );and Tarim Basin NW China Kunlun Shan Central West Cnina

( , Dzungarian Basin China trapped between Mongolia and ); ( ). Kazakhstan Qaidam Basin Central China The Great Wall of China

stretches from midnorth to northeast China south of Inner Mongolia ( ). Chinese province lying south of Mongolia Hwang Ho river crosses

.the wall twice .Loess plateau of China lies in northern China and is drained by R Hwang Ho which while passing through it acquires enough

sediments that the river itself becomes muddy and is therefore

. known as yellow river Siltation of river bed because of these enormous sediments leads to frequent floods creating havoc in the

. ' . region Therefore the river is also known as Sorrow of China It .drains into the Gulf of Po Hai

( ) Szechwan Sichuan basin lies in southcentral China and is drained ( ) . by the Yangtze kiang Chiang Jiang river Industrial centers of

. Chengdu and Chongquing lie in the basin Shanghai is situated near . . . the mouth of Yangtze Kiang river Yunnan Plateau lies in S E China ( ) . and is drained by Si Kiang Xi Jiang river Hong Kong is situated . .close to the mouth of this river Macau port lies west of Hong kong . Hainan island is situated close to the Gulf of Tongking Manchurian

. . . . plains lie in extreme N E China Great Khingan Mts lie west of . Manchurian plains Xinjiang province lies in the northwest and is

. ( inhabited by muslim tribals Uighurs Islands of Japan north to) , , , , . south Hokkaido Honshu Shikoku Kyushu and Ryuku Asahi Dake is

. the highest peak ofHokkaiduo Important cities in Hokkaido are , . Sapporo Muroran and Hakodate Tsugaru strait separates Honshu

. . from Hokkaido Highest peak of Japan is Mt Fujiyama which lies in . , ,Honshu Important urban centers in Honshu are Tokyo Kawasaki

, , , , , , Yokohama Shizuoka Hamamatsu Nagoya Kyoto Osaka Kobe and ( ). Hiroshima lying on the southern coast from east to west Akita

.and Nigata lie on the northern coast , Important urban centers in Kyushu are Kitakyushu Fukuoka and . Nagasaki American base of Okinawa is part of Ryuku group of

. Islands

: SOUTH EAST ASIA Colonies in south east Asia Myanmar British Malaysia British Indonesia Dutch Laos French Cambodia French Vietnam French Philippines Spanish and then American . Thailand was never a colony Arakan Yoma and Pegu Yoma are

. parallel ranges in NS dierection in Myanmar and R Irrawady flows . . between the two R Chidwin is a right bank tributary of Irrawady

. . .river and R Salween flows through E Myanmar Dawna and Bilauktaung ranges are in southern protruding land of

. Myanmar Isthumus of Kra is the portion of Thailand that connects . . , ,Malaysia to the mainland Asia R Mekong flows through China Laos , .Thailand Cambodia and then makes delta in Vietnam

.Korat plateau is in Thailand and Laos . . . Annam mts lie along the LaosVietnam border L Toba and Barisan

. .mts are in Sumatra ( Krakatau volcanic Island lies in Sunda Strait between Sumatra and

)Java .Singapore is a small island lying south of peninsular Malaysia

.Brunei is trapped by Malaysia on all sides on the Borneo Island .Rest of Bornoe is part of Indonesia

: . Highest peak of Borneo Mt Kinabalu is also the highest peak of .Borneo Jakarta and Bandung lies in Java island of Indonesia ( ) , ,Southern Islands of Indonesia from west to east Sumatra Java

, , .Bali Lombok Sumbawa and Flores Western half of the New Guinea Island is called Irian Jaya and lies

. in Indonesia Eastern half is known as Papua New Guinea which lies

.outside Asia . . : .Seas of S E Asia Andaman Sea East of andaman and Nicobar Is .Great channel seperates Andaman Nicobar Island and Sumatra . South China Sea Between Vietnam and Philippines Sulu Sea

. Between Philippines and Borneo Celebes Sea North of Celebes or .Sulwesi Is ( Molucco Sea Between Celebes and Moluccas Islands lies east of ), . .Celebes Ceram Sea South of Molucca Is and north of Coram Is

Banda Sea North of East Timor and south of Molucca and Ceram .Sea

. Arafura Sea South of Irian Jaya and north of Australia Flores Sea .South of Celebes or Sulawesi Is

. ( ), (Java Sea North of Java Is Lakes Baikal Russia Balkhash Kazakhstan ), ( ), ( ),and Uzbekistan Aral sea Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan Van Turkey

- ( ), ( ), (Buhayrata Asad Saudi Arabia LakeUrmia Iran Lop Nur Chinese ), ( ), ( ),nuclear explosion site Qinghai China Poyang China ( ), ( )Dongtins China Tonle Sap Cambodia ( ' ) ,Caspian Sea World s largest Lake borders Kazakhstan

, , ( ).Turkmenistan Iran Azerbaijan and Russia clockwise manner

North America 50 170 ► Latitudinal extent W to W 8 83 ► Longitudinal extent N to N .► Tropic of Cancer passes through Mexico and Bahamas Islands , ( ), ► N America comprises Canada USA including Alaska Mexico and .the Central American countries including the Caribbean ones

( ) , ,► Central American countries north to south Belize Guatemala , , , , .Honduras El Salvador Nicaragua Costa Rica Panama

( ) , ,► Central American countries west to east Guatemala El Salvador , , , , .Belize Honduras Nicaragua Costa Rica Panama

( ) , ,► Central American counties area wise Nicaragua Honduras , , , , .Guatemala Panama Costa Rica El Salvador Belize

► Belize borders only the Caribbean Sea and El Salvador borders . only the Pacific Ocean Rest of the countries borders both the

.Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea ' '.► Central American countries are known as the banana republic

: ,► Canada has three main physical divisions the Canadian Shield .the interior plains and the Cordillera region

► Canadian Shield is an old shield and is also known as Laurentian .shield

► Interior plains of Canada comprise mainly the prairie region and .are drained by Mackenzie and Saskatchewan rivers

(6050 ) , ► Mount Logan m lying in western most Canadian Rockies is .the highest peak in Canada

(404 1 ) ► Mount Waddington m in the southern region and Mount (3954 ) Robson m on the border of Alberta and British Columbia

.provinces are other important peaks , ► Apart from Great Lakes important lakes in Canada are

, . Great Bear Lake Great Slave Lake and Athabasca Lake Almost all , the lakes in Canada are of glacial origin especially the great lakes

which were formed due to glacial expansion in the Pleistocene age .and their subsequent retreat

► Quebec province of Canada is dominated by the French speaking people where as rest ofthe Canada is dominated by English

.speaking people

( ) ► Toronto on NW shore of Lake Ontario is the largest city of . Canada followed by Montreal Toronto is the capital of the province

of Ontario and is the leading cultural and educational centre in .Canada

, .► Winnipeg the capital of Manitoba is the wheat city of Canada ( ) ► Hamilton lying on the western end of the Lake Ontario is known ' 'as the Pittsburgh of Canada

, ► Halifax the capital of Nova Scotia is an important icefree port in .Canada

.► Canada has the longest shoreline in the world ► The physiography of USA can be divided into the Western

, Cordilleras the Central Lowlands and the Eastern or the .Appalachian highlands

► Western Cordilleras comprises mainly the Rocky mountain system ; having the Front range in the Colorado province Wyoming Basin or

, , the Great Divide Basin Uinta mountains Wasatch range and the Big ; ,Horn basin in the middle region and the Yellow stone national park , Great plains province the Snake river plain and plain of the

.Columbia river in the northern Rockies of USA . ► Columbia plateau is the largest lava plateau in the world It is

.drained by Snake and Columbia Rivers .► Colorado plateau is a plateau of well stratified sedimentary rocks

Colorado River has cut a deep canyon known as the Grand Canyon ( ) .largest Canyon in the world in the plateau region of Arizona

( ) ► Las Vegas one ofthe largest casino centers in the world lies . west of Grand Canyon The centre got developed in the wake of

the construction of the Hoover or the Boulder dam on the Colorado . .River The reservoir of this dam is called Lake Mead

► California is the largest state of USA both in area and the .population

► California is marked by Mediterranean climate and is known for .orchard farming

► Some of the largest city got developed on the western coast of ' '.USA as a result of the Gold rush

, . Hollywood the film city is in Los Angeles Around San Francisco in California there is a great fault zone known as the San Andreas

. Fault It is a transform fault formed due to interaction of North .American and Juan de Fucca plates

► Gulf of Mexico and the states lying along its coast including , , Texas Louisiana Mississippi and Alabama are very rich in petroleum

.resources

, ► Cities like Houston Baton Rouge and New Orleans have developed because of oil and the region is presently one of the .wealthiest in USA

( . . ). ► Florida is most affected by hurricane i e the tropical cyclone It . is also known for oranges The famous NASA center JFK in Cape

.Canaveral lies in Florida . ► Mississippi and Missouri rivers meet at St Louise in the Missouri

.state

► The Appalachian highlands cover a vast area that extends from .Newfoundland to Alabama

The highlands have distinct topographic regions including the , , Appalachian Plateau the ridge and valley area the Blue Ridge

, .Mountains the piedmont and the New England region ► Appalachian plateau is marked by well defined escarpment the

Allegheny Front in the north and the Cumberland escarpment in the .south

► The piedmont region lies to the immediate east of the . Appalachian Mountains The contact region between the piedmont

' ' and the coastal plain is known as the Fall line having large number of falls and rapids and therefore it has huge potential for

.Hydro Electricity ► New England region comprises of extreme NE states including

, , , , Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island and .Connecticut

. . ' ' . .► D C stands for the District of Columbia in Washington D C ► Com belt of USA comprises the region lying south of the Great

. , Lakes Chicago in Illinois which is known as the windy city is the .focal point of transport routes

► The region lying west of the great lakes including the states of , .Minnesota Wisconsin and others form the dairy belt

.► Cotton belt lies in the southern USA mainly in the Texas province , . Dallas in Texas the city where John F Kennedy was assassinated is .known for cotton textile industries

Australia 10 43 ► Latitudinal extent N to S 115 154 ► Longitudinal extent E to E .► Tropic of Capricorn cuts it into two halves

:► Australia has eight federal units1. ( )Western Australia Capital Perth2, ( ) Northern Territory Darwin3. ( )South Australia Adelaide4. ( )Queensland Brisbane5. ( )New South Wales Sydney6. ( )Victoria Melbourne7. ( )Australian Capital Territory Canberra8. ( )Tasmania Hobart

► Australia is flanked by the Great Dividing Range and the New

England Range in the east ► The Darling River emerges from the Great Dividing Range and

.drains major part of the New South Wales province besides others . (2228 ) ► Australian Alps are in south east having Mt Kosciusko m as . the highest peak Flinders ranges lying in north south direction in the eastern portion of South Australia is an example of Block

.Mountains ► Nullarbor plain is a long extensive plain lying along the southern

. coast It is through these plains that the transcontinental Railway of .Australia connects the East and the Western extremity

► The West and the North Western region of Australia comprises , ,mainly of deserts including the Great Sandy desert Gibson desert

, .Great Victoria desert Tanami desert and the Simpson desert

.► MacDonnell and Musgrave ranges lie in Central Australia :► The Physiographic regions of Australia comprises of

1. (The Great Western plateau or Western Australian Shield also ' '). known as the Australian Outback A conspicuous Isenberg called

.Ayres Rocks lie on the barren plains at the centre of the continent .It is characterised by red rocks

2. The Eastern Lowlands extends from the Gulf of Carpentaria to .the Spencer Gulf

It has the great Artesian Basin characterised by lowlands and . abundant wealth of subsurface aquifer layers Drilling in this region produces spontaneous gush of water because of natural hydro

. .static pressure Such wells are known as Artesian wells3. , The Eastern Uplands comprise the Great Dividing Range the

, .Australian Alps and the Tasmania

► A significant feature of the NE Australia is the presence of the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland which is the longest reef in the .world , These are generated by the accumulation of coral polyps the

.calcareous remains of micro organisms ► An internal drainage system in the form of Lake Eyre exists in .the north east of the province of the South Australia

:► Other significant features include1. ( )Great Australian Bight southern coast2. ( )Bass strait separates Tasmania from the mainland3. ( )Cape York Peninsula northern Queensland4. ( )Shark Bay western coast5. ( )Joseph Bonaparte Gulf west of Arneh land in northern Australia6. ( )Gulf of Carpentaria largest gulf in Australia7. ( King and Flinders Islands between Tasmania and mainland

)Australia8. ( )Fraser Island eastern coast

( . .► Indigenous people of Australia are known as Aborigines e g )Bindibus

, , ,► Animal species found only in Australia Koala Kangaroo Platypus

, .Dingo and Wombat ' '.► Great Dividing Range is also known as the Snowy Mountains

.► Australia is the largest producer of the Bauxite in the world .► Sheep rearing farms in Australia are called as Stations ► Tasmania sea separates Australia from New Zealand is divided

.into two islandsthe Northern Island and the Southern Island . Southern Island is dominated by the Southern Alps having Mt Cook

.as the highest peak

.► North Cape lies at the northern extremity of the New Zealand .► Cook strait separates the two islands of the country

.► Bay of Plenty lies north of the Northern Island . ( ) ► Foveaux strait separates a small island Stewart Island lying

.south of the Southern Island and the Southern Island itself , . ► Wellington the capital lies in the Northern Island Other cities of

, , Northern Island areHamilton Napier and Auckland , , ► Cities of Southern Island are Christchurch Dunedin and

.Invercargill

LINGUISTIC GROUPS : Uighurs , live for the most part in northwestern China in the

; Uighur Autonomous Region of Sinkiang a small number live in the . , Central Asian republics Their principal food crops arc wheat corn

( ), ( ), . maize kaoliang a form of sorghum and melons The chief , .industrial crop is cotton which has long been grown in the area

, , Many Uighur are employed in petroleum extraction mining and . ,manufacturing in urban centres The chief Uighur cities are Urumchi

, . the capital of Sinkiang and Kashgar The Uighur of Sinkiang are .Sunnite Muslims

:Kirghiz , , also spelled Kirgiz or Kirghiz Turkic speaking people of , . Central Asia most of whom live in Kyrgyzstan Small numbers

, , ,reside in Afghanistan in western China and in Kazakhstan , , . ..Uzbekistan Tajikistan and Turkey The people are Muslim in religion

1926 1959 From to there was a heavy influx of Russians and , Ukrainians into the area and the proportion of Kyrgyz in the total 66 40 . population fell from about percent to percent The

, development of agriculture and heavy industry along with the , growth of cities did much to change the traditional Kyrgyz way of

. life

: Kazaks , also spelled Kazakh an Asiatic Turkic speaking people inhabiting mainly Kazakhstan and the adjacent parts of the Uighur

. Autonomous Region of Sinkiang in China The Kazaks are the second most numerous Turkic speaking people in Central Asia after

. , the Uzbeks The Kazaks were traditionally pastoral nomads dwelling , ( )year round in portable dome shaped tents called yurts

. constructed of dismountable wooden frames covered with felt The ,Kazaks migrated seasonally to find pasturage for their livestock

, , , , . including horses sheep goats cattle and a few camels The diet .consisted largely of milk products supplemented by mutton

' ( ) Fermented mare s milk koumiss and horse flesh were highly . esteemed but usually available only to the prosperous Their

nomadic life was gradually curtailed by the encroachment of settled . 19 agriculture on the pasturelands In the th century an increasing

.number of Kazaks along the borders began to plant some crops Most Kazaks are now settled farmers who raise sheep and other

. , , livestock and grow crops In Sinkiang however many nomadic .groups remain

: Vupik , , , also called Asiatic or Asian Eskimo Western Eskimo group of Siberian Asia and of Saint Lawrence Island and the Diomede

. Islands in the Bering Sea and Strait They are culturally related to . the Chukchi The traditional economic activity of the Yupik speaking

, , ,Eskimo was the hunting of sea mammals especially seals walrus , 19 , . and until the latter half of the th century whales Trade with the

9 . Russians developedattheendofthel th century The Yupik also traded .with neighbouring reindeer breeders and with Alaskan Eskimo

( , ), ( , Kayaks one person closed skin boats bidarkas open flat ), ;bottomed boats and whaleboats provided coastal transportation

.dog teams and sleds were used on land The Yupik practiced shamanism and believed in benign and harmful

. , spirits Under Soviet and Russian administration new equipment , ( . .,was made available for sea hunting and new occupations e g

processing products from skins and cooperating with Chukchi in ) , reindeer breeding were introduced but such measures as forced

" " exile from unproductive traditional settlements have disrupted if . not destroyed a once highly efficient and self reliant culture

:Eskimo Aleut Language family of languages spoken in , , , Greenland Canada Alaska and eastern Siberia by the Eskimo and

. .Aleut peoples Aleut is a single language with two surviving dialects : , Eskimo consists of two divisions Yupik spoken in Siberia and

, , , ,southwestern Alaska and Inuit spoken in northern Alaska Canada . . and Greenland Each division includes several dialects Eskimo and ; Aleut are related but quite distinct languages they have no known

. outside relatives

:Ibos also called Ibo people living chiefly in southeastern Nigeria , who speak Igbo a language of the BenueCongo branch of the Niger

. Congo language family The Igbo may be grouped into the following : ( ), ( ), main cultural divisions northern Onitsha southern Owerri western

( ), ( ), ( ). Ika eastern Cross River and northeastern Abakaliki Before , European colonization the Igbo were not united as a single people

. 20 ,but lived in autonomous local communities By the mid th century , , however a sense of ethnic identity was strongly developed and the

Igbodominated Eastern region of Nigeria tried to unilaterally secede 1967 . from Nigeria in as the independent nation of Biafra By the 21 20 . turn of the st century the igbo numbered some million Most , Igbo traditionally have been subsistence farmers their staples being , , . , , yams cassava and taro Trading local crafts and wage labour also

, are important in the Igbo economy and a high literacy rate has

helped many Igbo to become civil servants and business . entrepreneurs in the decades after Nigeria gained independence It

is notable that Igbo women engage in trade and are influential in . local politics

:Yorubas ,one of the three largest ethnic groups of Nigeria . concentrated in the southwestern part of that country Much

, .. smaller scattered groups live in Benin and northern Togo They speak a language of the BenueCongo branch of the Niger Congo

. , , language family Most Yoruba men are fanners growing yams com ( ), , ( ),maize and millet as staples and plantains peanuts groundnuts

, ; .beans and peas as subsidiary crops cocoa is a major cash crop . Others are traders or craftsmen

:Hausa people found chiefly in northwestern Nigeria and adjacent . ,southern Niger They constitute the largest ethnic group in the area

, , which also contains another large group the Fulani perhaps one , half of whom are settled among the Hausa as a ruling class having

. adopted the Hausa language and culture The language belongs to ( )the Chadic group of the Afro Asiatic formerly Hamito Semitic

family and is infused with many Arabic words as a result of Islamic , 14 influence which spread during the latter part of the th century

, from the kingdom of Mali profoundly influencing Hausa belief and . , , customs A small minority of Hausa known as Maguzawa or , .Bunjawa remained pagan

The Hausa economy has rested on the intensive cultivation of , ( ), , sorghum com maize millet and many other crops grown on rotation principles and utilizing the manure of Fulani cattle

,Agricultural activity has yielded considerably more than subsistence permitting the Hausa to practice such craft specializations as , , , . thatching leatherworking weaving and silver smithing The range

, , of craft products is large and trading is extensive particularly in . regularly held markets in the larger towns The Hausa have settled

( , ), , ;in cities of pre European origin such as Kano towns and hamlets , but the great majority of the population is rural for the headman

.of the compound

: Abaza Language language spoken primarily in the western part . of the Caucasus Mountains and in northeastern Turkey Abaza is

, , ( ), related to Abkhaz Adyghian Kabardian Circassian which constitute , , .the AbkhazoAdyghian or Northwest Caucasian language group

:Gutob Language , ,also called Gadaba language spoken in India , one of the Munda languages belonging to the AustroAsiatic family

. . of languages Dialectsinclude Gadba and Gudwa Gutob is spoken in the Koraput district of Orissa and the Srikakulam and ( .Vish khapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh

:Sre language , dialect spoken in Vietnam one of the , approximately nine dialects of the Koho language belonging to the

South

Bahnaric sub branch of the Bahnaric branch of the Mon Khmer , .family which is a part of the Austroasiatic stock : , , Evenk Language also called Evenki also spelled Evenky formerly Tungus one of the largest members of the ManchuTungus language ( ). family a subfamily of the Altaic languages

:Chuang language Pinyin Zhuang language spoken by the , Chuang ethnic minority in southern China mostly in the Chuang

.Autonomous Region of Kwangsi

: Ket language one of two surviving members of the Yeniseian 500 family of languages spoken by about peopTe living in central , ( , [ ], Siberia The other a moribund close relative called Yug Yugh or

, .)Sym is sometimes considered a dialect of Ket

:Afrikaans language , also called Cape Dutch West Germanic , 17 language of South Africa developed from thcentury Netherlandic

( ) ( , , Dutch by the descendants of European Dutch German and ) , , French colonists indigenous Khoisan peoples and African and Asian . slaves in the Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope Afrikaans

and English are the only Indo European languages among the many official languages of . South Africa

:Aluct Language , Aleut Unangam Tunuu one of two branches . ofthe EskimoAleut languages

: Amoritc Language one of the most ancient of the archaic , .Semitic languages distributed in an area that is now northern Syria

:Amharic language , , also called Amarinya Amharinya or , ( Kuchumba one of the two main languages of Ethiopia along with

). the Oromo language

:Avestan language ( ) ,also called incorrectly Zend Language , eastern Iranian language ofthe Avesta the sacred book of

.Zoroastrianism

, , Aramaic dialects survived into Roman times however particularly in .Palestine and Syria

:Brahui Language ,isolated member of the Dravidian family . spoken in western Pakistan

:Breton Language Breiza member of the Brythonic group of , .Celtic languages spoken in Brittany in northwestern France

Major Linguistic Groups

: Burushaski Language language spoken by the Burusho people . living in the Gilgit territory of northwestern Kashmir Burushaski is a

" ," language isolate not known to be related to any other language .of the world

: Chakchiquel Language member of the Quiche group of Mayan , . : languages spoken in central Guatemala Carian language ancient

.language spoken in the southernmost area of western Anatolia

: Catalan language CatalaRomancc language spoken in eastern and , . northeastern Spain chiefly in Catalonia and Valencia It is also

, , spoken in the Roussillon region of France in Andorra and in the . Balearic Isles

: , Palauan Language major language of Palau in the western Pacific . Ocean It is classified as belonging to the eastern branch of the

( ) . Austronesian MalayoPolynesian family of languages

: , ,Cebuano Language also spelled Sebuano also called Sugbuhanon , , member of the Western or Indonesian branch of the Austronesian

( ) . MalayoPolynesian language family

: , Cherokee Language a North American Indian language member of , the Iroquoian family spoken by the Cherokee people originally

, , , .inhabiting Virginia North Carolina South Carolina and Georgia : ( ) Coptic Language AfroAsiatic formerly HamitoSemitic language

2 that was spoken inEgypt from about the nd century Ad and that . represents the final stage of the ancient Egyptian language Cornish : ,Language a member of the Brythonic group of Celtic languages

; formerly spoken in Cornwall in southwestern Britain it became 18 19 extinct in the th or early th century as a result of displacement

. : by English Dari language member of the Iranian branch ofthe ; , , IndoIranian family of languages it is along with Pashto one of the

. two official languages of Afghanistan Dari is the Afghan dialect of ( ).Farsi Persian

: , Eblaitc Language archaic Semitic language probably the most , ancient to survive in substantial form dating from the third quarter

3 . ,of the rd millennium BC As a Northern Central Semitic language ( )Eblaite is affiliated with the AfroAsiatic formerly HamitoSemitic . :family of languages such as Old Akkadian Llaniite language extinct language spoken by the Elamites in the ancient country of

, Elam which included the region from the Mesopotamian plain to .the Iranian Plateau

: Etruscan Language language isolate spoken by close neighbours of .the ancient Romans

: Dogon language language of the NigerCongo language family 600,000 spoken by some Dogon people in northeastern Mali to the

.east of Mopti and along the border between Mali and Burkina Faso

: Yukagir Language language spoken by not more than a few ( )hundred persons in the Kolyma River region of Sakha Yakutiya . : , republic of Russia Yucatec language also called Maya American

, Indian language of the Mayan family spoken in the Yucatan , .Peninsula including not only part of Mexico but also Belize

: Chuvash language member of the Turkic branch of the Altaic , language family spoken in Chuvashia and nearby regions along the

, middle course of the Volga River in the central part of European .Russia

: Yoruba language one of a small group of languages that comprise the Yoruboid cluster of the Defoid subbranch of the BenueCongo

. branch of the NigerCongo language family The other Yoruboid .languages include Igala and Itsckiri

: Wolof Language an Atlantic language of the Niger Congo language . family genetically related to Fula and Serer

: , Volscian Language an Italic language or dialect closely related to Umbrian and Oscan and more distantly related to Latin and .Faliscan

: Votic Language member of the Finno Ugric group of the Uralic , . language family very nearly extinct

: , Welsh Language Cymraeg member of the Brythonic group of the , . Celtic languages spoken in Wales

: Wu Language variety of Chinese spoken in southeastern Kiangsu 8 Province and in Chekiang Province by more than percent of the

. population of China Major cities in which Wu is spoken include , , , , . Taichou Shanghai Soochow Ningpo and Wenchou Xhosha

: Language Xhosa also spelled Xosaa Bantu language spoken by , .seven million people in South Africa especially in Eastern province , , Xhosa is a member of the Southeastern or Nguni subgroup of the Bantu group of the BenueCongo branch of the Niger Congo

. ,language family Other Southeastern Bantu languages are Zulu ( ), , , , . Swati Swazi Sotho Tswana Venda and Ndebele

: Sakha or Yakut Language also called Yakut language or SakhaTylamember of the Turkic subfamily of the Altaic language

, ( ), family spoken in northeastern Siberia Sakha republic in .northeastern Russia

: ( Yiddish Language the language of Ashkenazic Jewry central and ). eastern European Jews and their descendants

: Tagalog language member of the Central Philippine branch of the ( - ) Austronesian Malayo Polynesian language family and the base for

, , .Pilipino an official language of the Philippines together with English

: Syriac Language Semitic language belonging to the Northern , , ; Central or Northwestern group it was an important Christian 3 7 literary and liturgical language from the rd through the th century

.AD

: Synthetic language any language in which syntactic relations ( within sentences are expressed by inflection the change in the

, , ,form of a word that indicates distinctions of tense person gender , , , ) ( number mood voice and case or by agglutination word formation

, , ). by means of morpheme or word unit clustering Latin is an ; example of an inflected language Hungarian and Finnish are . , examples of agglutinative languages Highly synthetic languages in

( which a whole sentence may consist of a single word usually a ) verb form containing a large number of affixes are called poly

. synthetic Eskimo and many American Indian languages are . polysynthetic

: Thracian Language language spoken by the inhabitants of Thrace . :primarily in pre Greek and early Greek times Tigre Language

Semitic language of the Tigre people of northwestern Eritrea and .smaller areas of neighbouring Sudan

: , , Tigrinya Language also spelled Tigrigna also called Tigray or , Tigrai Semitic language of the Tigray people of northern Ethiopia

. and central Eritrea

: , ,Tulu Language also spelled Tugu language of the Dravidian family ( ( ) , .spoken in southern Karn taka formerly Mysore state India

: , , , ,Sedang Language also called Roteang Hadang Hatea or Hoteang , North Bahnaric language of the MonKhmer family which is itself a

. : part of the Austroasiatic stock Shan Language Shan Tai language ( ) spoken in the northern and eastern states of Myanmar Burma and

belonging to the Southwestern group of the Tai language family of . Southeast Asia

: -MonKhmer Language language family included in the Austro . asiatic stock Mon Khmer languages constitute the indigenous

. language family of mainland Southeast Asia They range north to , , ,southern China south to Malaysia west to Assam state in India

. and east to Vietnam

WORLD TRIBES - . .► Baro W Amazon Basin - .► Bantu sNegroes of central and southern Africa - .► Sakai Malaya Island - .► Semang Malaya hilly area - .► Papuan Pacific ocean - . ' .► Bushman S Africa s Kalahari Desert - ( )► Pygmies Extremely shortstatured people of the Congo Zaire

.Basin - ( ).► Bedouins Arab Hamad and Nefad desert

- , .► Berbers Tribals of Morocco Algeria and Tunisia - .► Bindibu Natives of Western Australia - .► Gaucho Nomads of Pampas in Uruguay and Argentina - - . . .► Hamites Dark skinned Muslims in N W Africa - , , .► Masai Tanganika Kenya East Uganda - ( , ).► Khirghiz People of the steppe type region Central Asia Russia - .► Kikuyu A tribe in Kenya - .► Lapps People of European tundra - , .► Eskimo Greenland Alaska and Tundra - (► Samoyed People of the Asiatic tundra Western Siberia North

).USSR - .► Semites Jews and Ethiopeans - .► Yukagir Siberia - .► Punan Central Boroneao - .► Kazak Russia - .► Masai A Negro tribe of east Africa - , .► Maya Mexico Guatemala and Honduras - .► Maori New Zealand - .► Magyar Hungary - ’ .► Papuans Tribal s of New Guinea - .► Red Indians Aborigines of North America - .► Tartars A mixed group of people in Siberia - ► Veddas The racial stock of Srilanka - .► Yakuts People in the tundra region in the USSR - . .► Boer S Africa - .► Afridi Pakistan - . ( ).► Zulu S Africa Natal - ( ).► Kossaks Black sea

:Regional Human Geography

;AFGHANISTAN : (38 ), (25 ), (19Ethnic groups Pashtun percent Tajik percent Hazara ), ( , , ,percent Minor ethnic groups Chahar Aimaks Turkmen Baluchi , ) 12 , (6 ). :Nuristani and others percent Uzbek percent Languages

( ) 50 ( ), (35 ), Afghan Persian Dari percent Pashto percent Turkic ( ) (11 ), 30 languages primarily Uzbek and Turkmen percent minor ( ) (4 ).languages primarily Balochi and Pashai percent

: (84 ), (15Religious affiliations Sunni Muslim percent Shia Muslim ), (1 ).percent Other percent

:ALBANIA 95 3 ( ,Ethnic groups Albanian percent Greek percent Other Vlachs [ ], , ) 2 .Roma Gypsies Serbs and Bulgarians percent

( ; Languages Albanian Tosk is the official dialect Gheg is spoken ), .primarily in the north Greek 70 20 Religious affiliations Muslim percent Greek Orthodox percent

10 .Roman Catholic percent

:ALGERIA 83 16 Ethnic groups Arab percent Berber percent European Less

1 .than percent ( ), , .Languages Arabic official Berber dialects French

( ) 96 Religious affiliations Muslim Islam is the official religion percent 3 , , 1 . Nonreligious percent Christian Jewish and other percent

:ANGOLA 37 25 Ethnic groups Ovimbunda percent Mbundu percent Bakongo or 15 8 6 Kongo percent LundaChokwe percent Nganguela percent

1 8 .European percent Other percent ( ); .Languages Portuguese official Bantu and other African languages

65 20Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant 10 5 .percent Indigenous beliefs percent Other percent

ARGENTINA 85 Ethnic groupsDescendants of European immigrants percent , , 15 . Mestizo Native American and other percent Languages Spanish

( ), , , , , .official English Italian German French indigenous languages 91 1 Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Jewish percent

2 6 . Nonreligious percent Other percent

ARMENIA 93 3 2Ethnic groups Armenian percent Azeri percent Russian 2 . 1993, percent Other percent As of the end of most Azeris had

. 96 2emigrated from Armenia LanguagesArmenian percent Russian 2 . 94percent Other percent Religious affiliations Armenian Apostolic 6 . percent Other percent

AUSTRALIA 95 4 Ethnic groups Caucasian percent Asian percent Aboriginal and 1 .other percent

( ), .Languages English official indigenous languages 29 22 Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Anglican percent

14 15 14Protestants percent Other Christian percent nonreligious 6 . percent Other percent

AUSTRIA 99.4 0.3 0.2Ethnic groups German percent Croatian percent Slovene 0.1 . ( ), ,percent Other percent Languages German official Bosnian , , , , , , ,Croatian Serbian Slovenian Turkish Polish Slovak Hungarian

. 76 5English Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant 7 2 10 . percent Nonreligious percent Muslims percent Other percent

AZERBAIJAN 90.0 3.2 2.5Ethnic groups Azeri percent Dahestani percent Russian 2.3 2.0 percent Armenian percent Other percent Almost all

( ) .Armenians live in the separatist Nagorno Karabakh disputed region 89 3 2 Languages Azeri percent Russian percent Armenian percent

6 .Other percent 93.4 2.5Religious affiliations Muslim percent Russian Orthodox

2.3 1.8 . percent Armenian Apostolic percent Other percent

BAHRAIN 63 13 Ethnic groups Bahraini Arab percent Asian percent Other Arab

10 8 6 .percent Iranian percent Other percent

( ), , ( ), .Languages Arabic official English Persian Farsi Urdu 60 25Religious affiliations Shiite Muslim percent Sunni Muslim

9 6 . percent Christian percent Oilier percent

BANGLADESH 98 2 .Ethnic groups Bengali percent Other percent

( ), , .Languages Bangla official Urdu English 86 12 2Religious affiliations Muslim percent Hindu percent Other

. percent

BELARUS 77.9 13.2 4.1Ethnic groups Belarusian percent Russian percent Polish 2.9 1.9 . percent Ukrainian percent Other percent Languages

( ), ( ), , , .Belarusian official Russian official Polish Ukrainian other 49 13Religious affiliations Eastern Orthodox percent Roman Catholic

9 24 5 . percent Atheist percent Nonreligious percent Other percent

BELGIUM 55 33 Ethnic groups Flemish percent Walloon percent Mixed or other

12 .percent ( ) 56 ( ) 32 Languages Dutch official percent French official percent

( ) 1 ( German official percent Legally bilingual divided along ethnic ) 11 . 81 lines percent Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent

1 4 6 Protestant percent Muslims percent Nonreligious percent Other 8 . percent

BELIZE 44 30 11 Ethnic groups Mestizo percent Creole percent Maya percent

7 8 . ( ),Garifuna percent Other percent Languages English official , , ( ). Spanish Maya Garifuna Carib Religious affiliations Roman Catholic

62 30 6 2 . percent Protestant percent Other percent None percent

BENIN (42 , , ,Ethnic groups African ethnic groups the largest being Fon Adja , ) 99 1 .Yoruba and Bariba percent Other percent

( ), ( Languages French official Fon and Yoruba most common ), ( vernaculars in south Bariba and Somba most common vernaculars

), .in north indigenous languages 65 15 Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs percent Muslim percent ( ) 20 . Christian largely Roman Catholic percent

BHUTAN 50 35 Ethnic groups Bhutia percent Ethnic Nepalese percent

10 5 .Sharchops percent Indigenous or migrant groups percent ( ); Languages Dzongkha official the Bhutia speak various Tibetan

; .dialects the Nepalese speak various Nepalese dialects 75 Religious affiliations Lamaist Buddhist percent Indian and

25 . Nepaleseinfluenced Hindu percent

:Regional Human Geography

BOLIVIA 30 30 25Ethnic groups Quechua percent Mestizo percent Aymara 15 .percent European percent

( ), ( ), ( ).Languages Spanish official Quechua official Aymara official 88 Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant

( ) 12 . Evangelical Methodist and other percent BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA 40 38 22Ethnic groups Muslim percent Serbian percent Croatian ( ) 99 1percent Languages SerboCroatian official percent Other . 40 percent Religious affiliations Muslim percent Orthodox Christian

31 15 4 percent Roman Catholic percent Protestant percent Other or 10 . nonreligious percent

BOTSWANA 75 , , 4Ethnic groups Tswana percent Kalanga Basarwa and Kgalagadi 21 . ( ), .percent Other percent Languages English official Setswana 50 50Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs percent Christian

. percent

BRAZIL ( , , ,Ethnic groups Caucasian includes Portuguese German Italian , ) 55 38Spanish and Polish percent Mixed Caucasian and African 6 ( ) 1percent African percent Other including Japanese and Arab .percent

( ), , , . Languages Portuguese official Spanish English French Religious ( ) 90 affiliations Roman Catholic nominal percent Spiritists and African

, , , 4Brazilian religions such as Candombl Maoumba and Umbanda 2 4 . percent Nonreligious percent Other percent

BRUNEI 64 20 16Ethnic groups Malay percent Chinese percent Other . ( ), , .percent Languages Malay official English Chinese ( ) 67 Religious affiliations Muslim Islam is the official religion percent 14 10 Buddhist percent Christian percent Indigenous beliefs and

9 . other percent

BULGARIA 85.3 8.5 Ethnic groups Bulgarian percent Turkish percent Roma

( ) 2.6 2.5 0.3 Gypsy percent Macedonian percent Armenian percent 0.2 0.6 .Russian percent Other percent

( ); Languages Bulgarian official secondary languages closely .correspond to ethnic breakdown

85 13Religious affiliations Bulgarian Orthodox percent Muslim 2 . percent Other percent

BURKINA FASO , , , , , , .Ethnic groups Mossi Gourounsi Senufo Lobi Bobo Mande Fulani

( ); Languages French official tribal languages belonging to Sudanic 90 . family are spoken by percent ofthe population Religious

50 40 affiliations Muslim percent Indigenous beliefs percent Christian ( ) 10 .mainly Roman Catholic percent

BURUNDI ( ) 79 ( ) 20Ethnic groups Hutu Bantu speakers percent Tutsi Hamitic

1 .percent Twa percent ( ), ( ), ( Languages Kirundi official French official Swahili along Lake ). Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area Religious affiliations Roman

62 32 5Catholic percent Indigenous beliefs percent Protestant 1 . percent Muslim percent

CAMBODIA 90 5 1Ethnic groups Khmer percent Vietnamese percent Chinese 4 .percent Other percent

( ), . Languages Khmer official French Religious affiliations Theravada 85 4 2 Buddhist percent Indigenous beliefs percent Muslim percent

2 7 . Nonreligious percent Other percent

CAMEROON 200 , Ethnic groups There are some groups the largest of which are

, , , ( ). the Fang Bamileke Fulani and Pahouin Beti Most groups make up 1 . 24 less than percent of the population Languages major African

, ( ), ( ). language groups English official French official Religious 53 25 affiliations Christian percent Indigenous beliefs percent Muslim

22 . percent

CANADA 35.0 25.0Ethnic groups British Isles origin percent French origin 20.0 percent Other European origin percent Indigenous peoples

( ' ") 3.0 17.0designated in the census as Aboriginal percent Other .percent

( ), ( ), , , ,Languages English official French official Chinese Italian Punjabi , . Spanish indigenous languages Religious affiliations Roman Catholic

45.2 11.5 8.1 percent United Church percent Anglican percent Other 7.9 27.2 .Protestant percent Other or nonreligious percent

34 CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC Ethnic groups Baya percent Banda 27 21 10 4 percent Mandjia percent Sara percent Mboum percent ' 4 ( ), .M Baka percent Languages French official Sango

60 18Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs percent Protestant 17 5 . percent Roman Catholic percent Muslim percent

CHAD , Ethnic groups In northern and central Chad Muslim peoples are

, , , , , ,dominant including the Toubou Hadjerai Fulbe Kotoko Kanembou , , , . Baguirmi Boulala Zaghawa and Maba NonMuslim peoples make up

. the majority of the population in southern Chad These groups , , , , , ,include the Sara Ngambaye Mbaye Goulaye Moundang Moussei

.and Massa ( ), ( ); 100 Languages French official Arabic official more than different . 50languages and dialects are spoken Religious affiliations Muslim

33 17percent Christian percent Indigenous beliefs and animist . percent

CHILE 93 3 Ethnic groups Mestizo percent Native American percent

2 2 . ( ).European percent Other percent Languages Spanish official 78 3 Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant percent 2 7 10 . Atheists percent Nonreligious percent Other percent

CHINA 92 , , ,Ethnic groups Han Chinese percent Zhuang Mongolian Tibetan , , , , , , , , 8Uygur Miao Yi Korean Yao Bai Tujia Hani and other nationalities . , ( ,percent Languages Standard Chinese or Mandarin Putonghua

); ( ), ( ),based on the Beijing dialect Yue Cantonese Wu Shanghainese ( ), ( ), , , Minbei Fuzhou Minnan HokkienTaiwanese Xiang Gan and Hakka ; .dialects minority languages , .Religious affiliations Officially atheist but traditionally eclectic

42 8 8 Nonreligious percent Buddhist percent Atheist percent 7 1 34 . Christian percent Muslim percent Other percent COLOMBIA

58 20 (Ethnic groups Mestizo percent White percent Mulatto people ) 14 4 of mixecfblack and white ancestry percent Black percent

3 1 .Mixed blackNative American percent Native American percent ( ). 96Languages Spanish official Religious affiliations Roman Catholic

2 1 1 .percent Protestant Percent Nonreligious percent Other percent

COSTARICA ( ) 96 2 Ethnic groups White including mestizo percent Black percent 1 1 . Native American percent Chinese percent Languages Spanish

( ), . 90 official English Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent 10 . Other percent

COTE DTVORIE 60 , Ethnic groups There are some groups the largest of which are

( , ), , ( , ), ,the Akan Baule Agni Kru Mande Mandinke Bambara Senufo , , , . 2 , 100,000Dan Guro Gagou and Lobi There are million Burkinabe

300,000 , 30,000 .to Lebanese and French ( ); , , 60 . Languages French official Akan Dioula native dialects Religious 39 35 affiliations Muslim percent Indigenous beliefs percent Christian

26 . percent

CROATIA 78 12 10 .Ethnic groups Croatian percent Serb percent Other percent

96 4 .Languages Croatian percent Other percent 76.5 Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Orthodox Christian

11.1 1.2 0.4 percent Islam percent Protestant percent Other and 10.8 . unknown percent

:Regional Human Geography

CUBA 51 37 11Ethnic groups Mixed race percent White percent Black 1 .percent Other percent

( ). 40Languages Spanish official Religious affiliations Roman Catholic

( ) 17percent Traditional African beliefs and other especially Santeria 7 2 30percent Atheist percent Protestant percent Nonreligious 4 . percent Other percent

CYPRUS 85 12 3 .Ethnic groups Greek percent Turkish percent Other percent

, , . Languages Greek Turkish English Religious affiliations Greek 85 12 , Orthodox percent Muslim percent Maronite Armenian , 3 .Apostolic and other percent

94.0 3.0CZECH REPUBLIC Ethnic groups Czech percent Slovak ( ) 0.7 0.6 0.5percent Roma Gypsy percent Polish percent German 0.2 1.0 .percent Hungarian percent Other percent

( ), , , , .Languages Czech official Slovak German Russian English 40 3 Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant percent

5 32 20 .Atheist percent Nonreligious percent Other percent

( )DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO ZAIRE 200 . Ethnic groups There are more than African ethnic groups The , , , ( ),largest culture groups are the Lunda Luba Kuba Bakongo Kongo , , . , ,Mongo Mangbetu and Azande Other Bantu NiloSaharan

, , .AfricanAsian European and Asian groups also exist ( ), , , , , Languages French official Lingala Kikongo Tshiluba Swahili other .indigenous languages

52 20Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant ( ) 10 2percent Kimbanguist indigenous Christian percent Muslim 16 . percent Other syncretism sects and traditional beliefs percent

DENMARK , ( ), , .Ethnic groups Danish Inuit Eskimo Faroese German

( ), , ( ),Languages Danish official Faroese Greenlandic an Inuit dialect . 88 German Religious affiliations Protestant percent Roman Catholic

1 5 6 . percent Nonreligious percent Other percent DJIBOUTI ( ) 60 30 Ethnic groups Somali largely lssa percent Afar percent , , , 10 . ( ),French Arab Italian other percent Languages French official ( ), , . 97 Arabic official Somali Afar Religious affiliations Muslim percent

3 . Christian and othecs percent

ECUADOR 55 25 Ethnic groups Mestizo percent Native American percent 10 10 . ( ),Spanish percent Black percent Languages Spanish official

( ).Native American languages especially Quechua 94 2 Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant percent

1 3 . Nonreligious percent Other percent

EGYPT ( , , ) 99Ethnic groups Eastern Hamitic Egyptians Bedouin and Berbers , , , 1 .percent Greek Nubian Armenian other European percent

( ); Languages Arabic official English and French widely understood by .the educated

( ) 94 (Religious affiliations Muslim mostly Sunni percent official ) 6 ( ).estimate Coptic Christian and other percent official estimate

EL SALVADOR 90 9 Ethnic groups Mestizo percent White percent Native American

1 .percent ( ), , , Languages Spanish official Nahuatl Kekch English Religious 85 10 5affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant percent Other

. percent

ERETRIA 50 , 40 4Ethnic groups Tigrinya percent Tigre Kunama percent Afar 3 , , , 3 .percent Saho percent Bilen Hedareb Nara Rashaida percent

, , , , , , ,Languages Tigrinya Tigre Arabic Afar Bilen Hedareb Kunama , , , . , Nara Rashaida Saho English Religious affiliations Muslim Coptic

, , . Christian Roman Catholic Protestant

ESTONIA 64 29 3Ethnic groups Estonian percent Russian percent Ukrainian 2 1 1 .percent Belarusian percent Finn percent Other percent

( ), , , , ,Languages Estonian official Russian Ukranian Belarusian Finnish , , , . Latvian Lithuanain German English Religious affiliations Protestant

17 16 13 percent Orthodox Christian percent Other Christian percent 11 25 18 . Atheist percent Nonreligious percent Other percent

ETHIOPIA 40 , 32 Ethnic groups Oromo percent Amhara Tigrean percent Sidamo

9 6 6 4 percent Shankella percent Somali percent Afar percent 2 1 .Gurage percent Other percent

( ), , , , ' ,Languages Amharic official Tigrinya Tigre Orominga Ge ez , , , .Gurage Somali Arabic English 40 45Religious affiliations Ethiopian Orthodox percent Muslim

12 3 .percent Indigenous beliefs percent Other percent

MACEDONIA 67 23 Ethnic groups Macedonian Slavs percent Albanian percent 4 2 ( ), 4 .Turkish percent Serbian percent Roma Gypsy other percent

70 21 3Languages Macedonian percent Albanian percent Turkish 3 3 .percent SerboCroatian percent Other percent ( Religious affiliations Orthodox Christian mostly Macedonian ) 60 29 7 Orthodox percent Muslim percent Nonreligious percent

4 . Other percent

FIJI 50 45 , Ethnic groups Fijian percent Indian percent European other , , 5 . Pacific Islander Chinese other percent Languages English

( ), , .official Fijian Hindustani ( ) 46 Religious affiliations Protestant mostly Methodist percent Hindu

33 10 7 4percent Roman Catholic percent Muslim percent Other : , percent NOTE Fijians are mainly Christian Indians are Hindu or , . Muslim and Chinese are Christian or Buddhist

FINLAND 93 6 , 1Ethnic groups Finn percent Swede percent Saami Russian . ( ) 92 5 ( )percent Languages Finnish official percent Swedish official

5.7 0.5 percent Small Saami and Russian speaking minorities percent

1.3 . (Others percent Religious affiliations Protestant Evangelical ) 86 1 5Lutheran percent Finnish Orthodox percent Nonreligious

1 7 . percent Atheist percent Other percent

FRANCE , , ;Ethnic groups Celtic and Latin with Teutonic Slavic and Nordic , , . North and West African Caribbean Indochinese and Basque

. , minorities Languages French regional dialects and languages ( , , , , , , ),Provencal Breton Alsatian Corsican Catalan Basque Flemish

, .English Arabic 81 2 Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant percent

Jewish

GABON 36 15 14Ethnic groups Fang percent Mpongwe percent Mbete 12 23 . percent Punu percent Other percent Languages French

( ), , official Fang other indigenous languages Religious affiliations 60 39 1 .Christian percent Animist percent Muslim percent

GEORGIA 70.1 8.1 Ethnic groups Georgian percent Armenian percent Russian

6.3 5,7 3.0 1.8percent Azeri percent Ossetian percent Abkhazian 5.0 .percent Other percent

( ), , , , .Languages Georgian official Russian Armenian Azerbaijani other 58 19Religious affiliations Orthodox Christian percent Muslim

3 1 15percent Atheist percent Roman Catholic percent Nonreligious 4 . percent Other percent

:Regional Human Geography

GERMANY 91.5 2.3 0.7Ethnic groups German percent Turkish percent Italian 0.4 0,4 4.7 .percent Greek percent Polish percent Other percent

( ), , , .Languages German official English Russian Sorbian 37 35Religious affiliations Protestant percent Roman Catholic

4 17 7 . percent Muslim percent Nonreligious percent Other percent

GHANA , , , , ,Ethnic Divisions Adangbe Akuapem Akyem Ashanti Bono

, , , , , , , , Dagomba Ewe Fante Ga Gonja Kwahu Mamprusi Nzima and .others

( ), , , , , , Languages English official Akan Nzima Dagbane Ga Ewe other .African languages

24Religious affiliations Ethnoreligionists or indigenous beliefs 20 17 percent Muslim percent Protestant percent Independent 14 10 15 . Christian percent Roman Catholic percent Other percent

GREECE 98 2 : Ethnic groups Greek percent Other percent NOTE The Greek

.government states that there are no ethnic divisions in Greece

( ), , , .Languages Greek official Turkish English French 94 3 Religious affiliations Greek Orthodox percent Muslim percent

2 1. Nonreligious percent Other

GUATEMALA ( ) 56 44Ethnic groups Ladino mestizo percent Native American . ( ); 20 percent Languages Spanish official more than Native American

, , , languages including Quich Cakchiquel and Kekch Religious 90 , ,affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant traditional Mayan

10 . others percent

GUYANA 51 , 43Ethnic groups East Indian percent Black African mixed 4 , 2 .percent Native American percent European Chinese percent

( ), , , .Languages English official Hindi Urdu Native American dialects 33 20 Religious affiliations Hindu percent Protestant percent Roman 10 9 9 Catholic percent Anglican percent Muslim percent Indigenous

2 17 . beliefs percent Other percent

HAITI 95 5Ethnic groups Black African percent Mixed race and European ( ), ( ).percent Languages French official Creole official 80 17Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Protestant

1 2 percent Nonreligious percent Other percent Nearly onehalf of ( ). the population also practices Vodun also called Vodou or voodoo

HONDURAS 90 ( ,Ethnic groups Mestizo percent Native American primarily Miskito , , ) 7 2 1Payas Xicaques Zambo percent Black African percent White . 7 ( ), ,percent Languages Spanish official Native American dialects

, . 94 Creole English Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent , 6 . Protestant other percent

HUNGARY ( ) 89.9 ( ) 4.0Ethnic groups Hungarian Magyar percent Roma Gypsy 2.6 2.0 0.8 percent German percent Serbian percent Slovak percent

0.7 .Romanian percent ( ) ( ) 98.2 1.8Languages Hungarian Magyar official percent Other

. 63 20percent Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Calvinist 5 4 7 percent Lutheran percent Atheist percent Nonreligious percent

1 . Other percent

INDONESIA 45 14 Ethnic groups Javanese percent Sundanese percent Madurese

8 7 (350 )percent Coastal Malay percent Other distinct ethnic groups 26 . ( ;percent Languages Bahasa Indonesia modified form of Malay

), , , , , , official English Dutch Sundanese Arabic Chinese and local , ( 300 dialects especially Javanese about languages and dialects are ). 87 6 spoken Religious affiliations Muslim percent Protestant percent 3 2 1 Roman Catholic percent Hindu percent Buddhist percent Other

1 . percent

IRAN 60 25Ethnic groups Persian percent Azerbaijani and other Turkic 7 2 , , percent Kurdish percent Lur percent Baluchi Turkmen and other

6 . ( ) 58 percent Languages Persian Farsi and Persian dialects percent 26 9 , ,Turkic and Turkic dialects percent Kurdish percent Lluri Balochi , , 7 .Arabic Turkmen and other percent

93 6Religious affiliations Shiite Muslim percent Sunni Muslim , , , ' 1 . percent Zoroastrian Jewish Christian and Baha i percent

IRAQ 7580 1520 ,Ethnic groups Arab percent Kurds percent Turkmen

, , 5 . ( ),Assyrian Jews and other percent Languages Arabic official ( ), , .Kurdish in Kurd occupied areas Assyrian Armenian 96 6065 3136Religious affiliations Muslim percent Shia percent Sunni

3 1 .percent Christian percent Other percent

IRELAND , ( ) Ethnic groups Celtic English Languages Irish Gaelic is spoken . mainly in areas along the western seaboard English is the language

. .generally used Both Irish and English are official languages 85 Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Church of Ireland

( ) 4 1 3 Anglican percent Protestant percent Nonreligious percent 7 . Other percent

ISRAEL ( 62 , / /Ethnic groups Jewish Israelbom percent Europe Americas Oceara

26 , 7 , 5 ) 82 born percent Africabora percent Asiaborn percent percent ( ) 18 . ( ),Non Jewish mostly Arab percent Languages Hebrew official

, Arabic used officially for Arab minority English Religious affiliations 77 Jewish percent ( ) 12 5 Muslim mostly Sunni Muslim percent Christian percent

4 ( , ) 2 . Nonreligious percent Other including Druze Bahai percent

ITALY ( , , Ethnic groups Italian includes small clusters of German French and Slovene Italians in the north and Albanian and Greek Italians in the

), , .south Sicilian Sardinian ( ), , , , ,Languages Italian official German French Slovenian Ladin

.regional Italian dialects 98 2 . Religious affiliations Roman Catholic percent Other percent

JAPAN 99.4 ( ), Ethnic groups Japanese percent Other mostly Korean including

0.6 .Ainu percent ( ). 55Languages Japanese official Religious affiliations Buddhist

4 3 10percent Christian percent Shintoist percent Nonreligious ( " ") 28 . percent Other including new religions percent JORDAN

98 1 1Ethnic groups Arab percent Circassian percent Armenian . ( ), percent Languages Arabic official English widely understood .among educated population

( ; Religious affiliations Muslim Islam is the official religion almost all ) 93 4 2 Sunni Muslim percent Christian percent Nonreligious percent 1 . Other percent

KAZAKHSTAN ( ) 46 35 Ethnic groups Kazakh Qazaq percent Russian percent

5 3 2 2Ukrainian percent German percent Uzbek percent Tatar 7 . ( , percent Other percent Languages Kazakh Qazaq official ); ( ).language Russian language of interethnic communication 43 11 Religious affiliations Muslim percent Atheist percent Orthodox 10 3 29Christian percent Roman Catholic percent Nonreligious

4 . percent Other percent

KENYA 21 14 12 Ethnic groups Kikuyu percent Luhya percent Luo percent 11 11 6 6 Kalenjin percent Kamba percent Kisii percent Meru percent

19 . ( ), Other percent Languages English official Swahili or Kiswahili ( ), , , .official Kikuyu Luo numerous other indigenous languages

43 23Religious affiliations Protestant percent Roman Catholic 12 10 7percent Indigenous beliefs percent Anglican percent Muslim 1 4 . percent Hindu percent Other percent

KUWAIT 45 35 ,Ethnic groups Kuwaiti percent Other Arab percent Indian

9 4 7 . Pakistani percent Iranian percent Other percent Languages ( ), .Arabic official English widely spoken

45 40Religious affiliations Sunni Muslim percent Shia Muslim 9 3 1percent Roman Catholic percent Hindu percent Nonreligious 2 . percent Other percent

KYRGYZTAN 57 18 14Ethnic groups Kyrgyz percent Russian percent Uzbek 2 2 , 7 .percent Ukrainian percent German percent Tajik other percent

( ), . 70Languages Kyrgyz official Russian Religious affiliations Muslim 20 10 .percent Russian Orthodox percent Other percent

:Regional Human Geography

LAOS ( ),Ethnic groups Lao Lum lowland Lao

66 including Lao and Tai percent Lao ( ),Thoeng Lao of the mountain slopes , , ,including Khamu Lamet Laven

, 24 Sedang and Nyaheun percent Lao ( ),Sung Lao of the mountaintops

( ) 10including Hmong and Yao Mien . ( ),percent Languages Lao official

numerous indigenous languages and , , .dialects French English 60Religious affiliations Buddhist

, , 40percent Animist Christian Muslim

. percent

LATVIA 55 Ethnic groups Latvian percent 32 4Russian percent Belarusian 3 3percent Ukrainian percent Polish 3 .percent Other percent

( ), ,Languages Latvian official Russian .Lithuanian

, Religious affiliations Lutheran Roman , . Catholic Eastern Orthodox

LEBANON 93 Ethnic groups Arab percent

5 2 .Armenian percent Other percent ( ), ,Languages Arabic official French

, Armenian English Religious 70 (5affiliations Muslim percent

:legally recognized Islamic groups , , , , ' )Shia Sunni AJawite Druze Isma ilite

30 (11 Christian percent legally : 4recognized Christian groups

, 6 , 1Orthodox Christian Catholic ). Protestant

LIBERIA Ethnic groups Indigenous African ( , , ,ethnic groups Bassa Gio Kpelle

) 95 Kru percent AmericoLiberians ( ) 5descendants of repatriated slaves

. ( )percent Languages English official 20 , , 80percent Mande KruBassa other

. percent Religious affiliations 70 Indigenous beliefs percent Muslim

20 10 . percent Christian percent

LIBYA Ethnic groups Indigenous African ( , , ,ethnic groups Bassa Gio Kpelle

) 95 Kru percent AmericoLiberians ( ) 5descendants of repatriated slaves

. ( )percent Languages English official 20 , , 80percent Mande KruBassa other

percent Religious affiliations 70 Indigenous beliefs percent Muslim

20 10 . percent Christian percent

LITHUANIA 80 Ethnic groups Lithuanian percent 8 8 Russian percent Polish percent

2 1Belarusian percent Ukrainian

1 . percent Other percent Languages ( ), , ,Lithuanian official Russian Polish

English Religious affiliations Roman 84 Catholic percent Orthodox 3 1Christian percent Protestant

11 percent Nonreligious percent 1 .Other percent

LUXEMBOURG (Ethnic groups Celtic base with ) 75French and German blend percent Guest workers and residents

,from other European countries 25including Portugaland Italy

.percent , ,Languages Luxembourgisch German

, French English Religious affiliations 94 Roman Catholic percent Protestant

2 3 percent Nonreligious percent 1 . Other percent

MADAGASCAR 27 Ethnic groups Merina percent

15 12Betsimisaraka percent Betsileo 7 percent Tsimihety percent Sakalava

6 5 percent Antaisaka percent Other 28 .percent

( ), Languages French official Malagasy ( ), official Hova and other dialects

Religious affiliations Indigenous 52 41beliefs percent Christian 7 . percent Muslim percent

MALAWI , ,Ethnic groups Chewa Nyanja

, , , , ,Tumbuka Yao Lomwe Sena Tonga , , , Ngoni Ngonde Asian European

( ),Languages English official , Chichewa other indigenous languages Religious affiliations 55 Protestant percent Roman Catholic

20 20 ,percent Muslim percent Hindu 5 . indigenous beliefs percent

MALAYSIA Ethnic groups Malays and other

59 indigenous groups percent 26 7 Chinese percent Indian percent

8 .Other percent ( ),Languages Bahasa Malaysia official

( ), ,Chinese various dialects English , , Tamil Iban other indigenous

languages Religious affiliations

48 24Muslim percent Folk religions 8 percent Christian percent Buddhist

7 7 6percent Hindu percent Other . percent

MALDIVES , ,Ethnic groups Sinhalese Dravidian

, .Arab African ( ; Languages Divehi official dialect of

), Sinhala English Religious affiliations ( ;Muslim Islam is the official religion ). mostly Sunni Muslim

MALI , ,Ethnic groups Sinhalese Dravidian

, .Arab African ( ; Languages Divehi official dialect of

), Sinhala English Religious affiliations ( ;Muslim Islam is the official religion ). mostly Sunni Muslim

MALTA 96 Ethnic groups Maltese percent 2 (British percent Other including , , , )Sicilian French Spanish and Italian

2 percent Languages Maltese ( ), ( ), official English official Italian

Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 93 7 .percent Other percent

MAURITANIA 30 Ethnic groups Moor percent Mixed

, 40 Moor black percent Other ( ) 30including Fulani and Wolof

( ),percent Languages Arabic official , , , Fulfulde Soninke Wolof French ( Religious affiliations Muslim Islam is

; the official religion almost all Sunni ) 100 .Muslim percent

MAURITIUS 68Ethnic groups Indian Mauritian 27 percent Creole percent Chinese 3 Mauritian percent French Mauritian

2 ( ),percent Languages English official , , , , ,Creole French Hindi Urdu Hakka , .Bhojpuri other 52 Religious affiliations Hindu percent 28 17Christian percent Muslim

, 3 . percent Buddhist other percent

MEXICO

(Ethnic groups Mestizo Native ) 60 AmericanSpanish percent

30 Amerindian percent European 9 1 .ancestry percent Other percent

( ), Languages Spanish official various , .indigenous languages English

Religious affiliations Roman Catholic89 3 percent Protestant percent

3 5Nonreligious percent Other percent

MONGOLIA 90 Ethnic groups Mongol percent 4 2 Kazakh percent Chinese percent 2 2 .Russian percent Other percent

90Languages Khalkha Mongolian , , , percent Turkic Russian English other

10 .Mongolian dialects percent Religious affiliations Indigenous

3 beliefs i percent Tibetan Buddhist ( ) 23 9Lamaist percent Atheist

5 percent Muslim percent 30 2Nonreligious percent Other

. percent

MOROCCO , , Ethnic groups Arab Berber mixed

99 1ArabBerber percent Other ( ),percent Languages Arabic official

( ), Derija Moroccan Arabic Berber , .dialects French 98Religious affiliations Muslim

1 percent Christian percent 1 . Nonreligious and other percent

MOZAMBIUE , , ,Ethnic groups Makua Yao Makonde , , , , ,Tonga Tsonga Chopi Shona Nguni .others

( );Languages Portuguese official , , Swahili indigenous dialects including , , , Makua Ronga Tsongan and Muchope

Religious affiliations Indigenous 55 30beliefs percent Christian 15 . percent Muslim percent

MYANMAR 68 Ethnic groups Burman percent

9 7 Shan percent Karen percent ( ) 4 Arakanese Rakhine percent

3 2 Chinese percent Mon percent 2 5 .Indian percent Other percent

( );Languages Burmese official minority ethnic groups have their

.own languages 73Religious affiliations Buddhist

12 percent Indigenous beliefs percent 6 3Protestant percent Muslim

2 4percent Hindu percent Other . percent

NAMIBIA 86.0 Ethnic groups Black percent 6.6 7.4 White percent Mixed percent : 50 NOTE About percent of the

population belongs to the Ovambo 9 group and percent to the Kavango . group Other ethnic groups include

( with approximate share of total ) 7 , population Herero percent Damara

7 , 5 , percent Nama percent Caprivian 4 , 3 ,percent San or Khoikhoi percent

2 , 0.5Baster percent and Tswana .percent

Languages Although English is the , official language most Namibians speak at least one indigenous

. language at home Afrikaans and .German are also spoken 90Religious affiliations Christian

10percent Other or nonreligious . percent

NEPAL , , ,Ethnic groups Newar Bihari Tibetan , , , ,Gurung Magar Tamang Thakali , , , .Bhutia Rai Limbu Sherpa

( ), ,Languages Nepali official English 20 almost other languages divided

.into numerous dialects (Religious affiliations Hindu Hinduism

) 86 is the official religion percent 8 4 Buddhist percent Muslim percent

2 . Other percent

INDIAN GEOGRAPHY SPACE RELATIONSHIP

- 7 ( ) th largest country AREA Total = 32, 87, 263 . ( ) 3, 214Area Sq Km i

= ( ) 2, 933 =Km North to South ii Km West to East

- 8 4' 37 6'Latitudinal extent ° N to ° N- 68 7' 97 25'Longitudinal extent ° E to ° E ( ) - For mainland Southern most point

Indira point or Pygmalion Point ( ) 64 5'Andaman and Nicobar Island ° N- 46Indian Ocean is encircled by

(27 countries littoral including , 7 12Australia island states and ).landlocked countries

- Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separates it from Sri Lanka

- 6,100 ( Coastline is Km along main ) 7,516 land mass and Km

- Border Distances 4, 225 China India Km 4, 090 India Pakistan Km 3, 910 India Bangladesh Km 1, 450 India Myanmar Km

:Boundary Lines : Durand Line Pakistan and

Afghanistan : Mac Mohan Line India and China

: Radcliff Line India and Pakistan : Maginot Line France and Germany

: Hindenburg Line Poland and Germany

: Order Niesse Line Poland and Germany38 : th Parallel North and South Korea49 : th Parallel USA and Canada

: Mannerheim Line Finland and Russia

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION- (600 )PreCambrian Million Years ago

.Archaean Gneissic and Granites , Igneous Activities subsequent

Metamorphism andfolding of the .Arrival

( )Dharwarian Group Bijawars .Igneous activities and intrusions

- .Cambrian Calcareous and Arenaceous deposits

( ).Cuddapah and Vindhvanbasins ( )Gondwana system carboniferous

permacarboniferous glaciation and . extensive glaciofluvial deposition

- .MidMesozoic

, Fracturing of Gondwanaland further uplift of Vindhyan sediments

.formation of western ghats- .Cretaceous

Lava flow and formation of Deccan .Trap

- .Tertiary Collision of the Indian plate with Eurasian plate leading to Himalayan . orogeny

- .Oligocene ( )Himadri Greater Himalayas Rajmahal Garo gap or the Malda gap

and upheaval of IndoGanga divide ( ).Potwar Plateau

INDIAN EARTHQUAKES- The intensity of the earthquake is

( )measured by Modified Mercalli MM Scale which is expressed in Roman

( , numerals from I to XII I Feeble XII ). - Catastrophic Based on intensities

of the earthquakes recorded on MM , Scale the Indian Standards Institute

5 has divided India into Seismic : Zones

: ( )Zone I Intensity V or below Feeble : ( ) Zone II Intensity VI Strong : ( )Zone III Intensity VII Very Strong : ( )Zone IV Intensity VIII Destructive : Zone V Intensity IX or above

( )Catastrophic- Another popular scale is Richter

.scale 9 1 9It has divisions starting from to

3.5 with feeblest at magnitude of and most catastrophic known at a

8.9.maximum of- ,According to seismological studies

2/3 about rd of India is earthquake .prone

- The whole country is divided into :three Seismological Zones

. ( Himalayan Zone Most prone J and , , , K HP Uttaranchal Nepal Bihar

, , Border Bihar North Eastern). States This zone is seismic due to

. plate tectonics Himalayas have not yet attained isostatic equilibrium and .are still rising

. Indo Gangetic Zone To the south of . the Himalayan zone Most

6 6.5earthquakes in this zone lie in . on Richter scale This zone is called the zone of comparative intensity and it is more harmful because of . high population density Peninsular . Zone Stable mass It is the zone of

.minimum intensity- Other isolated regions including

. .reservoir induced seismicity e g , .Koyna Idduki

NDIAN VULCANICITY- At present no active volcanoes

( /except on the Barren Island A N ).Islands

- 6The geological evidences show :areas of vulcanicity

1. Dharwar Basalt traces found in ( )Dalma Bihar

2. , Cuddapah Cuddapah Bijapur and .Gwalior area

3. ( ), Vindhyan Malani Jodhpur Kirana ( )Punjab4. , . Palaeozoic Kashmir N Punjab and

. Himachal Pradesh5. Mesozoic Raj Mahal Hills ( ), (Jharkhand Abor Hills Arunachal

).Pradesh6. Cretaceous Lava flow and

formation of Deccan Trap

HOT SPRINGS- Hot springs are associated with

(the area of volcanic activity present ).or past

- Water from hot spring contains . , .minerals viz sulphur borax etc

- :Areas : , J and K Kashmir Valley Vardhman

, , Valley Ladakh Valley and Puga . Valley

: , Himachal Pradesh Kullu Kangra and ., ( )Sutlej Valley Manikaran near Kullu

( ). and near Jwalamukhi Kangra/ : , Bihar Jharkhand Rajgir Hazaribagh

and Santhal Pargana : ,Madhya Pradesh Hoshangabad , Gwalior and Chhindwara: ( ), Gujarat Tawa Panch Mahal Uni

( ). Vadodara

: Maharashtra Thane: ( ),Uttaranchal Sahasradhar Dehradun

.Gangotri and Yamunotri: ( ), Rajasthan Talbrich Alwar Naraini

( ). Jaipur: Haryana Sohana

PHYSICAL SURFACE Physiographic distribution can be

expressed in percentage of total area : 10.6 % 18.5%as follows Mountains 27.7% 43.2% Hills Plateaus Plains Indian physiography can be divided

: into four major categories1. The Northern Mountains2. Great Plains3. Peninsular Uplands4. Indian Coasts and Islands

The Northern Mountains It can be divided into Himalayas and ( the Purvanchal North Eastern

) Highlands Himalayas can further be , divided into Western Central and , Eastern Regions Western Himalayas :consists of Kashmir Himalayas include

, , Karakoram Laddakh Plateau Kashmir .Valley and Pir Panjal Range ,Punjab Himalayas include Kangra

( ).Lahul and Spiti Longitudinal Valleys ,Kumaon Himalayas include Gangotri .Yamunotri and Badrinath

- Central Himalayas consist of Nepal . Himalayas

- Eastern Himalayas consist of , Bhutan Sikkim and Darjeeling

Himalayas and Arunachal Pradesh , except Tirap district

- All the three regions that is , Western Central and Eastern

Himalayas can further be classified :into

( ), Siwaliks outer Himalayas Himachal ( ), Lesser Himalayas and Himadri ( ).Greater Himalayas

1. WESTERN HIMALAYAS Siwaliks of Western Himalayas include Jammu

Hills2. Himachal of Western Himalayas

, , include Pir Panjal Dhaula Dhar Nag

, Tigga Mussorie Range and flat ( ,structured Valley Doons Dehradun

, )Kothri Patli3. ( ) Himadri Bahirgiri of Western

Himalayas include snowbound ranges ,and glaciers of Jammu and Kashmir

Zauskar range having mounts Nanga , . , , Parbat Mt Kamet Nanda Devi Gurla

Mandhata and passes Burzil and Zoji ( ) La J and K and Bara Lacha La and

( . ).Shipki La H P

1. CENTRAL HIMALAYAS Siwaliks of ,Central Himalayas include Dhang Dundwa and Churia Ghati

2. Himachal of Central Himalayas include Mahabharat Range and Valley

. 3. of Kathmandu Himadri of Central Himalayas include some of the

: . ,highest peaks include Mt Everest , , ,Dhaulagiri Makalu Manaslu .Annapurna

1. EASTERN HIMALAYAS Siwaliks of ,Eastern Himalayas include Miri

, Abhor Mishmi in Arunachal along with Gorges of Tista and Raidak

2. Himachal is very indistinctly .present in the eastern Himalayas

3. , ,Himadri includes Bhutan Sikkim . Darjeeling and Arunachal Pradesh It

also includes passes Nathu La and Jelep La

- (6001500 ): Siwaliks m These are ,characterized by fault scarps

.anticlinal Crests and Synclinal Hills Himalayan Rivers have formed deep

, gorges in them- Himachal or Lesser Himalayas (10004500 ): m Linear Longitudinal

Ranges with Orthoclinal structural ( plan steeper southern and gentler

) northern slopes which gives it a . Hogback type look

- Himadri or Greater Himalayas (45006100 ): m Orthoclinal structural

.plan

BHANGER1. : (Trans Himalayas Karakoram abode of largest glaciers in the world

, , , Siachen Baltoro Biafo Hisper and

, Rimu of Pakistan It also contain . 2 )ranges like Mt K and Gasherbrum

, , and Ladakh range uplands Madhya , ,Bharat Pathar Bundelkhand uplands , Malwa plateau Vindhyan scarpland

. and range2. Deccan Plateau including Satpura

, and Maikal Range Maharashtra . . Plateau Tejangana Plateau and

( Karnataka Plateau Malnad and ). Maidan

3. : Western Plateau including , Baghelkhand Plateau Chhotanagpur

, Plateau and Garhjat Hills Mahanadi . Basin and Dandkarnya Region

4. : ,Eastern Ghats including Khondlite , ,Charnokite Madugula Konda Range , ,Cuddapah Kurnool Region Nallamalai , .Velikonda Shevroy and Javadi Hills

TERAI It lies south of Bhabar and runs

parallel to it- 2030 km wide- Composed of comparatively finer alluvium- Underground stream of the Bhabar

reemerge on the surface and give .birth to marshy areas

- Most part of the terai area is .reclaimed for agriculture

5. Western Ghats this can be divided 16 into regions lying north of °N and 16 .South of °N

Indian Coasts and Islands :It includes

1. Eastern Coastal Plains2. Western Coastal Plains3. Andaman and Nicobar Islands4. .Lakshadweep Islands

:More on Great Plains- 3200 The great plain extends for Km

. between the mouths of Ganga and Indus all along the foot of the

mountains with a width varying 150 300 .between Km

- Great Plains are classical examples of an aggradational plain which

resulted form an infilling of initial depression by the incessant work of

.the Himalayan rivers- Generally the plain is recognized

4 as consisting of division each characterized by surface relief and

, , known as Bhabar Terai Bhangar and .the Khadar

- . . : Marusthali i e desert proper Arid .Region

. . :Rajasthan Bagar i e Semi Desert Semi Arid Region Western Marusthali

is land covered by shifting sand .dunes locally known as the Dhrian

( , To the south of Jaislmer a number of playa lakes occur which are called

Ranns and are characterized by ).centripetal drainage

Bagar contains salt soaked playa lakes locally known as Bagar is

drained by a number of short streams originating from the Aravalli

. Fertile tracts in Bagar are known as

. Rohi Commonest type of dune in .Thar U Shaped Parabolic Dunes These are few simple longitudinal ( ) .dunes siefs locally know as Bhits Large numbers of depressions

occupied by alkaline lakes are called .Dands or Dhands

The altitude of the Punjab plain 300 varies from m in the North to

200 . 5 m in the South Doab of rivers in Punjab

1. Sindh Sagar Doab Indus and Jhelum2. Chaj Doab Chenab and Jhelum3. Rechna Ravi and Chenab4. Bari Beas and Ravi5. ( ) Bist Jalandhar Doab Beas and

.Sutlej Broad flood plains of Khadar flanked

.by bluffs are called Dhaya in Punjab The northern part of the

PunjabHaryana Plain adjoining the Siwalik Hills has witnessed intensive erosion leading to gully formation by . network of streams called Chos

- . , Like N Bihar the south Bihar plains also has swamps and marshes called

Jal near Patna and Tai in east of .Mokama

- The Ganga delta has its seaward

face more influenced by the tidal activity than by the waves with the

result that the indented coastline , ,has a maze of sandbanks mudflats

, mangrove swamps islands and forelands- :Ganges Deltaic Tract

430 Extends for kms 480 Width Kms

:Geography Notes

:More on the Himalayas. 8848Mt Everest m

( 2) 8611 Godvin Austen K m 8598Kanchenjunga m

8481Makalu m 8172Dhaulagiri m

8156Mansalu m 8126Nanga Parbat m

8078Annapurna m 8086Gasherbrum m

7817NandaDevi m 7756Kamet m

7728Gurla Mandhata m

:More on Peninsular Plateau- : 600-900 -General Elevation m fit

remained above the sea level for a , larger part of the geological history

- : Aravalli Range Oldest Relict 700 Mountains Length km General

(400-600 ) elevation m Reduced to the level of alluvial plains near Delhi and

continues up to Haridwar under .alluvium

: , Widens southward Passes Barr Pipli , , . Ghat Dewair and Desuri Highest : (1,722 )peak Guru Shikhar m

: . . Hill station Mt Abu Of Rajasthan : 250-500Uplands Drained by Banas

m high Ancient crystalline rocks of : Madhya Bharat Pathar Ancient Vindhyan sediments through which Chambal river has cut deep and

wide valley and has formed Ravines

.and Badlands- : Bundelkhand Uplands Old erosional

surface Granitic and gneissic rocks of : Malwa Plateau Mostly of lava Rolling surface and flat topped hills

- :Vindhyan Scarpland and Ranges Series of tablelands separated from

each other by a prominent sand . stone scarp General elevation

(300650 ) m Strong sandstones of the , Kaimur Rewa and the Bhander series

.are the principal scarp makers- : Satpura Range Between Narmada

and Tapti Extends through the Mahadeo Hills to the Maikal ranges

Mostly occupied by Deccan Trap 900-1000 . : Rises to m Peaks Astamba

(1325 ) (13Dongar m and Dhupgarh 50 ) ( m it is the highest peak of

). Madhya Pradesh Widens considerably in the central part

( Mahadeo Hills in north and )Gawaligarh Hills in south

- : Maharashtra Plateau Formed of plateau basalt Rolling plains with

, intervening shallow valleys- : Telangana Plateau Unlike the

, Maharashtra plateau which is made , of Deccan basalt the plateau of

Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are carried out of Archaean Gneissic

.Rocks Surface of the plateau is dotted with

. low hills and shallow depressions In , such a depression the twin city of

Hyderabad and Secunderabad is .located

- : Karnataka Plateau Northern portion drained by Krishna and its

. tributaries Mysore Plateau loftiest and most well defined plateau in

.South Asia Physiographically Mysore Plateau can

.be divided into Malnad and Maidan Malnad this comprises hilly Western

Ghats with average elevation of 1000 . m Dissected into valleys and

.covered with dense forests

WEST COASTAL PLAIN ► Located between the western

ghats and the Arabian sea coast

54► Narrow plain width Km ► Drained by several short and swift

streams which are unable to form deltas ► There are several lagoons

especially in the southern part of .this plain

► The western plain has indented .coast which supports many ports

Mt is a submerged coast and hence tilting has left no scope for

.depositional action of the rivers Maidan Area of rolling plains with

low granitic hills

- : Baghelkhand Plateau East of Maikal range and norh of Mahanadi basin

.and bounded by Son on north Antclinal hills and synclinal valleys of

; sandstones and limestone occur to . the south Singauli basin is

. considerably dissected

- : Chhotanagpur Plateau Topography is marked by roundel granitic hills

( ) exfoliation domes and elevated . terraces of older flood plains Plateau

, is deeply dissected around it edges giving rise to steep escarpments . locally known as Ghats Higher

plateaus have flat laterite capped .summits know as Pats

The Garhjat Hills in Orissa extend from southern border of the Ranchi

.Plateau upto the Mahanadi river

- (Mahanadi Basin Chhattisgarh )basin

600Low lying tract with elevation of 100 to m and surrounded by hills in , : all sides Dandkaranya Fegion Lying

south of Chhattisgarh basin and .drained Indravati river

- The peninsular plateau continue ,into North East as Shillong Plateau the gap separating these two

plateaus is known as Rajmaha Garo

EAST COASTAL PLAIN- Located between the Eastern Ghats

and the Bay of Bengal coast- (Comparatively broader average

80100 )width Km- , Big rivers like the Mahanadi the

, Godavari the Krishna and the Cauvery have formed large deltas

- Lagoons are comparatively less in this plain

- The eastern plain has more or less a straight coast where good ports .are lacking

- ,Mostly of emergent type , characterized by offshore bars fine

, sea beaches sand ridges and .lagoons : - Western Coastal Plain This straight

coast is quite indented and is ( marked by caves small sheltered

' ) recess in the coast and creeks ( small tidal inlets or estuaries of

)small streams Gujarat plains built up of alluvium of

, , the Sabarmati Mahi Narmada and .the Tapti rivers Only on the Malabar Coast it is that , there are a number of lakes lagoons

and backwaters locally called the . : ,Kayals Eastern Coast f From N to S

the coastal plains are known as the , Utkal Andhra and the Tamil Nadu , , ,Plains it has lakes like Chilka Koleru

.and Pulicat- ,The islands of Srisailam

Srirangapattamand Sivasamudram .are found in the Kaveri basin :More on Western Ghats

- 1600Length Kni- These block mountains were

formed due to the down warping of a part of the land into the Arabian

. 16 Sea Up to ° N latitude they are mainly composed of basalt

- , ,Harishchandra Mahabaleshwar Kalsubai and Salher are important

. peaks in this region Thalghat and Bhorghat are the important passes

for roads and railways- South of Goa they are composed of

granites and gneisses and have .more rugged topography

- 1220 . Average elevation is m Few 1500 ,peaks are above m like

(1892) Kudremukh and Pushpagiri (1714) fin the Nilgiris the Eastern

( )Ghats join the Sahyadris W Ghats to form a mountain knot where

(2637 )highest point is Doddabetta m South of Nilgiri lies the Palghat Gap which connects Tamil Nadu with , Kerala South of Palghat Anaimudi

(2695 ) , m is a knot which is joined by , . three hills viz the Anaimalai hills

(1800-2000 ) , m in the north the Palni (9001200 ) . . hills m in the N E and the

Cardamom or Elamalai hills in the , south The Anaimalai constitutes a series of plateau with rolling

. topography Here hill slopes support , , tea coffee cinchona and Kodaikanal (2195 ) hill station m is located on the

,southern edge of the Palni hills Tambraparni has it source near

Agastya Malai forming a series of ( waterfalls Bajiatirtham and )Papanasam

:More on Eastern Ghats Depict True Mountain characteristic

between Mahnadi and Godavari ( ( ),peaks Nimalgiri Koraput

( ) Mahendragiri Ganjam Dominant : (rocks Khondalites metamorphosed

) sedimentary and Charnokites ( )intursive rocks resembling granites

Between the Krishna River and Chennai they continue as the

Kondavidu hills mainly composed of .Quartzites and Slates

(9001100 ) The Nallamalai m and Palkonda hills are composed of .Cuddapah and Kurnool formations

Their continuation is to be seen in , the Javadi Shevroy and Biligiri

Rangam hills of Salem and .Coimbatore

( ) Nilgiris blue mountains provide the converging site for three mountain

: ranges the Sahyadri joining opposite ; of the Makurti peak the Southern

Ghats across the Palghat in the

south and the Eastern Ghats in the .north eastern corner

Rivers of India1. : , Indus Rises Tibet Near

. Mansarovar lake Direction of flow West and Northwest and falls into

11,65,000Arabian Sea Drainage Area km2, 32,190 India has a share of km2

2. : Jhelum Rises Verinag at the . foothills of Pirpanjal Direction of flow

Northwards from direction and meets .Chambal near Sawai Madhopur

3. : Son Originates from the . Amarkantak Plateau It merges into

Ganga as its right bank tributary .near Ramnagar

4. : Ramganga It rises in the Kumaoun . Himalayas Enters the Ganga plain

. near Kalagarh It joins the left bank .of the Ganga near Kannauj

5. : Sarda It rises in the Eastern Himalayas and is known as Kali in , Himalayas the Sarda in Pilibhit and

Kheri districts and Chauka before it joins the right bank of the Ghaghara . near Bahramgaht The Sarda runs along the IndoNepal boundary and . leaves Himalayas at Brahmdeo

6. : , Ghaghara Rises in Karnali is of Himalayan origin and crosses the

western part of the Nepal Himalayas ( )and joins Ganga near Chapra Bihar

. as its left bank tributary The Rapti ' . joins Ghaghara s left bank at Barhaj

7. : , Gandak Rises near China Nepal boundary and enters Champaran

( ) Bihar and joins the left bank of the .Ganga at Sonepur

8. : Kosi Rises in Nepal and joins the left bank of Ganga at Karagola near

. Bhagalpur The rivers is notorious for , shifting its course leads to floods

' and hence known as the Sorrow of

'Bihar

9. : ,Damodar Rises in the Palamu dist ( ).in Chota Nagpur plateau Jharkand ' It is better known as the Sorrow of

' ,Bengal and joins the Bhagirathi Hugly in West Bengal

10. : , Brahmaputra Tsangpo runs to the South along the eastern blank of

Namcha Barwa and crosses the , Assam Himalayas under the name of Dhiang and enters Assam valley and

.called Brahmaputra , ,Tributaries are Subanshi Bharati

,Manas on the right bank and Dibang , , Luhit BariDihing Dhansiri Kapili on

, : 3,40,000the left bank Drainage area km2 . in India In Bangladesh it is

known as Meghna

11. : Cauvery Rises Brahmagiri range of ( .)Western Ghats Coorg dist

( ). : Karnataka Direction of flow to Bay ( , ); of Bengal East South East It is

' '. : called Ganga Daksin Tributaries on : ,left bank Ilemavati and Shinusha

. : ,Arkavati On right bank Kabani . Bhavani and Amaravati Drainage

: 87,900area km2

12. : Krishna Rises Near , Mahabaleshwar Western Ghats

( ). : Maharashtra Direction of flow flows through Satara and Dangli districts

, of Maharashtra northern Karnataka ,and southern Andhra Pradesh

: , ,Tributaries Kaya Malprabha , , .Ghatprabha Bhima Tungbhadra

: 2,51,830Drainage Area km2

13. : Godawari Rises inTrimbak plateau ( ) near Nasik Maharashtra and flows

eastward in the gorge upto Nasik . : town Direction of flow It drains

eastern and south eastern It is the longest river in Indian

. ,Peninsula Tributaries left bank Darna , , ,Penganga Wardha Wenganga , , , ,Indravati Sabri Pravara Purna

, , . :Manpla Maner Pranhita Right bank

.Manjra

14. : Mahanadi Rises in Dandkaranaya .and Southern part Chhattisgarh

: Direct on of flow after flowing , northwards it receives Sheonath in

.bank a little above Sheonarayan , , Tributaries Sheonath Hasdeo Mand

, on left bank and Jank Ung Tel on . : 1,41,600right bank Drainage area km2

15. : Narmada Rses in Amarkantak in . :Madhya Pradesh Drainage area

98,786 km2 : ,Tributaries Burhner Tawa , , , , ,Sher Dudli Shakkar Hiran Tedoni , , , , ,Brrna Anjal Machak Kundi Joi . Karyan The famous wasrfall

' ' Dhuandhar is on Nirmada River . near Jabalpur The river forms an

.Estuary at the mouth of the sea

16. : : ( )Tapti Rses in Multai Betul dis . ( ). :M P Satpura Range Tributaries

, , . ;Gomai janjal Arunavati Left bank , , , .Veghar Girna Puma Pujhara

65,145Drainage area m2

17. Luni Rises in Annasagar in Ajmer .( ). :cst RajasJfian Drainage are

42,240km2 This river drains into Rann . , , of Kutch Tributaries Bandi Sutri and

Jawai

18. : Sabarmati Rises in JaiSamand lake ,( ), in Udaipur dist Rajasthan Drainage

: 21,674area km2 ,Tributaries Wakal , , .Harrow Neshwa Hathmati

19. : : Subarnrekha Rises Interposed .between Ganga and Mahanadi 19500Drainage area km2

20. : Mahi Rises in Aravallis in Udaipur . dist Direction south southwest into the Gulf of Cambay

21. : Pennar Rises in Kolar dist ( ). Karnataka Direction flows through a

gorge of Cuddappah and enters the .sea near the city of Nellore

22. : . .Ken Rises in Vindhyas in M P Direction flow northwards to join

.Yamuna

Lakes and Lagoons- Largest fresh water lake in India

( )Wular Jammu and Kashmir- Largest fresh water lake in

Rajasthan Jaisamand- Largest lake in Rajasthan Sambhar- ' Asia s largest brackish water lake

( )Chilka orissa Some important Lakes , Pulicat Lake Andhra Pradesh

, Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh

, Loktak Lake Manipur

, Lonar Lake Maharashtra

( ),Nakki Lake Mount Abu Rajasthan Deedwana Lake Deedwana

( ),Rajasthan , Panchbhadra Lake Rajasthan

( ), Dal Lake Srinagar J and K

,Lingtzi Tang Jammu and Kashmir ,Tso Murari Jammu and Kashmir

. , Govind Vallabh Gagar U P

, Pichola Lake Rajasthan

, Sukhna Chandigarh

.Ashtamudi Kerala

Sources of Irrigation- Mainly three types of sources are

.used for irrigation purposes in India ( These are Wells including tube ),wells .Tanks and Canals

- 55.68% of the total irrigated area is ( irrigated by Wells Including tube

)well and pumping sets- 32.04% Canals irrigate about of the

total irrigated land- 5.8%, 6.47% Tanks contribute and is

.contributed by other sources- Uttar Pradesh has the largest

.number of tube wells in the country

5 Top states using Tank irrigation

Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh

OrissaMaharashtraKerala

5 Top states using Canal irrigation

: 94.3%Jammu and Kashmir : 63.3%Assam : 49.8%Haryana

: 45.4%Orissa : 41.3%Karnataka

5 Top states using Well irrigation

Gujarat Uttar Pradesh

Rajasthan Punjab

Maharashtra

Total Irrigated land area under ( ,000 )Canals in Hectares

: 3,075Uttar Pradesh : 1,796Madhya Pradesh : 1,539Andhra Pradesh

: 1,497Rajasthan : 1,375Haryana

Total Irrigated land area under ( , 000 )Tanks in Hectares Andhra Pradesh

Tamil Nadu Maharashtra

Orissa WestBengal

Canals- Punjab and Haryana Upper Bari

( ) Doab Ravi Western Jamuna Canal ( )Jamuna

( ) Sirhind Canal Sutlej Bhakra Canal ( ) (Bhakradam Nangal Canal Nangal

) ( ) dam Upper Bari Doab Jamuna of

Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh ( ) Lower Ganga Canal Ganga Upper ( ) Ganga Canal Ganga Eastern Jamuna ( )Canal Jamuna ( ) Agra Canal Jamuna Sharda Canal

( ) ( . ) Sharda longest canal of U P Betwa ( ) -Canal Betwa Bihar

( )Son Canal Son ( )Triveni Triveni

- Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh ( ) Mahanadi Canal Mahanadi Waiganga

( ) Canal Waiganga Tandula Canal ( ) Tandula- : Rajasthan Indira Gandhi Canal ( , ), ( )Satluj Beas Jawai Project Jawai- West Bengal Maymurakshi Project Kangabasti- : Maharashtra Pravara river Canal ( ) ( ) Pravara Nira Canal Yelwandi Mutha

( )Canal Mutha- Andhra Pradesh Kurnool

Cuddappah Canal Pochampad Project Kadam Project

Bukingham Canal Longest navigable . ( canal in India Godawari Cauvery ) Delta

- Tamil Nadu Grand Anicut Canal Vadavar Canal Lower Bhawani

Manimutthar Parambikulu Aliyar- Orissa Taldanda Canal Hirakund Project- Kerala Periyar Project Malam Puzhar- : Karnataka Ghatprabha Valley

Scheme Bhadra Project Malprabha Project- Gujarat Mahi project Kadana

project Dantiwada Project Ukai Project

Climate The climate of India belongs to the

' '. Tropical monsoon type Although a sizeable part of the country lying

north of the tropic of Cancer falls in the northern temperature zone but the shutting effects of the Himalayas and the existence of the Indian

Ocean have played significant role in giving India a distinctive

characteristics of Salient features of :the Indian climate

1. Seasonal Reversal of winds Winter season Winds blow from NE

to SW Summer season Winds blow from SW

to NE2. Formation of Alternatively High

and Low Pressure Areas over the .land

Winter season due to low temperature conditions high pressure

. area is formed Summer season Intense heating of the land leads to

the formation of thermally induced low pressure cell over NW part of .the country

3. Seasonal and Variable Rainfall 80% Over of annual rainfall is

obtained during the five month of .the rainy season

There is variability in rainfall so far .time and place are considered There is considerable spatial

variation in the general distribution .of rainfall

4. Plurality of Seasons That is constantly changing weather

conditions5. Characterized by National

.Calamities- ' ' The word Monsoon is derived from

' ' the Arabic word Mausim Monsoon is flow pattern of the general

atmosphere circulation over a wide , geographical area in which there is

a clearly dominant wind in one direction in every port of the region , concerned but in which this (prevailing direction is reversed or

) almost reversed from winter to summer and from summer to

."winter

Concepts of the origin of Monsoon1. :Thermal concept From Classical

(1686)Theory of Hally- Generated by the differential

seasoned heating of continental and . oceanic areas High pressure is

(developed over the continent near ), Lake Baikal and Peshawar where

low pressure over southern Indian

. ocean Therefore outflow of air from the high pressure land areas to the low pressure areas resulting into NE

Monsoon

2. -Aerological Concept Given by . a German Meterologist R Seherhag

(1948) According to him the changes in the

direction of winds at all levels in the atmosphere are directly related to

the temperature changes in the air .above the friction layer

3. Dynamic Concept-Propounded (1951): by Flohn Based on the

.dynamic origin of monsoons According to him monsoon is the

seasonal migration of planetary winds and presure belts following the

. sun Over the land the annual temperature changes are relatively

larger because of which the seasonal shifts of temperature and pressure . 4belts amount to many degrees Due to the shifting the major part of the Indian subcontinent comes under

.impact of Equatorial Westerlies During winter due to southward shifting of pressure and wind belt

( he planetary system of northeast trade winds is established over the . region Hence this theory explains

the existence of monsoon not by the , temperature contrasts between land

, and sea but by the annual migration of thermally produced planetary

. winds and pressure belts

4. ( ) Recent Concepts a Jet Streams

Jet streams are high altitude ( . . geostrophic winds i e blowing

) parallel to equator blowing between middle latitude at high speed in a

.meandering course During winter season the upper air westerly jet streams are positioned

. in Asia These are bifurcated in two branches due to Tibet Himalayan

. obstruction North branch blows north of Himalayas and the Tibetan

. Plateau Southern branch blows south of the mighty mountains The southern branch inscribes an

( ) anticyclone Clockwise arc across Afghanistan followed by a cyclonic

( ) Anticlockwise are along the . southern flank of the Himalayas A

high pressure system gets formed south of the jet stream over

Afghanistan and NW Pakistan where air tends to subside leading to

atmospheric stability and dry conditions there by causing NE

. winter monsoons The jet stream helps disturbances in the NW of the

, subcontinent which tend to follow paths immediately beneath the jet . stream These disturbances move

long the eastern Mediterranean and into NW India appearing here as

waves rather then as well developed .frontal cyclones During summer season as sun falls

vertically over the Tropic of Cancer the polar surface high pressure is

weakened and upper air circum polar whirl shift northward as a result of which the upper air westerly jet are

also withdrawn from southern slopes .of the Himalayas The removal of jet stream to north

of the Tibetan plateau results in reversal of the curvature of How of

free air to the north and north west . of the subcontinent This event may

well be the trigger that sets off the ' ' .burst of the monsoon

( ) b Tibet Plateau4 1973, In the Monsoon Expedition ( ) MONEX was organized under the

joint auspices of the erstwhile Soviet . Union and India Experiments

concluded that summer time heating of Tibetan Highland plays a dominant role in the origin of Monsoon

. 4 circulation Due to its protected 23height Tibetan plateau receives °C

more insolation than the neighboring . areas The plateau affects the

( ) atmosphere in two ways a as a ( ) mechanical barrier and b as a high

. level heat sources Infact the plateau accentuates the northland . 4displacement of the jet stream

The summer time heating of the Tibetan Plateau makes it a high level

, heat source which produces thermal , anticyclone over this region thereby weakening the western subtropical

jet stream south of the Himalayas .and intensifying the move of S W

.monsoon

( ) c Effect because of ocean El Nino a warm ocean current

appears along the Peru coast in . December It replaces the Peru or Humboldt Cold Ocean current flowing

.over this region during normal years Under normal times the layer over

the eastern Pacific is cool and , shallow while over the western

. Pacific it is warm and deep Such conditions are helpful for strong . southwest monsoons The appearance of El Nino reverses the

( conditions warm condition over eastern Pacific and cold in western

). Pacific Since El Nino represents large atmospheric perturbations to which the ocean responds with warm

, of colder surface temperature it , lands to extreme events such as

, .drought flood and poor monsoons The Southern Oscillation is the name

ascribed to a seesaw pattern of meteorological changes that are

,often observed between the Pacific the pressures over the Indian Ocean , . tend to be low and vice versa The

oscillation was discovered by Sir Gilber Walker and is therefore also " ". known as Walker circulation The

oscillation has a period varying from 27 . years The intensity of the

Southern Oscillation is measured by the difference in sea level pressures

of Tahiti and Port Darwin El Nino Southern Oscillations

( ) :d The Somali Current It is one , of the few currents which reverse its

.direction with the overlying wind

Summer Flows northward Winters Flows southward

Weather conditions

Cold Weather Season Southerly branch of the jet stream occupies its ,position south of the Himalayas

which is accompanied with the restoration of light northeast trade

( ) ,winds monsoons to the surface withdrawal of the inter tropical , convergence zone formation of anti

cyclonic cell over north western India , and dry weather prevailing over most of the areas in the country

: Temperature conditions General increase of temperature from North

, to South Isotherms run almost ( parallel to the latitudes in January

21 the °C isotherm runs through the middle of the country connecting

)Tapti estuary to the Mahanadi delta . ,in the east West India Punjab

. Haryana West U P and Northern 15 . Rajasthan Less than °C

, In South India the isotherm tend to bend southward and run parallel to

. the coast The western coast is warmer than the eastern one by

. about LT C This season is characterized by the inflow of

depression from the west and the . North West These low pressure

systems originate in West Asia near the Mediterranean Sea and are

.known as Western Disturbances Their average frequency is four to

five depressions per month and highly intensified Between December

. ( and February Rainfall due to these disturbances is highly helpful for

) , ,RABI crops Fine weather clear skies , , low humidity absence of rainfall low

temperature and a large diurnal

variation in it are the usual features .of the winter season

- North East parts of India also get .some rainfall during this season

A low pressure area occupies the northern parts of the Bay of Bengal

, during October which moves southward and get deflecting

, towards the coromandal coast thereby producing rains on this

. coast The presence of inter tropical convergence and the easterly

depression are responsible for these . rains Hot and Dry Weather is

characterized by low pressure , system high temperature unstable . -pressure and wind circulation The

,dust storms of Punjab and Haryana , the Loos of UP the Norwesters

( ) . Kalbaisakhis of W Bengal and cyclonic depressions of the eastern

coast produce a stormy and .turbulent weather

- The rains caused by thunderstorm 'in Karnataka are called Cherry

'. Blossoms These are beneficial for . coffee plantation Elsewhere in South

'India they are known as Mango 'Showers

- Dry and dusty westerly winds flow in the northern western parts of the

country which make the outdoor life . difficult are known as Loo The Wet : Season The southern branch of the western jet is withdrawn from south

of the Himalaya thereby leading to the formation of a dynamic

depression over the surface thermal . low The ITC shifts northwards

allowing equatorial westerlies to in .the subcontinent

- Indian subcontinent receives bulk ( 80%) of its rainfall around from the

southwest- The Arabian Sea current causes

,rainfall all along the Western Coast , , ,Western Ghats Gujarat Maharashtra

. .parts of M P and Rajasthan- While crossing the Sahyadris

( ), Western Ghats the monsoonal current produce heavy rainfall on the

windward and scanty rainfall on the leeward side thereby producing a

. rain shadow area The rainfall is also , erratic on the leeward side which results in frequent drought in

Maharashtra and Karnataka

- The Tamil Nadu coast goes dry in .this season

- The Arabian Sea branch meets the Bay of Bengal branch over

ChhotaNagpur Plateau producing .copious rainfall

- Absence of moutain barrier in , Kutch parallel position of the , Aravalli effect of the hot and dry air results in failure of Arabian Sea .branch to produce adequate rainfall

,The Bay of Bengal branch obstructed by the eastern hill is

deflected westward towards the . Ganga Plain Entrapped in the valleys

, of Meghalaya the current produces [very heavy rainfall Cherapunji

(1087 ) (1141 )]cm and Mawsynram cm

- The weather is also affected by a number of cyclonic depressions entering the country through the Bay

.of Bengal and the Arabian Sea 20 25 About to such depressions

.develop during monsoon period- & With the exception of J K and

, Parts of Tamil Nadu most of the .country receives heavy rainfall Season of Retreating Monsoon

- South West begins to retreat from the second or third week of

.September

- , Unlike the Sudden burst the . retreat is highly gradual

- The southerly branch of the jet stream returns to its winter position

by October and this is accompanied by the restoration of

light North East trade winds to the .surface

- Cloudiness and moisture are low except in the southern parts of the

.Peninsula- It is this retreating monsoon which

brings rain to the Tamil Nadu coast .as North East Monsoon

SOIL WEALTH The Indian council of Agricultural

Research has indentified eight main .types of soil in the country

(%)Soil cover in India1. 43.4Alluvial Soil2. 18.6RedSoil3. 15.2BlackSoil4. 12.2Lateritic Soil5. 17.9OtherSoil

: The main soil types are :ALLUVIAL SOIL 15 It covers lakh

2 Km SOIL WEALTH The Indian council of Agricultural

Research has indentified eight main .types of soil in the country

(%)Soil cover in India1. 43.4Alluvial Soil2. 18.6RedSoil3. 15.2BlackSoil4. 12.2Lateritic Soil5. 17.9OtherSoil

: The main soil types are : ALLUVIAL SOIL 15 It covers lakh

Km2 .of area- , ,Greater parts of Rajasthan Punjab

, . , , ,Haryana U P parts of Assam Orissa . , W Bengal valleys of Narmada and

Tapi- 600 Depth of soil exceeds m below

the ground surface- ; Divided into newer and older finer

and newer alluvium is called Khadar - Khadar is light coloured and is less

kankary- : Bhangar older alluvium more

clayey in composition and generally ; of dark colours also becomes

;Alkaline and is called Bhurs- Khadar soils are more sandy in

composition that Bhangar soils1. The fertility of the soil is because : of the following reasons Lit is due to

more mixing up the debris from the rocks of the Himalayas rather that

the prevalence of nitrogenous

.matters or humus2. These soils are composed of

material drawn from different rocks and therefore contain a great variety

. of salts3. ,These soils are very fine grained

highly porous and light so that they are easily tilled and are therefore the best agricultural soils of the

.country: , , ,Crops rice sugarcane tobacco , , , , ,banana cotton wheat jute maize .oilseeds and vegetables

:RED and YELLOW SOIL It covers 6.1 about lakh km2 .of area

- , ,Western Tamil Nadu Karnataka , ,Southern Maharashtra Chhattisgarh

, Andhra Pradesh Orissa and .Chotanagpur plateau of Jharkhand

Scattered patches can be found in ( . ), , ,Birbhum W Bengal Mirzapur Jhansi

, ( . ), ,Banda Hamirpur U P Udaipur , , Chiltisgarh Dungarpur Banswara and

. ( )Bhilwara dist Rajasthan- The colour is mainly due to ferric

oxides occuring as thin coatings on the soil particles while the iron oxide

occurs as haematite or as hydrous , ferric oxide the colour is red and when it occurs in the hydrate form

as limonite the soil gets a yellow colour- ,These soils are poor in phosphorus

nitrogen and lime contents and are .acidic like laterite

- Red soils develop generally on metamorphic rocks

- It is sandier and less clayey- It is rich in potash

:BLACK OR REGUR SOILS - It 5,46,000 covers an area of Km2

- . , ( ,Tracts in A P Maharashtra Tapi , ),Godavri Bhima and Krishna

( , , ,Karnataka Bijapur Gulbarga Bidar , ),Belgaum Dharwar and Raichur

( , , ), .Gujarat Surat Bharuch Vadodra M P ( , Narmada Vindhya and Satpura

), , ( ,plateau Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Kota , ); . ( , ,Bundi Jhalawar U P Jalawn Hamirpur ) - Banda and Jhansi The black colour

is due to the presence of titaniferous magnetite compound of iron and

. aluminum silicate It is also believed that black colour is due to admixture .with humus on cultivation

- , , These are rich in iron lime calcium and magnesium carbonate and

. alumina Black soils are poor phosphorous and nitrogen

- The soil is clayey and fine texture : ,with dark colour Crops cotton , , , , wheat chilies linseed jawar Virginia , , tobacco castor millets

- It develop cracks in hot weather- Black soils are ideal for dry

farming due to their moisture .retentive quality

- It becomes sticky due to high percentage of clay and so difficult to

. plough

:LATERITIC SOILS- 1.26 It covers an area about lakh km2

- Laterite is a typical soil of the tropical regions which receives heavy .seasonal rainfall

- Iron and aluminum compounds dominate in its composition

- . ( ,It is found in W Bengal Midnapur , ),Burdwan Birbhum and Bankura

( ),Orissa Cuttack and Ganjam ( , ,Maharashtra Ratnagiri Satara

, .), Kolaba Kanara dist Karnataka ( , , , ),Shimoga Hasan Kadur Mysore

( ) Kerala Malabar- The soils are generally poor in

, nitrogen potassium and organic matters

- Fertilizers are necessary- Cannot retain moisture while in

plains they consist of heavy loam and clay and easily retain moisture: , , ,Crops rice ragi sugarcane

cashewnuts

:SALINE OR ALKALINE SALTS- 68,000 It covers an area of km2

- ,Tracts in Rann of Kutch , , , ,Sundarbanns Bihar UP Haryana

, Punjab Rajasthan and Maharashtra- :It is known by different names

, , , , , Thur Reh Kallar Rakar Usar Kari and Chopan

- Texturally they are sandy to loamy sand- Alkaline soils are deficient in

calcium and nitrogen- Peaty saline soils are called Kari in Kerala- : , Main salts calcium sodium and

magnesium these soils can be reclaimed by providing good

drainage applying lime or gypsum and cultivating salt resistant crops

( , )like berseem rice and sugarcane - These soils are utilized in the

cultivation of a wide variety of crops , , , like rice wheat cotton sugarcane . and tobacco etc

: MOUNTAIN SOILS It is of three ) : types a Brown Forest Soils height

900-1800 ; m rich in humus and are fertile) : 1800 ( ); b Podzol m height thick

, , coniferous forest maize wheat and : orchids phosphoric content

) : c Alpine Meadow Soil sandy loam- These soils are silty loam to loam in texture and dark brown in colour

- ,These are found in hills of deccan , , eastern ghats western ghats valley

.and hill slopes of Himalayas etc- ,These are deficient in potash

phosphoric acid and lime

:DESERT SOILS- 14,200It covers an area of km2

- , , Tracts in Rajasthan Haryana south , of Punjab Thar desert occupies and

1,06,000 area of alone- Clay content is poor and is less

8%than- These are reddish brown- -Sandy soils are called Bhur Rich in phosphates and poor in nitrogen

- Contains high content of soluble salts but low moisture content

- The soil is sandy to gravelly- These soils may be reclaimed with

the proper development of irrigation , facilities For example the

Ganganagar district benefited by the

Indira Gandhi Canal has become a leading producer of cereal and .cotton: , Crops millets jawar bajra jowar and coarse grains

PEATY AND MARSHY SOIL -These soils occur mainly in the western parts of Kottayam districts and parts

( ) . peaty of Alappuzha dist of Kerala - Soil are black and heavy and highly

.acidic- , Highly saline rich in organic matter

but deficient in phosphate and . - potash Marshy soils are found in

,the coastal regions of Orissa . ; W Bengal and Tamil Nadu Central

portion of North Bihar and in Almora .district of Uttaranchal

- Marshy soils are the result of water logging anaerobic condition of the

, soils and the presence of iron and . varying amount of organic matter

: SOIL EROSION

Factors influencing soil erosion Rainfall

Slope of topographyVegetationTillage

Nature of the soil Soil moisture Wind velocity

Causes of soil erosionDeforestation

Faulty cultivation methods Shifting cultivation

Overgrazing Diversion of natural drainage channels by railway embankments

and roads Lack of proper surface drainage

Forest fires Effects of Soil Erosion Loss of top

soil Harmful effects of erosion on .organic matter and soil structure Decline in soil capacity Depostion of

sand and gravel on agricultural land

Flooding of streams

Methods to check soil erosion )a Biological Measures Improving the

existing surface cover Strip cropping Crop rotation Stubble mulching

Vegetative binding Using organic (manures Other measures checking

, ,overgrazing reducing surplus cattle stripping shifting cultivation and

taking preventative measures against )forest fires

) : b Mechanical Measures Contour , , ,tillage Contour bunding Terracing

Constructing proper drainage ,channels and plugging the gullies

, ,Basin lifting Water harvesting .Scientific slope management

( 2) Forest Cover areawise Km1. 1,31,195Madhya Pradesh2. 68,602Arunachal Pradesh3.0 46,941rissa4. 46,143Maharashtra5. 43,290Andhra Pradesh6. 32,403Karnataka7. 26,524Bihar8. 23,824Assam9. & 20,440Jammu Kashmir10. 18,775Mizoram11. 17,418Manipur12. 15,657Meghalaya13. 14,221Nagaland14 12,578Gujarat15. 12,521Himachal Pradesh16. 10,334Kerala17. 1,387Punjab18. 1,255Goa19. 1,604Haryana

(% Forest Cover of the total )area

1. 89.06Mizoram2. 85.78Nagaland3. 81.92Arunachal Pradesh4 78.04Manipur5 69.80Meghalaya6 33.90Goa7. 30.37Assam8 30.15Orissa9 29.58Madhya Pradesh

. 26.59lO Kerala

11. 22.49Himachal Pradesh12. 16.89Karnataka13. 15.74Andhra Pradesh14. 15.25Bihar15. 14.99Maharashtra16 & 09.20Jammu Kashmir17. 06.41Gujarat18. 02.75Punjab19. 01.37Haryana- (1890)Botanical survey of India

Kolkata- (1916)Zoological survey of India Kolkata- (1981)Forest survey of India

. Dehradun Its four zonal offices are , ,located at Bangalore Kolkata , .Nagpur Simla

BIOSPHERE RESERVES- To preserve the genetic diversity in

representative ecosystem- 13 So far Biosphere Reserve have

1. : been set up NandaDevi Uttaranchal

2. : , NilgirisTamil Nadu Kerala Karnataka3. : 4. :Lokrek Meghalaya Great Nicobar

Nicobar Island5. : Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu6. : Manas Assam7. : Sunderbans West Bengal8. : Simlipal Orissa9, : Dibru Daikhowa Assam

. - lO Dehang Debang Arunachal Pradesh11. : Kanchenjunga Sikkim12. : Agasthyamalai Kerala- Three of them are recognized on

world network of Biosphere Reserve , , by UNESCO Nilgiris Sunderban Gulf Of Mannar

WETLANDS , Jammu and Kashmir Wular Tsomurari

, Himachal Pradesh Chandratal Pong , , dam Renuka

, , Punjab Harike Konili Ropar . , Rajasthan Keoldeo Sambhar Pichola

: ,Others Gujarat Nalsarovar , ,Maharashtra Ujni Kerala Ashtamudi

, Vembanad Sastham Kotta : , Chandigarh Sukhna Madhya Pradesh

, , Bhoj Bihar Kabar West Bengal East

, ,Calcutta Wet land Orissa Chilka , ,Gahirmatha Andhra Pradesh Kolleru

, -Manipur Loktak Tamil Nadu Point Calimere

CORAL REEFS Four coral reefs have been

indentified for conservation and . : management These are Gulf of

( ) Mannar fringing reef Andaman and ( )Nicobar Islands fringing reef

( ) Lakshdweep Islands atoll reef Gulf ( )of Kutch platform reef

MANGROVES Salt tolerant forest ecosystems found

mainly in the tropical and sub tropical inter tidal regions of the

world Northern Andaman and Nicobar Islands Sunderbans

( . ) ( )W Bengal Bhitakanika Orissa ( ) Mahanadi delta Orissa Coringa

( )Krishna estuary Andhara Pradesh ( )Godavari delta Andhara Pradesh

( ] Pichavaram Tamil Nadu Point ( ) Calimere Tamil Nadu Goa

( ) Gulf of Kachchh Gujarat Coondapur ( ) ( ) Karnataka Vembanad Kerala Achra

( )Ratcagiri Maharastra

Multipurpose Projects

1. Bhakra Nangal Project- it is the largest in India on Sutlej

. ' ,River It s a joint venture of Punjab .Harayana and Rajasthan

- :it has five purposes Two dams at Bhakra and Nangal

Nangal hydel channel 1,204 Powerhouse of MW

Electric transmission Bhakra canal system for irrigation ,Bhakra Dam is near Roopnagar

. 226 Ropar dist The dam is m in , 518 , 312 height m in length m in ; width behind it is Govind Sagar . 13 Lake Nangal Dam km from Bhakra , 29 , 305 ,dam its height is m length m 121 .and width m

- 64.4 ,Nangal Hydel Channel km long 42.65 6.28 m wide and m deep- 1204 Powerhouse of MW first near

. , Gangunal Second Kotla third near Roopnagar and fourth and fifth near .Bhakradam

- 171 ,Bhakra canal km long (46.7%),maximum water at Haryana

(37.7% then Punjab and then (15.6%) Rajasthan

2. Damodar Valley Project- Damodar is a tributary of Hughly

. river in Bengal and has four dams It 19 1948 was setup on th Feb on the

. . , recommendation of WL Vordouin the .person who setup TVA in America

: The four dams are Tilaiya dam on ; 1950 Basakar River started in and

1953. 366 ,completed in Its length is m 30 . and maximum width is m It is the . only concrete dam in the area It has 2,000 .two power stations of KW each

- Konar dam on Konar River is in . 3549 , Hazarihagh m long maximum

49 , 1955. height m completed in It supplies electricity to Bokaro Steel

. Project Maithan dam on the confluence of Basakar and Damodar

, 994 Rivers m long and maximum 49 , 1958,height is m completed in

60 .capacity is MW- ,Panchet hill dam on Damodar river

1959, 2545completed in dam is m 49 ,long and maximum height is m

40 . , generates MW In addition three more dams have not being

, .completedBel Pahari and Bokaro 23 ,Durgapur Barrage km from Raniganj

4 stores irrigation water of DVC , 83 12 .dams it is lm long and m high

3. :Hirakud Dam 61 , 4801m high m , ( )long on Mahandi rivers orissa

- It is the largest dam in India and one of the largest dams of the world with the gross storage capacity of

8100 .Million cubic meters- Two more dams have been built on

Mahanadi Tibrapar and Naraj

4. Kosi Project- 1955 It was started in with give

:objectivesIrrigation

Flood control Power generation

Land reclamation Fishing and Navigation

- There are three units at this Kosi Project A barrage near Hanumannagar

( ), 1149 72 ,Nepal m long m high 1965.Constructed in

, 1959,Flood embankments built 270 , 43.5km Eastern Kosi canal km

, 20 , long a powerhouse of MW has , been installed which is shared by .both India and Nepal

5. Rihand Valley Project -934m . 92 long m high dam on river Rihand

), a tributary of Son near Pipri in Mirzapur- , Govind Ballabh PantSagar is the

.largest map made reservoir in India- One more project has been built at

.Ovea on Rihand River

6. Chambal Valley Project- . It is a joint venture of M P and

1954 Rajasthan started in on ( )Chambal River tributary of Yamuna

- In the first stage the dam was 64 514 , m high and m long was called

, Gandhi Sagar Dam it is in , chaurasigarh near Bhanpura built in

1960.- , In the second stage one more

54 dam was built which was m high 1143 and m long was named

. 56Ranapratap Masonry Dam It is km .from Rawatbhata

- , In the third stage the dam was 548 45 m long and m high called

,Jawahar Sagar dam at Kota Dam 1971.constructed in

7 . Tungbhadra Multipurpose Project- It is a joint venture of Karnataka

and Andhra Pradesh- 50 2,441The dam is m high and m

( long on Tungbhadra River a tributary )of Krishna

- . It is built in Bellary dist of Karnataka- There are canals on both sides of

.the dam- There are three power stations

.here

8. Gandak Project- .Joint venture of Bihar and U P- 7.47 This project has m long and 9.81 m high barrage at Bhansolotan in

Valmikinagar in Bihar- The project was completed in 196667- Head Regulator is at Triveni- The barrage has four canal two

each for India and Nepal

9. Narmada Valley Project- Narmada originates near

( . )Amarkantak Plateau M P- .It is the fifth largest river in India- 29 The project aims to have major

3,000 - and small dams The project 194546.was concieved in

- The largest project is Sardar Sarovar Project has the capacity of

77 lakh hectare and will provide is 17.92 irrigation to lakh hectares in

. Gujarat- Two power stations will produce 1,450 MW of hydroelectricity- Second major project is Narmada

1984.Sagar project started in

10. Nagaraiuna Sagar Project- 195556, Started in the dam is on

Krishna River in Nalgonda dist- 124.7 Its height is m and length is 1450 .m- It has two canals Jawahar on the

right and Lai Bahadur canal on the left- , 50The powerhouse has two units

. MW each

11. ( )Vyas Project BEAS- ,It is a joint venture of Punjabi

Haryana and Rajasthan- , It has two parts Beas Sutlej link

and Pong dam- 61 Beas Sutlej is m high and is in

( . ), 116 , Pandoh H P and Pong is m high .at Dhauladhar in Pong near Beas

12. Ramganga Project- Ramganga is a tributary of Ganga- Aim of the project is to provide

6 irrigation facilities to about lakh . , hectares of land in western U P to

20 supply cusecs of drinking water to Delhi and to control the floods in

.western and central U P- :This project includes 625.8 125.6 A m long and m high earth

and rock filled dam across the Ramganga river and a Saddle dam

75.6 of height m across the Ghuisot steam near Kalagarh in dist of

546 Garhwal Across the river a m long weir at Hereoli

, 82 A feeder canal km in length originating from Hereoli River 3388 Remodelling of km of existing

3880 dam and km long new branch canals A powerhouse on the river at

its right bank with an installed 198 .capacity of MW

13. Mayurakshi Project- Mayurakshi is a tributary of the

Hugh River- Purpose behind this project is four fold

Create irrigation potential Generate power Contral floods and Control

erosion- A barrage is constructed across

.the Mayurakshi River at Tilpara- Two irrigational canals are attached

with the Tilpara barrage with total 1367 length of km and providing

irrigation in West Bangal and Bihar 4,000 KW of electricity is supplied to

, Birbhum Murshidabad and Santhal , Pargana which is generated by this

.project

Multipurpose Projects

14. Indira Gandhi Canal Project- ' It is the world s largest irrigation

project to provide irrigation to semi .arid and arid regions of Rajasthan

- Water from Pong barrage built .over Beas River is being utilized

- Indira Gandhi canal once completed will provide irrigation to

12.51 about akh hectares of land in , Bikaner Jaisalmer and Ganganagar

.dist of Rajasthan- , It has two stages in the first stage

,construction of the Rajasthan feeder 189 km long Rajasthan main and

3,183 about km long distribution have . been taken The second stage

comprises the construction of the remaining part of the Rajasthan main

5,409 .canal and km long distributaries

15. Pochampad Project -This irrigation project is the second

.largest project in Andhra Pradesh- 812 43It involve m in length and m of height masonry dam on the

.Godavari River in Adilabad district- The storage capacity of the dam is 230.36 cross m3 - A canal of length 112.63 km will provide irrigation

facilities in Karimnagar and Adilabad districts

16. Tehri Dam Project- Alaknanda is the river on which

this dam is being constructed in Tehri district of Uttranchal

- Motives behind this project is to collect the flood water of the

Bhagirathi and the Bhilangana rivers in a large reservoir behind the dam

, Hydroelectricity generation To provide irrigation facilities to

. .agricultural land in the westem U P- Tehri dam has a distinction of

highest rock fill dam in the country-2,70,000 hectares of agricultural land . in western U P and Delhi with the

300 supply of cusecs is going to be

facilitated by this project2,400 MW is the installed capacity of

power generation A concrete dam at , 22 Kateshwar km away from the Tehri

dam will impound water released by , the Tehri dam from where another

400 MW of electricity will be . generated

17. Farraka Barrage Project -River Navigation and to augment the

water flow river is the main . objective of this project A barrage

, 2,240 across the Ganga River in 271 length to maintain akh cu sec of

flood discharge60,000 cusec of floodwater flow to be

maintained by a barrage across the 213 .Bhagirathi river length will be m

38.38 A feeder canal km in length to 40,000 divert cusecs of water to Hugh River Providing infrastructure to

develop river navigation and To build a rail cum road bridge to connect

.West Bengal with North East India

18. Machkund Project- It is a joint venture of Andhra

Pradesh and Orissa- 54 410 A dam of height m and m in

, length has been constructed on Machkund river

- Project includes a powerhouse with 115 MW as the installed capacity

19. Parambikulam Project- This Project is a joint venture of

Kerala and Tamil nadu- 185 Under this project MW of

1.01electricity will be generated and lakh hectare of land will be irrigated

- 8 Water of small rivers would be utilised

20. Mahi Project- , It is on Mahi River which has its

. .origin in Vindhyas in Dhardis of M P- 796 21Is stage m in length and m of height dam is being constructed

. at Banakbori village This stage also 74 1.86has km long canals to irrigate

.hectares of land- 2 nd stage construction of a dam of 1,430 58 m in length and m high to

80,000 .irrigation of area near kodana- 40 A generation of MW of

2.75 electricity with irrigation of lakh hectares of land is going to be done

.by this project

21. Kakrapara Project- .Project is in Gujarat on Tapti River- 14 Project involves a dam m high

621 and m long- 2.27 lakh hectares of land will be

irrigated with the help of two canals 505 837 .of km and km in length

22. Koyna Project- , In Maharashtra on Koyna river- Project involves construction of a

250 dam m in height

23. Hansdev Bango Project- Project involves construction of a 85 m high stone dam on Hansdev

.river in M P- 3.28 It will irrigate lakh hectares of

land and also be used for industrial purposes

24. Bargi Project- It is on river Bargi near Jabalpur in . .M P

- It is a multipurpose project once 2.45 completed will irrigate lakh

. 25, hectares of land Bhima Project- This project includes construction - of two dams One dam on river

,Pabna near Pune in Maharashtra 1,319 42whichj will be m long and m

.high- 2467Other dam with a length of m

56.4 and a height of m will be constructed on river Krishna in

.Sholapur district of Maharastra

:Some other Projects are- : Jayakwadi Project on Godavri in

.Maharashtra

- : Ukai Project on River Tapti in .Gujarat

- : Puma Project on River Puma in .Maharashtra

- : Periyar Project on River Periyar in .Kerala

- : Saharawasi Hydel Project near Jog .water falls in Karnataka

- : . . .Tawa Project on Tawa River M P- : ,Mata Teela Dam on River Betwa

; . , Jhansi U P- : .Kunda Project Tamil Nadu- : .Sabrigiri Project Kerala- : .Balimela Orissa- : Salal on River Chenab- : Kalindi Karnataka- : Idduki Kerala- : ,Bhadra on River Bhadra

.Karnataka- : Kukadi Maharashtra- : .Naptha Jhakri Himachal Pradesh- : Dulhasti Jammu and Kashmir on

.river Chenab- : , Girna on river Girna Maharashtra- : ,Jawai Project on River Jawai Rajasthan- : Jakham Project Rajasthan- : ,Parwati Project River Parwati Rajasthan- : , Orai Project River Orai Rajasthan- : Singrauli Super Power Project Uttar Pradesh

Hydroelectric Plants- : , AndhraPradesh lower silent upper

, , , ,Sileru Machkund Nizam Sagar , ( )Nagarjun Sagar Shri Sailam Krishna

- : Bihar Kosi- : ( ), ( )Gujarat Ukai Tapi Kadana Mahi- :Punjab and Himachal Pradesh

, Bhakara Nangal on Satluj Dchar on , , , , ,Beas Giri Bata Andhra Binwa Rukti

, , , Rongtong Bhabanggar Bassi Baira , , Siul Chamera Nathpa Jhakri on

( Sutlej biggest hydel power project in )India

- : , ,Jharkhand Subarnarekha Maithon , ( )Panchet Tilaiya all three under DVC

- : , ,Karnataka Tungbhadra Sarawati , ( ),Kalinadi Mahatma Gandhi Jog fall

, ( ),bhadra ShivaSamudram Kaveri , , Shimasapur Munirabad Lingnamakki

- : ( ), ,Kerala Idduki Periyar Sabrigiri , , ,Kuttiaddy Sholayar Sengulam , , ,Pallivasal Kallada Neriamangalam

, ,Parambikulam Aliyar Poringal Ponniyar- : Madhya Pradesh Gandhi Sagar ( ), , ( ),Chambal Pench Bargi Narmada BansagarTons- : , (Maharashtra Koyana Bhivpuri Tata

), , ,Hydroelectric works Khopli Bhola , , , ,Bhira Purna Vaiterna Paithon

.Bhatnagar Feed- : ( ),Orissa Hirakund Mahanadi

.Balimela- : Rajasthan Ranapratap Sagar and

( )Jawahar Sagar Chambal- : , ,Uttar Pradesh Rihand Khodri

( ).Chibro Tons- : ( )Uttaranchal Tehri Dam Bhagirathi- : , , ,Tamil Nadu Pykara Mettur Kodyar

, . , ,Sholayar Allayar Sakarpathi Moyar , .Suruliyar Papanasam

- . - West Bengal Panchet Jammu and , Kashmir Lower Jhelum Salal

( ), , .Chenab Pool Hasti and Karrah- : North Eastern States Nagaland

, , ,Dikhu Doyang Tripura Gomuti , ,Manipur Loktak Assam Kopi

Meghalaya Khandong and , Kyrdemkulai Mizoram Selrui and

, .Barabi Arunachal Pradesh Ranganadi

( ) TRANSPORT Road Transport- India has one of the largest road

networks in the world aggregating to 3.3 .about milion kilometres

-43.5% of the total roads is surfaced .roads

- Roads are classified into six classes according to their

:importance1. , 2.Golden Quadrangle Superways

, 3. ,National Highways State Highways 4. , 5. Border Roads Major District

6. Roads Rural Roads including other .district roads

- NATIONAL HIGHWAYS ( )DEVELOPMENT PROJECT NHDP

2007Target to be completed by

. 54,000 .Estimated cost of Rs Cr Project being implemented by National Highways Authority Of India

( ) : NHAI NHDP has two components

1. Golden Quadrilateral comprises the National Highways connecting the

, . , ,four metro cities viz Delhi Mumbai . Chennai and Kolkata The component

5846 has a total length of km and is scheduled for substantial completion

2003.by December

2. The North South Corridor comprises the National highways connecting

Srinagar to Kanyakumari including Kochi

Salem spur and the East West Corridor comprises the National Highways connecting Silchar to . Porbander The project has a total

7300 length of about km and is scheduled for completion by 2007.December

- National Highways These are , primary road systems which are laid

and maintained by the Central Public ( ). Works Department CPWD The total length of the National Highways is

57,700 . 1 km constitutes only two percent of the total road length but

40% .carry of the total road traffic Some important National Highways

:are 1 2 NH Delhi to Amritsar o NH Delhi 2to Kolkata £y

- 6 ,NH passes through Sambalpur Raipur and Nagpur and is the second .longest trunk route

- 7 ,NH passes through Jabalpur , , Nagpur Hyderabad Bangalore and Madurai and is the longest one with

2369 .the total length of km

State Roads- Constructed and maintained by the

.State Public Works Department- Roads linking state capital with

different district headquarters are . - state roads These roads constitute

5.6% . of total length of all roads Other Roads- These are classed as rural roads

and interlink rural areas and village .with towns

- 93% More than of the total roads . belong to this class Types Length

(,000 ) 2,465.9, 1,394.1,km All Surfaced 34.8, National Highways State 137.1Highways

- ( Density of all roads length of 1000 . )roads per sq km of area (10Lowest in Jammu and Kashmir

)km (375 ) Highest in Kerala km National (75 )Average km

- : Density of metalled roads National (42.4 ) average km Goa has the (153.8 )highest density km Jammu and Kashmir has the lowest (3.7 )density km

- Length of surface roads ( ): statewise in descending orderMaharashtra

Uttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu Kerala

West Bengal- Length of unsurfaced roads ( ): statewise in descending orderOrissa

Madhya Pradesh Uttar Pradesh

Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh

Tamil Nadu Assam

Bihar Rajasthan Karnataka

West Bengal- Total Length of Roads ( ):statewise in descending order

Maharashtra Orissa Uttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu Madhya Pradesh Andhra

Pradesh Kerala Karnataka Rajasthan Gujarat Bihar

- Length of National Highways ( ):statewise in descending order

Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan

Assam Bihar Tamil Nadu Karnataka

West Bengal Orissa Gujarat

RAIL TRANSPORT- Indian Rail transport is largest in

.Asia and fourth largest in the world- 1853The first train was started in

.from Mumbai to Thane- At present it covers the route of 62,759 .km- 12, 670 trains run everyday

6,867 . -23% connecting stations of the .total route is electrified

- There are in all 16 railway zones ZONES HQs - ( Central Mumbai Chhatrapati Shivaji

)T- Eastern Kolkata- Northern Delhi- Southern Chennai- ( )Western Mumbai Churchgate

- North East Gorakhpur. - ( )N E Frontier Malegaon Guwahati

- South East Kolkata -South Central Secundrabad

-East Coast Bhubneshwar - East Central Hajipur - North Central Allahabad - North Eastern Jaipur - South Western Bangalore - West Central Jabalpur

- Bilaspur Bilaspur

:Railways

- Units manufacturing rolling stocks :run by Indian Railways are

1. :Chittaranjan locomotive works ( . ).Chittaranjan W Bengal

2. : Diesel locomotive works Varanasi ( ). Uttar Pradesh3. : Integral Coach factory Perambur ( ). Tamil Nadu4. : Rail Coach factory Kapurthala ( ). Punjab5. : .Wheel and Axle plant Bangalore6. : Diesel Component works Patiala ( ). : 1. /Punjab Two other units are M s

( ), 2.Jessops Kolkata Bharat , ( )Earth Movers Ltd Bangalore

- : Railway Track Density

1. (-25 / . ):High Density km lOOOsq km , , , . ,Delhi Punjab Bihar W Bengal

, , ,Haryana Assam Chandigarh , , Pondicherry Tamil Nadu and Gujarat

2. (1525 / 1000Medium Density km . ): sq km this covers the western part ,of the peninsula incorporating Goa

, , Maharashtra Karnataka Andhra , . Pradesh Kerala and Rajasthan

3. (515 / 1000 . ):Low Density km sq km .eastern part of the peninsular India

Orissa and Madhya Pradesh ( , undulating topography low

population density and poor economic development have led to

.). low density of rail network

4. (<5 / 1000Very Low Density km . ): ,sq km Jammu and Kashmir

, ,Himachal Pradesh Uttaranchal , . Nagaland and Tripura The states of

, ,Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Meghalaya and UTs of Andaman and

, ,Nicobar Islands Lakshadweep Daman and Diu are devoid of rail

.lines Besides the hilly regions of the

, ( north Rajasthan desert west of ) , Jodhpur forested and hilly tracts of

the North East and the tribal areas of the central India are other such .low density areas

- Public Undertakings Five undertakings that come under

:Ministry of Railways are1. : RITES Rail India Technical and

.Economic Services Ltd2. : IRCO Indian Railways Construction

.Company Ltd3. : IRFC India Railway Finance

.Corporation Ltd4. : CONCOR Container Corporation of

.India Ltd5. : CRIS Centre for Railway

. Information System Besides these , , five undertakings Research Design ( ) and Standard Organisation RDSO at

& Lucknow is the R D wing of Indian .Railways

WATER TRANSPORT

- Inland Waterways Cheapest means . 14, 500 of transport India has km of

.navigable waterways The Inland Water Ways Authority of 1986 India was set up in for the

, regulation maintenance and .development of National Waterways

There are three National waterways : 1: in the country NW Allahabad to

-1620 .Haldia km : ( )NW Sadiya to Dhubri Brahmaputra

891 . 3 km NW TRottapuram to Kollam ( ) 205 . -west coast canal km Apart

from these three ten other .waterways have been proposed

- . (Navigable Waterways in length in ) descending order Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal Andhra Pradesh Assam Kerala Bihar

SEAWAYS The vast coastline of India is about

7516 .km . Over two million sq km of Exclusive

Economic Zone 12 184India has major ports and .minor and intermediate ports

- :Major Ports in India1. :Mumbai

.Natural harbour .Biggest port Handles petroleum products and

.cargo

2. ( . ):Nhavasheva J L NEHRU .Off the Mumbai port

Developed to release pressure of the . .mumbai port Highly mechanised

3. ( )Kandla Gujarat Developed to release pressure on

Mumbai after partition and loss of .Karachi

.It is a tidal port

4. ( )Marmagao Goa Natural harbour , ,Export handle iron ore fish products . coconut and spices Import handle , , fertilizers chemicals food articles

. etc

5, ( ): New Mangalore Karnataka Caters to export of iron ore from

,Kudremukh Also handles fertilisers , ,petroleum products edible oils

, coffee tea etc

6. ( ) Cochin Kerala Handles crude petroleum and petroleum products

along with raw materials and fetilizers Caters to the needs of

, south western Tamil Nadu South Karnataka and Kerela

7. Kolkata A riverine port It is a tidal port and requires

constant dredging of the Hooghly .River

In order to maintain a minimum level of water to ensure its

, navigability water is supplied from .the Farrakka barrage on Ganga

8. Haldia Constructed to remove the

congestion at Kolkata port It handles ,petroleum and its product , ,Engineering goods Machines

, , Chemicals Iron and Steel Jute and .Tea etc

9. ( )Paradip Orissa It handles coal and Iron ore

10. ( . )Vishakhapatnam A P , It is the deepest landlocked and

, protected port

11. Chennai One of the oldest and an artificial port on the east coast It handles , , Iron ore Fertilizers Petroleum and its

.produts and general cargo Because of the shallow waters near

, .the coast it is suited for large ships

12. ( ) Ennore Tamil Nadu Developed to

.minimize pressure on Chennai port

13. ( ) Tuticorin Tamil Nadu Deals with , , ,food grains Edible oils Sugar

, Chemicals Petroleum products and .Coal

AIR TRANSPORT ( )Airport Authority of India AAI provides for safe efficient air traffic

and aeronautical communication . services in the India Air Space The 11 Authority manages international

112 .and domestic Airports 28 It also manages passenger

.terminals at defense airfields :International Air Ports are

( Mumbai Chhatrapati Shivaji ), (International Air Port Delhi Indira

), Gandhi International Air Port Kolkata ( ), Subhash Chandra Bose Chennai ( ), Meenambakkam Trivendrium ( , Thiruvananthpuram Ahmedabad ( ),Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel Air Port

( . ), Cochin Needumbassery I A Goa ( ), (Dabolim LA Guwahati Lokpriya

), Gopinath Bardoloi LA Hyderabad ( ), , .Rajiv Gandhi LA Amritsar Banglore

Civil Aviation Training College ( ) Allahabad provides training on

.various operational areas National Institute of Aviation

( )Management and Research NIAMAR .at Delhi is managed by AAI

Indira Gandhi Rastriya Udan . Academy at Fursat Ganj in U P is an

autonomous body under Ministry of . Civil Aviation It imparts training to .the parts

BIRD SANCTUARY-Name

- Bharatpur Rajasthan - Nal Sarovar Gujarat

- Khijadiya Gujarat - Ratan Mahal Gujarat

- Ghatprabha Karnataka -Adichunchagiri Karnataka

- Ranganthitoo Karnataka - Vettangudi Tamil Nadu

- Point Calimere Tamil Nadu - Vedantangal Tamil Nadu

- Pulicat Andhra Pradesh - Kolleru Andhra Pradesh

- Neelapattu Andhra Pradesh- Sultanpur Haryana

- Chandraprabha Uttar Pradesh- Chilka Orissa

- .Pakhiralaya W Bengal

NATIONAL PARKS- : ,Jammu and Kashmir Dachigam

, Kishtwar Hemis high altitude- : Himachal Pradesh Great Himalayan- : , ,Uttaranchal Valley of flowers Rajaji

, Corbet Nandadevi- : Uttar Pradesh Dudhwa- : ( ), ,Rajasthan Desert Tihar Sariska

, ,Nahargarh Keoldeo Ghana Ranthambore- : , ,Madhya Pradesh Panna Satpura

, , Pench Bandhavgarh Kanha„Fossil- : , Chhattisgarh Sanjay Kangar

.valley- : , , ,Gujarat Marine Velvahar Gir Vansada- : , Goa Bhagwan Mahavir- : ,Maharashtra Sanjay Gandhi

, , , .Nawegaon Tadoba Indravati Panch- : , ,Karnataka Bannerghata Nagorhole

Bandipur- : , , Kerala Eravikulam Periyar Silent Valley- : Tamil Nadu Guindy- : Orissa Simlipal- : Jharkhand Palamu- : , ,Sikkim Kanchenjunga Neora valley Singalila- : , Assam Kaziranga Manas- : , Meghalaya Balphakaran Nokrek- : , Manipur Sirohi Keibul Lamjao- : Arucachal Pradesh Namdapha- : ,Andaman and Nicobar Saddle peak

, . Button Mt Harriett

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES Names States - Renuka Himachal Pradesh -Kinwat Maharashtra

-Bor Maharashtra

- Nagzira Maharashtra- Ratnagiri Maharashtra

- Ranibennur Karnataka - Mudumalai Tamil Nadu - ,Annamalai Tamil Nadu

- Mandanthruai Tamil Nadu - Kalakad Tamil Nadu - Kanwal Andhra Pradesh

- Srisailem Andhra Pradesh- Pocharam Andhra Pradesh

- Eturnagaram Andhra Pradesh - Pakhal Andhra Pradesh

- Nandankannan Orissa - . Lothian Islands W Bengal

- . Parmadan W Bengal - . Saznakhali W Bengal- . Bethuadhari W Bengal- Hazaribagh Jharkhand

- . Jaldapara W Bengal- . Mahananda W Bengal

-Orano Assam - Sonai Bupai Assam -Dampa Mizoram

:Some more facts- Kaziranga in Assam is famous for

one horn Rhinocerous- Periyar in Kerala is famous for Elephants- Sunderbans are well known for

Bengal Tigers- Rann of Kuchchh in Gujarat is the

habitat for Wild Ass Asiatic Lions are found in Gir forests

- Siberian Cranes migrate to some of the wetlands in Northern India

including those like Keoladeo Ghana . in Rajasthan and other in U P and

Bihar- Hemis High Altitude is the largest

national park in India- Madhya Pradesh is also known as

Tiger state- Corbett was the first national park in India

- Some important conventions and conferences for the conservation and

protection of organisms have been 1970. :held since Some are

- Man and Biosphere convention ( ) 1970 UNESCO- ( ) Ramsar Iran convention for wet

1971lands and waterfowl habitat- ! 973CITES for endangered species- FAO for genetic resource material 1983- 1992Rio convention by UNCED- In India the Wild Life Protection

1972.Act came into force in- Some other projects to protect

different species are Project tiger (1.4.1973) (1972)Girjion project

(1.4.1975)Crocodile breeding project (1987) Rhinoceros project Snow

(1988) leopard project Project (1988) elephant The Central

Directorate of WildLife Preservation ,and the WildLife Institute of India

Dehradun are the nodal agencies initiating and monitoring the programs and projects concerning

.wildlife

HUES OF INDIAN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

The diversity that is found in India is hard to find anywhere else in this . world Whether it is physiograpic

divisions or the different aspects of ' , India s population India since time

immemorial has been successful in evolving a unique distinction of its

. own on the world map Here we have attempted to facilitate you with

. the colourful picture of India

Racial Groups Of India

1 . : : Negroids Structure Negro race is ; ) , )characterised by a Short stature b

, , ) , )dark brown skin c wooly hair d , ) , )Bulbous head e broad flat nose f

.protrusion of jaw, Today they are found in Andaman Islands and also at Urali region of , , Nilgiris Khadurs of Kochi and . Pulyans of Palni Hills The Angami

Nagas of north coast and Badgis of .Rajmahal are very similar to Negros

They were probably the earliest

. arrivals into India

2. : Proto Australoids They came after . : ) Negroids Structure a black skin

) , ) colour b wavy to curly hair c broad , ) and flat nose d fleshy and everted , ) . lips e proganthous jaws They are

mostly found in the hilly and forested tracts of central and southern India and tribal groups in

. : ,India Important tribes are Veddhas , , , , ,Malveddhas Irulas Santhal Kol Bhil

, , , ,Kurumba Munda Kherwar Malpahari , . Chenchus Malayan etc The main difference between Proto Australoids

'and Negroids is that the latter don t . have wavy hair

3. : Mongoloids China and Mongolia is considered as their original . :homeland Structure

) , ) ,a broad head b high cheek bones ) c long flat nose with little or no hair , ) .on the body d slanting eyes , In India Mongoloids can be divided : - into two sub groups Paleo

: Mongoloids These are further divided ) ) into a broad headed and b long

. headed They are found in Assam .Himalayas and Myanmar border

- : Tibetan Mongoloids Found in , Sikkim Bhutan and Trans Himalayan . regions The tribes of Mongoloid race

: , , , ,are Garo Khasi Lepchas Jaintias , . Chakmas Daffla

4. : : )Mediterraneans Structure a dark ) ) skinned b long hair c medium

) ) structured d more body hair e low .skull and long chin They were probably the chief

.architects of Indus valley civilisation Dravidians are Mediterranean

5. : Brachycephals They are broad headed

) :They are of three types a Alpinoids , ,are found in Baluchistan Sindh

, , ,Kathiawar Gujarat Maharashtra ,Karnataka and Tamil Nadu

) : ,b Dinarics in Ganga valley) : ,c Armenoids are found in Chitral

, .Gilgit Kashmir and Nepal , In India Coorg Parsis and Kayasthas .of Bengal are Brachycephals

6. : Nordics They came latest and .spoke Aryan language

- : Scheduled Tribes of India -Angamis Nagaland

- Ao Nagaland – Apatani Arunachal Pradesh - ( . )Badagas Niligiris T N

- Baiga Madhya Pradesh- & Bakkarwals J K

- . Bhils M P and Rajasthan- Bhotias Uttranchal

- . Bhuia M P - , Birhars Chhattisgarh Jharkhand

and Orissa- Chenchus Andhra Pradesh

- Gaddis Himachal Pradesh - Garo Meghalaya - . Gonds M P - & , . Gujjars J K H P

- Irula Tamil Nadu - Jaintias Meghalaya and Assam- ,Jarawas Andaman and Nicobar Is- Kanikar Tamil Nadu- . Katkari M P- . Kharia M P -Khasa Uttaranchal -Khasis Meghalaya -Khonds Orissa

- . , Kol M P Maharashtra- Kolam Andhra Pradesh - Kolas Tamil Nadu

- Kuki Manipur- Lahaulas Himachal Pradesh- Lepchas Sikkim

-Lushai Mizoram- . Murias M P and Chhattisgarh - Mikirs Assam- Moplas Kerala - , . Munda Jharkhand W Bengal

- Naga Nagaland- Oraon Jharkhand- .Onge Andaman and Nicobar Is- .Sabra M P -Santhal Jharkhand

- Sema Nagaland- .Sentinelese Andman and Nicobar Is

– .Shompens Andman and Nicobar Is - Todas Tamil Nadu

- Uralis Kerala - Varlis Maharashtra - Yurva Tamil Nadu

Scheduled Castes- 1991 138 In there were million

16.48% 'persons constituting of India s total population under the category

.of scheduled castes- 5 Top states with highest

(% population of Scheduled castes of ' )India s total SCs population ...21.18Uttar Pradesh ...11.60West Bengal ...9.09Bihar ...7.75Tamil Nadu

...7.65Andhra Pradesh- Territories of Lakshdweep and

Andaman and Nicobar Islands do not .have Scheduled Castes population

Population- ( Total population of India as on

1 2001) 1,027 . March st million Males (531.3 ), (495.7 )million Females million- 16.7% India supports of the total

' .world s population- ' ' ' India s Decadal Growth of

(19912001) = 21.34% (population Inter 1961-1971 census period marked the

maximum decadal growth of 24.8%). population at

- Statewise lowest decadal growth rate of population is shown by

(9.42%) Kerala and highest has been (64.41%).registered that of Nagaland

- The percent decadal growth rate has declined during the census

19912001 decade as compared to the . . 1981-previous census decade i e

1991.- / ' Among the states UT s which have

not shown any decline in their percentage decadal growth rate

19912001during intercensal period of as compared to previous census

: , . . ,decade are Harayana U P Bihar , , , ,Sikkim Nagaland Manipur Gujarat , Daman and Diu Dadar and Nagar . - (1991 2001) Haweli Decadal Growth

- 2001Population density in is

324 / . . persons sq km

Most Densely Populated (in ): descending order West Bengal Bihar

. Kerala U P Punjab Tamil Nadu Haryana Goa Assam Jharkhand

Maharashtra Tripura Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Gujarat Orissa Madhya

Pradesh Rajasthan Chhattisgarh Nagaland Himachal Pradesh Manipur Meghalaya Jammu and Kashmir

Sikkim Mizoram Arunachal Pradesh

- (Density of Population North ) Eastern state

Assam Tripura

NagalandManipurMeghalayaSikkimMizoram

Arunachal Pradesh

- 'Percentage of state s population to the total . population of India

16.17 Uttar Pradesh 9.42 Maharashtra

8.07 Bihar 7.81,West Bengal

7.37Andhra Pradesh 6.05Tamil Nadu

5.88Madhya Pradesh 5.20Rajasthan 5.14Karnataka

4.93Gujarat 3.57Orissa 3.10Kerala

2.62Jharkhand 2.59Assam 2.37Punjab 2.05Haryana

2.03Chhattisgarh 1.34Delhi

0.98J and K 0.83Uttaranchal

. 0.59Himachal P 0.31Tripura 0.23Manipur

0.22Meghalaya

0.19Nagaland 0.13Goa

. 0.11Arunachal P 0.09Pondicherry 0.09Chandigarh

0.09Mizoram 0.05Sikkim

Andaman and 0.03Nicobar Islands

0.02Dadar and Nagar Haveli 0.02Daman and Diu

0.01Lakshdweep

- (State wise population North ) eastern states Assam Tripura Manipur Meghalaya Nagaland Arunachal Pradesh Mizoram Sikkim

- : Most Populated Districts Midnapore ( ) 24 (West Bengal Parganas West

) Bengal Mumbai Thane Pune

- : Least populated Districts Mahe ( ) (Pondicherry Tawang Arunachal

) ( ) Pradesh LahulSpiti HP Upper Siang ( ) Arunachal Pradesh Yanam ( )Pondicherry

- Salient features of Indian Demography1. Population too large for area2. Overwhelming proportion of rural population3. Ethnic diversity4. Lopsided age structure

- Causes of Rapid Growth of Population1. High birth rate and declining

death rate2. Near universal incidence of marriage3. Early marriage of girls4. Economic backwardness5. Want of male child6. ( Climatic factor tropical climate

)leads to early puberty7. Conservative social institutions

lead to early marriages of women

- ' India s population growth during 20 the th century can be chartered :into four distinct phases

1. 1901 -1921: Stagnant Population2. 1921-1951: Steady Growth3. 1951-1981: Rapid Growth4. 1981-2001: High Growth with

definite signs of slowing down

- Million plus Cities in India ( )City Population in m

...16.37Greater Mumbai ...13.22Kolkata

...12.79Delhi ... 6.42Chennai ... 5.69Bangalore ...5.53Hyderabad ...4.52Ahmadabad

Settlements Special Attributes of villages

(199 1) :1. ( Number of Villages state wise in

) decreasing order Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Bihar Orissa

Maharashtra West Bengal Rajasthan2. ( Rural Population State wise in

) decreasing order Uttar Pradesh Bihar Madhya Pradesh West Bengal Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Tamil Nadu

Other places satisfying all the three :under mentioned conditions

-Town1. 5000Population greater than2. 75% Having at least of the male

working population engaged in nonagricultural pursuits

3. The density of population exceeds 400 . - per square km All towns and

urban agglomerations are grouped into six classes according to

.population size Urban centres with less than one

lakh is called a town

- City Urban centres with population .of more than one lakh

- Metropolitian Cities Cities accommodating population between

one to five million

- Mega Cities Cities with more than .ten million population

- Urban Agglomeration An urban :agglomeration may consists of

,A town and its adjoining outgrowth Two or more contiguous turns with

or without their outer growth A city and one or more adjoining

towns with their outgrowths together . forming a contiguous pattern

- : Conurbation An Urban reason consisting of huge Metropolis and a

number of small towns

- :Phases of Urbanization1. 1901-Period of slow Urbanisation19312. Period of medium Urbanisation 1931-19613. 1961Period of rapid Urbanisation onwards

? What is Urbanization The term urban is referred to towns of cities having marked secondary and tertiary functions along with

municipality or notified area .committee

[ Urbanization on the other hand a process of population increase in

.urban areas

:Urban Regions of India Year Population residing in Urban .Areas

1901 10.9%1941 14.1%1951 17.6%1961 18.3%1971 20.21%1981 23.7%1991 26.0%

Entire urban regions of India can be divided into six zones Regional

Urban Geography

: Himachal Pradesh total urban 74,44,824.population is

55 It has urban centres smallest is (500), Naina Devi largest is Shimla

(1,09,840). Chamba is most dense (4,000 / . .; people sq km least dense is

(300). 10% Narkanda only of total ,population resides in urban areas :important urban centres are , , , ,Shabatha Dagshai Jutosh Kassanti

, , .Solan Yole Dalhousie etc Chamba is situated on Ravi and

. Kullu Manali on Beas Shimla is at 2205 . 1861, the altitude of m In it was

. made the summer capital of India

: 433 Madhya Pradesh has towns and 15 million people live in urban areas

15% which is ofthe total population of . . ( M P important cities are Indore it is the best and most well planned city 10,86,000 ), and has people Bhopal

(10,63,000), (88,000),third is Jabalpur , , ,Murwara Mahalda Balaghat

, , ,Narsinghpur Ambikapur Umaria ( Kaimur all these are mining and

). industrial towns and cities:Chhattisgarh

, ,Most important city is Raipur Bhilai . Rajhara and Nandini There are some ,planned cities like Panchsheel Nagar . Shankar Nagar

:Maharashtra 40 ; 4 Total population million crore

. . 25% live in urban areas i e of the ; 291 total population it has urban

; ,centres earliest towns are Paithan , . JunnarKarad Deogiri Market towns

(are Sholapur and Barsi Bhima ), ,Valley Satara in Krishna Valley

, ( ).Nandurbar Bhulia Tapti Valley ,towns during MarathasSangli

, , ,Kurundwad Miraj Ichalkaranji , , , ,Phattan Bhor Aurangabad Kolhapur

, .Pune Mumbai Greater Mumbai has largest

(1 ,26 ) population crore lakh than , , , Kalyan Thane Udhampur Navi

. Mumbai

:Orissa42 .lakh population in urban areas

119 & 1011 %Has urban centers .people live in urban areas

Important industrial towns Rourkela ( .), Sundargarh dist Hirakud ( .), .Sambalpur dist Balagir

, Mining towns areDhenkanal Kyonjhar .and Mayurbhanj

, Historical townsBhubneshwar Cuttack . and Konark Commercial towns

, , ,Sonpur Besllanguntha Jharsuguda . Kalahandi and Korapat

:Tamil Nadu260 , 190 urban centres million

, population in urban areas important &towns are centred around Nilgiri , (54Vellore Salem and Chennai

). lakhs

:Gujarat14 , 225 million urban areas urban

.centres ,Important centres are Vadodra

, , ,Rajghat Jamnagar Bhavnagar & .Ahemdabad Surat

. Port city is Kandala Religious centres , & .are Dakor Dwarka Somnath

.Gandhinagar is on Sabarmati river

:Karnataka254 , 14 .urban centre million people

: , ,Oldest towns Vatapi Pampapur , , , ,Gokhran Singeri talakad Halebid

.Bilm : , ,Fort towns Belgaun Bijapur

, , ,Gulbarga Kalyani Jalikot Devanbali , , .Parvada Shinaripur Hosadwarja : , ,industrial towns Mandya Godag

, . 41Jainagar Gandhingar Banglore has .lakh people

: 18 Andhra Pradesh millions in urban , 213 , areas urban centres historical , ,cities are Kurnool Mothagudam , .Sirpur Mancheriyal etc

Hyderabad is the largest urban (40 ), . centre lakh then Vizag Uttar

: 28 , 702 Pradesh million urban ; centres highly urbanized sector is

(30.4%). Yamunapur Kanpur has largest (19.62 ), (15.92population lakh Lucknow

), (9.29 ), lakh then Varanasi lakhs then , . Agra Allahabad and then Meerut

:Punjab60 , 119 ,lakh in urban urban areas 30% .population in urban areas

, Ambala is highest urbanized then , , , ,Amritsar Ludhiana Jallandhar Patiala

.then Gurudaspur

:Rajasthan10 , 214 million in urban areas urban

; ,areas Largest population in Jaipur , , , ,Jodhpur Kota Bikaner Ajmer , , , Udaipur Alwar Bhilwara Ganganagar

: 49 Jammu and Kashmir urban , 23.89% centres of population in urban

. , , areas Anantnag Baramula Sopor in ; , ,Srinagar Valley Mirpur Udhampur

Poonch and Leh are also urban .areas

: 27.39% ,West Bengal in urban areas 19 , 160 . million urban centres

: 27% , 30 Manipur in urban areas urban ; . centres Imphal is largest

: 221 , 25 Assam urban centres lakh in .urban centres

:Analysis 2.6%; 735 . Class V towns Class VI

0.30%; 196 . 35 towns India has such cities whose population is more than

10 1 . lakh or million Western India is .more urbanized than Eastern India

Southern India is more urbanised .than Northern India

Energy resources

► Oil pipelines 7.5 . thousand km in ;India

first pipeline was laid in Assam in , 1167 ., Nunmati to Barauni km now ; extended to Kanpur second in

. .,Salaya in Gujarat to Mathura in U P 12.56 . , km it is being extended to

Panipat and Jalandhar and finally to ; Koyali in Gujarat third is Mumbai to

; Pune fourth is from Rajbandh to . ; Maurigram in W Bengal

: : , ,HEP Tamil Nadu Mettur Pykara , , ,Papnasham Kadamparai Pandiyar

, .Kodayar Kundah and Periyar projects

: , Punjab Bhakra dam Ganguwal and , Kotla projects on Sutlej river Pong , dam on Vyas

. .: , U P Bahadurabad Mohammadpur , , , , ,Chitura Salwa Bhola Plara Sumera , , Sardar Sarovar Ramganta Matatila

, dam near Jhansi on Betwa Rihand . . project on R Rihand, 100% Kerala electricity is generated ,through hydro electric projects Idukki , , ,Kuttyadi Sabargiri Sholayar

, , ,Manantvadi Chalkudi Puyankutti , . lower Periyar Pallinsal

: (Maharashtra Lonavala grid which 3 , has powerhouse is in Khopoli in

, Vjbhpuri and third in Bhira Konya ( ), ,project tributary of Krishna Puma .Vaitarna

, ,In Orissa are Hirakund Bhimakund Rengali and In Himachal Pradesh

, Mandi project in Jogindernagar Pando . & ,project on Vyas river In J K Chenab

, .Sind Jhelum and Salal projects

► :Thermal Power Maharashtra , Chola and Trombay Kolhapur Diesel , ,Turbine Uran Gas Turbine

, , ,Chandelpur Bhusawal Khaparkheda .Dhabol and Ujjahi

: , ,In Gujarat Banas Gandhinagar , , ,Kuchchh Sabarmati Wanakbori

, , , , ,Kawas Sikka Malwa Uttran Shahpur , , ,Porbandar Kandla Ahmedabad .Dhuvaran

. . ,In U P are Obra in Mirzapur , ,Harduaganj at Aligarh Renusagar

, , , ,Rosa Jawaharpur Unchahar Rihand , , ,Kanpur Mau in Ajamgarh Gorakhpur

, , Dohrighat Moradabad Tundla and

.Bahraich , ,West Bengal Bundel Calcutta

, , ,Durgapur Murshidabad Kalaghat , , .Titagarh Mejia Santhaldih

/ : ,MP Chhattisgarh Korka in Bilaspur , , ,Bishrampur Vindhyachal Busingpur

, , .Badhghat BALCO pinch Satpura. .: , , . T N Neyvelli Mettur Ennore Andhra

: , ,Pradesh Ramgudam Kothagudam , , Nellore Vijayavada Bhodrachalam

.and Manuguru , ,In Bihar are Muzaffarpur Barauni

. Tenughat and Bokaro: ; Punjab Bhatinda and Rupnagar

, in Haryana Panipat Faridabad and . Yamunanagar

: , , Rajasthan Kota Palna Sawai . Madhopur and Banswara: ; Karnataka Raichur

, Assam Namrup Bonaigaon and ; Chandrapur

; Orissa Talchar , Delhi Badarpur Indraprastha and

. Rajghat :In NonConventional Energy Sources , In India solar energy was

1983. , commercialized in In India solar @ 20 . . energy is generated M W per

. .mt per year

► Thar deserts has been declared as the biggest powerhouse of the earth 2010 10,000 .by generating m w

100 .► The first two projects of kw have been started in Kalyanpur and

. . Saraisadi in Mau of U P and in ( ).Gurgaon Haryana

: Wave Energy Largest in Vinzingzam , in Tiruvanantpuram in Kerala then in

.Andaman Nicobar

Atomic Power Plants1. - - Tarapur Maharashtra Atomic

, . .Power Plant in India based on U S Design

2. . Rawatbhata Rajasthan Based on Canadian design

3, Kalpakkam TamilNadu only Atomic Power Plant located in coal rich region

4. Narora Uttar Pradesh only Atomic Power Plant used for Agricultural . Purpose

5. Kakrapara Gujarat6. Kaiga Karnataka7. (Kudankulam Tamil Nadu Fuel

) Supplied by Russia More on Power of The breakup of Electricity

generation through different sources : is as follows

82.0 %Thermal 14.9%Hydroelectric

3.4%Nuclear Power

- Region wise domination of :sources of power is as follows

HYDROELECTRICITY Karnataka Meghalaya Kerala . Nagaland Himachal P Tripura J and K

Sikkim THERMAL POWER

Delhi Jharkhand Haryana . . Chhattisgarh Punjab M P Assam

. . . Gujarat W B U P Bihar Maharashtra NUCLEAR POWER (Rajasthan This

state being deficient in both coal , and waterhead Nuclear energy

54% contributes around of its total ) :commercial energy Nuclear Power

Atomic energy Institute was 1954.established at Trombay in

It was renamed as the Bhabha ' ( ) Atomic Research Centre BARC in

1967. At present production of nuclear energy is facilitated by ten

:units located at six centres ( )Tarapur Maharashtra

( )Rawatbhata Rajasthan ( . )Kalpakkam T N

( . )Narora U P ( )Kakrapara Gujarat

( )Kaiga Karnataka Nuclear electricity

- Nuclear Power Plant Year of - ( . .)Completion Capacity M W

- 1969 -320Tarapur - 1972,Ranapratap Sagar in Kota

1980- 440 -1984, 1986Kalpakkam nearChemul

-470 - 1989, 1991Narora near Bulandshahar

-440 - 1992- 220.Kakrapara in Gujarat

Mineral Resources ► The Geological Survey of India is

1851 working since and has taken considerable interest in locating and

.harnessing mineral resources The Indian Bureau of mines is at

.Nagpur ► Statewise production of minerals :in India / MP Chhattisgarh

JharkhandGujaratMaharashtra

Andhra PradeshOrissaAssamRajasthan

/UP Uttaranchal. W Bengal

Tamil NaduKarnatakaKerala ► India is deficient in the following

: , , ,minerals Silver Nickel Cobalt , , , , ,Copper Zinc Lead Tin Mercury

, , , ,Gold Tungsten Platinum Graphite , , , ,Asphalt Potash Sulphur Cadmium , .Bismuth Molybdenum and Petroleum

: ► Mineral belts in India Chota Nagpur Belt ( , ,Midland Belt Chhattisgarh MP )Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra ( Southern Belt Karnataka and Tamil

)Nadu ( , Western Belt Rajasthan Gujarat and

) Maharashtra South Western Belt ( , )Karnataka Goa and Kerala

( Himalayan Belt valuable minerals in ' ')pockets and vaults of stratic faults

(The Indian Ocean manganese , , nodules phosphorite nodules and ).barium sulphate concretions

Phosphorite nodules are mainly . found near the Andaman Is The Arabian Sea is richer in phosphate

.than the Bay of Bengal ► The new mineral policy came in

1993. Under the new policy the need was felt to liberalize the mineral

sector and open it for the private investors to promote better mineral

. development

Iron Ore ► India produces four types of iron

, , ores Haematite Magnetite Limonite .and Siderite

2,158.3 ► Total iron ore reserves crore .tonnes

, ,► Largest reserves Jharkhand Orissa , / , ,Karnataka MP Chhattisgarh Goa

, , ,Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Kerala , , .Assam Rajasthan Tamil Nadu

:► Statewise production of iron ore / , , ,MP Chhattisgarh Goa Jharkhand

, , ,Karnataka Orissa Andhra Pradesh .Maharashtra and Rajasthan

:► Areas1. : Jharkhand Noamundi and Gua

,mines and other areas in Sighbhum . near Daltonganj in Plamau Also , ,found in Ranchi Dhanbad

Hazaribagh and Santhal Pargana . Districts

2. , ,Karnataka Bellary Chitradurga ( ) , ,Bababudan hills Chikmaglur Bijapur

, , ,Dharwad Tumkur Uttar Kannada . Dakshin Kannad and Shimoga

3.0 : , rissa Mayurbhanj Keonjhar and . Sundargarh

4. : ,Andhra Pradesh Anantpur , , ,Khammam Krishna Kurnool . . Cuddapah and Nellore

5. : Maharashtra Chandrapur and . .Ratnagiri Also in Bhandara

6. : , Rajasthan Bhilwara Udaipur and .Jhunjhunu

7. : , ,Tamil Nadu Salem North Arcot .Nilgiris and Dharmapuri

8. : ( ,Other areas Gujarat Junagarh ); Bhavnagar and Vadodara Haryana

( ); & ( , Mahendergarh J K Rajauri Jammu ); and Udhampur Damiida series of

. ; Jharkhand and W Bengal Uttaranchal ( ); (Garhwal and Nainital UP Mirzapur

); . .( and Sonbhadra H P Kangra and ). Mandi

Manganese ► Occurs mainly in the Dharwar

.system of rocks

.► Pyrolusite is the main ore ► India is the third largest producer

. after Russia and Ghana ( ):► Distribution of ore statewise

, , / ,Karnataka Orissa MP Chhattisgarh , , ,Maharashtra Goa Andhra Pradesh

, .Gujarat Rajasthan and Jharkhand : ,► Statewise production Orissa

, / ,Karnataka MP Chhattisgarh , , Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Goa

/ .and Bihar Jharkhand :► Areas

: , , ,Orissa Keonjhar Sundargarh Koraput .Kalahandi and Bolangir: , ,Karnataka Bellary Uttar Kannad

, , Shimoga Tumkur and Belgaum: , , MP Balaghat Chhindwara Jabalpur . and Jhabua The belt is the

continuation of the Nagpur Bhandara . belt

: Maharashtra Nagpur Bhandara Belt . and Ratnagiri

: Andhra Pradesh Associated with . Khondalite rocks Srikakulam and

.Vishakhapatnam: ,Jharkhand Birmitrapur near Chaibasa , , ,Singhbhum Hazaribagh Dhanbad

.Gaya and Munger: , ,Gujarat Vadodra Panchmahal

.Banaskantha and Sabarkantha: .Rajasthan Banswara and Udaipur

. : .W Bengal Medinapur

:Bauxite .► Ore of aluminum metal , ,► Used in aeroplanes automobiles

.electrical : ► Chief places Amarkantak plateau

, .comprising Sarguja Raigarh and , Bilaspur Maikal Range including , Shahdol Durg and Balaghat and

. ; ,Katni and Jabalpur in M P Ranchi , Palamau Lohardaga and Muri

( ); , , ,Jharkhand Ratnagiri Thane Satara ; ,Kolhapur in Maharashtra Bhavnagar , Junagadh Amreli and Jamnagar

( ), Gujarat Kalahandi and Koraput ( ).Orrisa

: Two types of Bauxite one found at ( ) Panchpatmali largest second found

.at Gandhamardan : , ► Largest reserves Orissa Andhra

, . ., , ,Pradesh M P Maharashtra Gujarat , .Bihar Jharkhand

: , ,► Largest producers Orrisa Bihar , , , . .Jharkhand Maharashtra Gujarat M P

. Chhattisgarh Lead ► It occurs in the pre Cambrian

.rocks and the Vindhayan sediments 80% ► Rajasthan produces about of .the countries total production Mainly .from the Zawar region of Udaipur Other areas in Rajasthan include

RajpuraDariba area of Bhilwara and , , Aimer Alwar Banswara and Sawai

.Madhopur : , , ► Orrisa Sambalpur Kalahandi and

.Sundargarh : , ,► Andhra Pradesh Cuddapah Guntur

.Kurnool andNalgonda : ,► Largest producers Rajasthan

, .Orissa Andhra Pradesh and Sikkim

Zinc : ( )► Chief ore Sphalerite ZnS ► Largely used for galvanizing or

coating iron and steel ( ) ► Zawar in Udaipur Rajasthan is the

. main area This area has two main :zones of mineralization

(1) ;Pipli Khan to Barla Khan(2) , .Mochia Magra Balaria , , ► Bhilwara Ajmer Alwar and Sawai

,Madhopur areas of Rajasthan , & Bhotang of Sikkim Riasi of J K and

Almora and Tehri Garhwal of .Uttaranchal also produces Zinc

► Rajasthan and Sikkim are the .largest producers

► India imports zinc concentrates , , ,from Australia Peru Mexico Canada .Russia and Zaire

Copper Ore ► Mosabani and Rakha in Singhbhum

( ).district Jharkhand ( ) ► Rangpo Sikkim and Gharwal

( ).district UP ( ) ► Khetri Belt Aravalli Range in

, Jhunjhunu the Kho Dariba near , Alwar Delwara and Debari of

Udaipur and the sikar district of .Rajasthan

( ), . .► Agnigundala Guntur A P

( ) . .► Malanjkhand Balaghat M P (36%), (35.4%) ► MP Rajasthan and

(27%).Bihar ( )► Hindustan Copper Limited HCL

1967 incorporated in as a public , sector enterprise is the leading

producer of primary copper in the .country

, (1)At present it has four main units ,Khetri copper complex in Rajasthan

(2) Indian Copper Complex in , (3) Jharkhand Malajhkhand Copper

(4)project in Madhya Pradesh and .Taloja Copper Project in Maharashtra

Limestone ( 3), ► CaCo it is either composed of

calcium carbonate or double carbonate of calcium and .magnesium

. . (25%).► M P is the largest producer ► Limestone is mainly used in

.cement industry . . , ,► In M P areas are Jabalpur Bilaspur

, , , , ,Betul Raigarh Raipur Damoh Durg .Sagar and Rewa

(18%),► Second is Andhra pradesh , , , ,Cuddappah Kurnool Guntur Krishna

, , ,Nalgonda Adilabad Warangal .Mahboobnagar

(10.5%):► Third is Rajasthan , , , ,Jhunjhunu Banshara Bundi Jodhpur

, , , , ,Sirohi Ajmer Bikaner Kota Tonk , , ,Alwar Dungarpur Sawai Madhopur , , .Chittor Pali Nagaur and Udaipur

(9.5%), ,► Fourth is Gujarat Kutch , , Surat Kheda Junagarh and

.Panchmahal (9%), ,► Fifth is Karnataka Gulbarga

, , , ,Chitradurg Tumkur Mysore Shimoga , .Bijapur Belgam

(8%),► In addition are Sikkim (7.8%) ( ,Maharashtra Chandrapur

), Nanded and Ahmadnagar Orissa (2.5%) , Sundargarh Sambalpur and

.Kalahandi

Dolomite 10% ► Limestone with more

magnesium is called dolomite ► It is mostly used in fertilizer

.industry (48.43%):► Largest producer is Orissa

, , ,Birmitrapur Sundargarh Koraput , ( ).Sambalpur Gangapur Sukra

. . (21%), ,► Second is M P Balaghat , , , ,Bastar Bilaspur Durg Chhindwara

, .Hoshangabad Jabalpur and Jhabua (14%), ► Third is Gujarat Bhavnagar

.and Vadodra dist (5.85%), ,► Fourth is Bihar Chaibasa

.Banjari in Rohtas and Palamu

Magnesite ► Its an alternative produce of

( ).deunite or peridotite :► Tamil Nadu is the largest producer

, ,chalk hills near Salem Coimbatore , , ,Dharmapuri north Arcot Nilgiri

;Periyar : ,► Second is Karnataka Hassan

.Mysore and Kodagu : , ,► Third is Rajasthan Ajmer Udaipur .Pali

: ; ► Fourth is Uttaranchal Almora fifth : ; is Himachal Pradesh Chamba sixth & : .is J K Udhampur

Kyanite ► It occurs in metamorphic

.aluminous rocks (55%),► Largest producer is Bihar

, , ,Lapsaaburu Kharsawan Ghagidih , , ,Badia Bakra Mohanpur

, , ,Jagannathpur Bhakar Hathiland , , .Singpura Dauntauri Padampur

(41%)► Second is Maharashtra ;Bhandara andNagpur

(2.9%),► Third is Karnataka , , ,Chikmaglur Chitradurg Mandya

, , .Mysore Dakshin Kannada Shimoga

Sillimanite ,► Largest producer is Karnataka

, , .Hassan Mysore Dakshin Kannada , .► Second is Maharashtra Bhandara , ;► Third is Meghalaya Khasi hills

, . fourth is Orissa Ganjam Gypsum 28% ► Jamsar near Bikaner richest of

.total ( . ), ► Also found at Sermur H P Uri

( & ).J K 9/10 .► th produce Rajasthan

► Important consumer of Gypsum is . Cement industry

Phosphate ► India is poor in phosphate

, . minerals viz apatite and rock .phosphate

► Apatite deposits are located in .,Singhbhum and Vishakapatnam dist

.West Bengal ► Recently it has been found at

( )Udaipur Rajasthan : ( . .),► Rock phosphate Jhabua M P

, .Jaisalmer Nainital ► Tunisia and Jordan are the leading

.suppliers 65.4%, ► Rajasthan produces and . .20.2%. U P

Common Salt ► Heavy chemicals namely Caustic

Soda Chlorine and soda ash other ,sources are salt lakes Sambhar , Didwana Pachbhadra

.► Gujarat is the largest producer 711%.► Maharashtra 620% ( ).► Tamil NadiTT second ► Kharaghoda is the leading centre .of salt industry of the Raina

Sulphur ► A sulphuric acid plant in Sindri : ► Pyrites found at Amjor near

( ). Rohtas Bihar Ingaldhal in ( ), Chitradurga Karnataka Taradevi

( ), ( , ).Shimla Saladipura Sikar Rajasthan , ► Ores of Zinc Lead and Copper

.have compounds of sulphur in it

Gold ► Hutti Mines and Kolar Gold

( )Fields Karnataka : , :► Ramagiri Andhara Pradesh Wynad

, : Kerala Nilgiri TN

Mica ,► Leading supplier in the world

4/5 .th producer .► A nonconductor of electricity :► Nothern fringe of Bihar Plateau

, , .Kodarma Giridih Domchanch 57%. ► Bihar produces Nuclear

: ► Uranium mined at Jaduguda ( ).Bihar

( )► ThoriumKerala south of Quilon , ,also rich in Monazite Ilmenite rutile

.Sillimanite

, ► Uranium the only atomic fuel used for the generation of nuclear power at present is available in India

(but deposits of Pitchblende the ) principle source of Uranium are

(poorer than those of Monazite chief ).source of Thorium

► Natural Thorium is not a fissile . metal It is first converted into

233. Uranium India has been able to .convert Thorium into Uranium

► A factory for processing Monazite has been constructed at Alwaye in

. Kerala

:Atomic Minerals1. Uranium , , ,► Singbhum Gaya Hazaribagh

' Saharanpur s sedimentary rocks in . ,U P ► The greatest source of Uranium is

.monagite sand 2% ► India produces only of world

.uranium

2. Thorium ► Also derived from monazite which

10% 0.3% .contains thoria and Urania , ,► It is found in Kerala Bihar

.Tamilnadu and Rajasthan

3. Beryllium Oxide ► It is used as moderator in nuclear

.reactors

4. Lithium ► Found in spodumene and

.lepodolite ( . ). ► In Bihar and Bastar M P

5 Zirconium , ► Found in Kerala Ranchi and

.Hazaribagh

Agriculture 1988.► The new seed policy came in

:There are three types of seeds ,Breeder seeds of the primary stage

Foundation seeds of the intermediate stage and the certified or the quality .seeds that is actually distributed

Total seed production is presently 100 .hovering around lakh quintals ( ),National seeds corporation NSC

State Farm Corporation of India ( ), SFCI State seed Corporations and

State seed certification agencies are the primary agencies working in the .seed sector

Maize .is a kharif crop 80 95 ► Require about to days to

.mature : 1606 / .► Average yield kg hectare . ., , , . ., ► U P Bihar Rajasthan M P Punjab .are important maize producing zone

2943 / .► Karnataka highest yield kg h

Jowar ( )Sarghum vulgare : 26 33► Temperature ° ° : 100 ► Rainfall less than cm

(30 100 )cm cm

Rubber ( )Hevea Brasiliensis ► Many species of this give milk like

juice called latex which on drying or .coagulating gives new rubber

► The principle source of rubber is ( the Hevea tree also known as Para

) Rubber Tree native to the Amazon .region in South America

► Rubber plantation was first 1902 introduced in in India on the

.banks of the Periyar : 21 35 .► Temperature °C °C : 200 400► Rainfall cm to cm ► Alluvial soil 91% ► Kerala produces and Tamil

: 5%.Nadu : ► Synthetic rubber raw materials

.used are Benzene and Ethyl alcohol .► Plant set up at Borada

: ► Process wet process called Plantation or Parchment Dry Process

.called Cherry or Native Method : (► Production Karnataka Chikmanglur

, , ,first plantation Hassan Shimoga , ); ( ,Coorg Mandi Kerala Palaghat

) Kottayam and Trivandrum Tamil ( ).Nadu North Aracot to Tirunvelli

: , ,► Trade India exports USA Canada , .Europe Australia

12 ► India occupies the th position in . coffee production

Jute ( )Corchorous Capsularies 40% ► Production yearly of the world

.jute ► It is also called Brown Paper of

.wholesale trade 27 34► Temperature °C °C : 8090%► Humidity : 170200 ► Rainfall cm : , , ► Soil Sandy clayey alluvial soil : .- .► Sowing Mar Apr : - .► Harvesting July Sept : ► Jetting It is a microbiological

; process it loosens the outer bark and facilitating removal of fibre from .stalk

: 1300 / .► Yield kg hr : 7835, ( )► Variety JRO Basudev : (2/ 3 ),► Production West Bengal rd

, Assam Bihar

Cotton ( )Gossypium ► Largest area under cultivation in

40% .world of total cultivation area 8-10% Produces only of total world .production

4 , ,► th important after USA China .Russia

.► It is a subtropical crop : 21 27 .► Required temperature °C °C : 50 80 .► Rainfall cm to cm : 200► Precaution frost free period

.days : ; ► Soil Regur or Black clayey soils

.containing lime and phosphates : ► Area mainly in the area west of

80 .°E Meridian : ► Production as a Kharif crop , , , , ► Punjab Haryana Rajasthan UP MP

( / .); (April May to Oct Tamil Nadu sown

.).in Jan : .► Best Cotton Sudan and Egypt : ► Ginning which consists of

separating the seeds from the raw .material

: 4, ► Variety Hybrid introduced in , 32.Gujrat DHC

: 265 / .► Yield kg hr : 15.4% (24.9%),► Production Gujarat

19.4%, 21.5% (16»3%)Maharashtra Punjab 7.8%.and Karnataka

Agriculture

Tobacco : 50- 80 .► Rainfall cm

: Soil Sandy Loam soil should be rich , , ,in Potash Nitrogen Magnesium

.Phosphoric Acid 17% ► India has of total area under

.cultivation : ► Variety Nicotiana Tabaccum and

.Nicotiana Rustica : ► Flues Virginia tobacco is procured in special chambers known as Barns

with artificial heat passing through . metal pipes called Flues Hence it is known as Flues cured Virginia .tobacco

: ► Export second largest exporter .after USA

: , ,► Area Andhra Pradesh Gujarat , Tamil Nadu Karnataka and

, ,Maharashtra in the Deccan Bihar , , .Orissa UP West Bengal

: 1000 /► Production Average leaf ha ,Andhra Pradesh largest producer .Guntur heart of tobacco trade

, .► Exported to UK EEU : ► Two important ports Madras and

. Kakinada

Sugarcane ( )Saccharum Officinarium .► Belongs to grass family ( ).► Contains canesugar Sucrose .► It is basically a tropical crop : 20 30 , ► Temperature ° ° not above

50 , 20°C not less than °C 75 120 .► Rainfall cm cm , ; ► Soil clay loams Alluvial should be

, rich in Nitrogen Phosphoric and .Potash

: ► Setts All commercial plantations are made of stalk cuttings of two or

.three joints : ► Ratoon crops After the first crop , has been cut the stem begins to .grow again

: 65375 / ► Average Yield kg ha Highest in Tamil Nadu

: ► Production UP the largest , , , .producer Bihar Punjab Haryana

Tea ( )Camellia tea ► India is the leading producer and

.leading exporter : ► Varieties Black tea leaves are

;dried in the sun and then fermented ,Green tea far east China and Japan .there is no fermentation

: . 13 35 ;► Climate temp °c and °c 150250 .; rainfall cm protection against

.long dry weather : ; ► Soil Sandy loams are best iron in .soil is beneficial

: 54.7%; ► Cultivation Assam Assam 24.3%; 9.2%.Tamil Nadu : 21.48%;► Production Assam . 21.48%; 13.32% W Bengal Tamil Nadu and

8.34%.Kerala : , ,► Export Britain chief buyer Russia

. USA and Australia

Coffee ( )Coffea .► Oldest among the plantation ► It is the highland crop of the

.Tropics : 15 28► Temperature °C °C : ► Protection sensitive to cold and

frost and to be protected from hot .dry winds

.► Sun rays are injurious : , ► Varieties Arabica Robusta and

(75%)Coffee Liberica 125 200 .► Rainfall cm cm 910 .► Height of the crop mts : ► Plucking time Coffee Arabica

.- . ; between Oct Nov Coffee Robusta - .between Jan Feb

( ) ,► Production state wise Karnataka , , .Kerala Tamil nadu Andhra pradesh

( ) , ► Yield state wise Karnataka Tamil , . Nadu Kerala and Andhra Pradesh

OILSEEDSSesamum ( )Sesamum Indicum ( . )► It is both a Kharif crop N India

( . ).and Rabi S India 46%52% .► Seed contains oil ► Light and Sandy soils and Black

.Cotton soils 21 23" .► Temperature °c c 4050 .► Rainfall cm /3 ► India produces l rd of the total

.production , , ,► Orissa Gujarat Maharashtra

, . ., . Karnataka M P Tamil Nadu

Groundnut ( )Arachis Hypogea .► Leading in the world .► Needs tropical climate .► Susceptible to frost ( . ), ( . ).► Khrif Crop N India Rabi S India 50-100 .► Rainfall cm .► Sandy Loams - ► Sown in June July and harvested .in four months .► Deccan Plateau and Gujrat .► Highest yield in Gujarat 20 25 . ► Temperature °c °c

Rapeseed and Mustard seed ,► Rapeseed is also known as Sarson

.Toria and Taramira ► Mustard seed is also known as .Rai

.► It is a Rabi corp .► Alluvial soil 2540 .► Rainfall cm 7590 .► Maturity days : . .; ;► Leading producers U P Rajasthan

.Punjab and Haryana

Agriculture

Linseed 10% ► India produces of the world

.production .► It is a rabi crop . .; . .► U P M P ► Clay Loams as well as Clayey

Black soils of the Central and .Peninsular India

: 4575 .► Rainfall cm 33% 47% .► Oil seed contains of oil

Castor seed ( )Ricinus Communis 1/5 ► India produces th of the total

.world production ► It is a tropical and subtropical

.crop ( . ) ► It is both a Rabi S India and

( . ) .Kharif N India Crop (67%)► Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh : 20 26 .► Temperature °c °c : 5075 .► Rainfall cm : .► Soil Deep loamy soils - .► Sown in June July : 6 .► Maturity months 35%-38% . ► Seed Contains oil

Safflower .► It is a Rabi crop 24% 36% .► Seed contains to oil : ► Solis Alluvial Loams and Black

.soils (2/3 ); ;► Maharashtra rd Karnataka

( ).Andhra Pradesh leading producer

Sunflower 1969.► Introduced in .► Photo intensive crop 50 .► Annual rainfall less than cm .► Rabi and Kharif crop ; 90100 ► Maturity days .► Loam soil .- .► Sown during mid Dec mid Feb - .► Harvested in mid July August , ► Andhra Pradesh Karnataka and

.Tamil Nadu

Soyabean ► Warm Temperature to cool

.temperature : 21 13 .► Temperature °c °c : 100 .► Rainfall cm 20%.► Oil content only .► Very rich in protein . ., . .► M P U P .► Kharif crop : ► Rizobium a nitrogen fixing

.bacteria : 6.0 ► Fariable Loams PH value to

6.5. . ► Sown in June

Niger .► A kharif crop

_ .► Sown hiJimeJ uly .► Harvested in DecJan . .► Mainly produced in Orissa M P

Maharashtra : . ► Soil deep regur

Cotton Seed .► A substitute of Olive oil , , , . ,► Maharashtra Punjab Haryana M P

,Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (24.44%). Gujarat

Ragi .► A millet crop and kharif crop .► Karnataka is the chief producer

Pulse ( ) , (► Gram tur Red gram Urd Black

) ( ).gram and Moong Green gram .► It is a Kharif crop .► Khisari and Masur are Rabi ► Crop are Leguminous and fixes

. nitrogen in the soil

( , , Millets Sorghum Jowar Bajra )and Ragi

► In India Sorghum is known as ; Jowar Milo in Africa and Kaoling in .China

: 27 32"► Temperature °c c : 50-120 .► Rainfall cm ► Deccan area

Gram ► Winter season . ; . ; ; 4/5► U P M P Rajasthan Haryana th .of total production , ► In Bengal Gram is most important

40% pulse contributing about of the .total production

.► Rabi crop : (50100 .)► Rainfall moderate cm . ► Seeds sown in mid Oct to

.beginning of Nov 150 . ► Matures in days

Tur 120 .► Rainfall more than cm .► Kharif crop

, . , . . ► Maharashtra M P U P

ENERGY RESOURCES

Lignite ► Lignite or Brown coal occurs in

, Neyveli in Tamil Nadu Palu fields in , Rajasthan Raisi in Kashmir and

.Gujarat 7 ► India is the th largest producer of

.Lignite :Places where Lignite is produced

(1) Raniganj(2) Jharia(3) Bokaro(4) Karanpura(5) Giridih(6) ( )Thalchar Orissa(7) ( . .) Kanan Valley M P(8) ( )Wardha Valley Maharashtra(9) ( ) Singarem Andhra Pradesh(10) ( ).Nayveli Tamil Nadu 91% ► Lignite Tamil nadu has of

80% ,reserve and of production , , Neyvelli South Arcot Jayamkond ( .), .acholapur in Trichi distt Manargudi

Coal 60% ► Amounts to of total electricity

.generated 65% ► of the commercial needs of

.energy ► Raniganj coal field is the oldest in

(1814).India ► Indian coalfield belongs to two

geological era Gondwana and . tertiary Gondwana category accounts

99.5 % .for of the total reserve ► Gondwana category is inferior to .the tertiary coal

► Tertiary coalfield is found in the & .Northeast and J K

.► Jharia largest in India 180► Per capita production of Coal .kg :► Important coalfields Jharkhand

, , , ,Jharia Bokaro Giridih Karanpura , , , ,Ramgarh Auranga Hutar Daltonganj . . :Deogarh and Rajmahal W Bengal , .Raniganj Barjora and Darjeeling

: Andhra Pradesh Godavari valley ( ) /Singareni coalfields MP

: , ,Chhattisgarh Singrauli Korba , ,Chirmiri PenchKanha Tawa valley

, Hasdo Arand Jhilmili and Mohpani .etc

: , , Maharashtra Chanda Kamte Umrer . and Bander Orissa Talcher and IB

river ( ) ,► Coal reserve statewise Jharkhand

, . , Chhattisgarh W Bengal Andhra , , , ,Pradesh Maharashtra UP Meghalaya

, Assam Arunachal Pradesh and .Nagaland

,► Largest Mine reserves Jharia , .Raniganj Godavari valley North , .Karanpura Singrauli and Talcher

/► Statewise production MP , , , Chhattisgarh Bihar Orissa Andhra

, , . , Pradesh Maharashtra W Bengal and .Uttar Pradesh

► Utilisation of coal in various ( ) : ,industries in sequence Power

, , , Steel Cement Fertilizer Chemical .and Paper

► In order to increase the availability of indegenous coking coal for steel

, plants new coal washeries are being set up and capacities of

existing coal beneficiation plants are .being increased

► There are around eighteen coal .washeries in the country Seven ( , ,washeries Dugda Bhojudih , , Patherdih Lodna Sudamdih and

) Munidih produce high grade coking . , ,coal Similarly Kargali Kathera

, , Sawang Gidi Barora and Nandan washeries manufacture medium

. grade coking coal Durgapur I .washery is under W Bengal

government and those of Jamdoba . and W Bokaro is under Tata Iron and ., Steel Co that of Nawrozabad under

Western coalfield limited and Lodna and Durgapur II under the Bharat

.Coking Coal Ltd : ► Problems of coal mining poor

quality coal uneven distribution transport bottleneck obsolete , methods of mining power shortage recession in coal mining

environmental pollution wastage of .coal

Peat , ► Found in Nilgiri hills Jhelum and

. .Ganga delta in W Bengal

Petroleum .► It is also called mineral oil ► Oilfields in North east India

( ) a Digboi north east of Tipam hills ., in Dibrugarh distt it is the oldest

.oilfield( ) 32 . b Naharkatiya fields km from

1953. started in( ) 1956, 40c Moranhugugan started in

. .km southwest of Naharkatiya( ) , , ,d Rudrasagar Sibsagar Lakura

, , Galeki Badarpur Barhola and Anguri .are newly discovered oilfields

( ) e In Arunachal Pradeshoilfields are in , , . Manabhum Kharsang Charali

( ) , f In Tripura oilfields are in , , Mamunbhang Baramura Dcntamura

, , Subhang Manu Ampibagar .Amarpurdambura

► In Western India Gujarat( ) 80 . ,a Ankleshwar km of Vadodara . . J L Nehru called Ankleshwar as

;fountain of prosperity( ) (b Khambat or Lunej near

) 1958; Ahmadabad field started in( ) .c Ahmadabad and Kalol ,► New oilfields are Kosamba

, , , ,Mahesana Sanand Kathana Olkad , , , ,Dholka Arjol Khadi Sandkhurd , , ,Siswas Nandsan Bhandarat

.Sabhasam and Vadesar ► Offshore oilfields of India

( ) , a Mumbai high Sagar Samrat is its ; platform

( ) ;b Bassein( ) .c Aliabet near Bhavnagar ► Production is largest in Mumbai

(62%), (20%), (16.5%),high Gujarat Assam (1%).then in Tamil Nadu

► Oil refineries in private sector ( ) .a Reliance Petroleum in Jamnagar( ) ;b International Petro Parmar in Surat( ) ;c Ashok Leylands in Daitori in Orissa( ) , ;d Essar Petro in Vadimar Gujarat( ) ; e Black Gold in Vyag( ) , ;f Petrodyne in Karaikal Pondichery

( ) ; g Jindal ferro Alloy in Vizag( ) , . .h Portmardi TIDCO in Tuticorin T N( ) ; i Abon LLyod Chales in Tuticorin( ) .j Moplac Udyog in Haldia ( )► Joint venture refining a Mangalore

; ( ) ' refining b Bhakat Oman s Bina in . ;M P

( ) . . ' ;c H P Oman s Devgarh in Matra( ) , .d IOCKNPC in Daitari Orissa

Manufacturing Industries Cotton Textile Industry

► First modern cotton Textile mill 1818 was set up in at Fort Gloster . near Calcutta Second important was

1854 . .founded in in Bombay by C N .Devar

1861 ► Third mill in in Shahpur ( ), 1863Ahmadabad then Calico mill in

.also in Ahmadabad 1875: 76, 46 ► Till mills were set up 60% out of which were located in

.Bombay alone 1940, 271, 1926► Till mills rose to in 334, 1939 389 it rose to till and till

1945 417.they rose to :Present Scenario

► Cotton industry is the largest organised modern industry in India in

16% which about of Industry capital 20% and about of industrial labour is

.engaged 31 1996, 1569► Till March there were

: 188 cotton mills in India were in , 146 public sector in cooperative 1.235 .sector and in private sector

:Distribution ► Highest is Maharashtra in Cotton

42.49%, textile Production but in Cotton Yarn Maharashtra produces

16.65%. only In Maharashtra there are 122 63 total mills out of which mills

, are in Mumbai so Mumbai is called . Cottonopolis

:Causes1. Mumbai enjoys humid climate

which is essential for cotton industry because thread does not break so .frequently

2. Mumbai has a big port which

.helps in import of machinery3. .Cheap hydro electricity4. Black cotton soil in the hinterland

provides cotton as the basic raw .material

5. .Better communication6. .Facilities for washing ► Other centres in Maharashtra are

, , , ,Sholapur Pune Kojjiapur Satara , , Nagpur Aurangabad Amravati and .Jalgaon

, ► Second highest Gujarat which 23.5% 8% produces of cloth and of

.yarn of India 118 , 73► It has mills out of which , are in Ahmadabad other mills are in

, , , ,Surat Vadodra Rajkot Porbandar .Maurvi and Bhavnagar

7.07% ► Third is Madhya Pradesh of 1.82% cloth and of yarn production in . , ,India Centres are Gwalior Ujjain , , , Indore Dewas Ratlam Jabalpur and .Bhopal

6.18% ► Fourth is Tamil Nadu of total cloth but highest in India in cotton 34.21%.yarn production

. . 439 200 T N has mills in which are in , Coimbotore therefore called .Manchester of South India

, ,► Other areas are Chennai Madurai , , ,Tiruchirapalli Salem Perambur

.Tuticorin 3.87% ► Fifth is West Bengal of total

2.94% .cloth and of cotton yarn ► Most important centre is

, ,Murshidabad others are in Howrah , , Hugli Syampur Shrirampur and

.Panihar . . 3.86% , ► Sixth is U P of the cloth but

7.835 .of cotton yarn ► Kanpur is the largest centre and

. ., 52called Manchester of U P out of . , 10.mills in U P Kanpur has

, ,► Others are Moradabad Varanasi , , , ,Agra Bareilly Aligarh Modinagar

, , , Saharanpur Rampur Etawa Lucknow .and Mirzapur

► Seventh is Pondicherry2.61% 1.16% of Cotton Textile and of

.yarn 2.34% ► Eighth is Rajasthan of textile

3.62% . ,and of yarn Centres are Pali , , ,Beawar Vijaynagar Kishangarh

, , , ,Ganganagar Bhilwara Udaipur Jaipur .Kota and Ajmer

2.28% ,► Ninth is Karnataka of cloth 4.68% . ,of yarn Centres are Bangalore

, , ,Belgam Mangalore Chitradurg , .Gulbarga Chenapatnam and Mysore

: 2.03% 1.87% ► Orissa of cloth and of .yarn

: 1.78% , 5.91% ;► Punjab of cloth of yarn , Amitsar Ludhiana and Fagwara are .centres

: 1.09% ; 2.03% ;► Kerala cloth yarn , ,centres are Kollam Trichur

.Tiruvanantpuram and Alleppey : 0.34% , 0.19% .► Bihar of textile of yarn

, , .Centres are Gaya Patna Bhagalpur : 0.33% , 5.20%► Andhra Pradesh of cloth . ,in yarn Centres are Hyderabad

, , . Sikandarabad Guntur E Godawari .and Udaigiri

► Problems of Cotton Textile Industry ( ):in hierarchy1. : Shortage of raw cotton due to 1947 , partition as Sindh was an

.important centre of cotton2. .Obsolete machinery3. .Erratic power supply4. .Low productivity of labour5. , Stiff competition especially with

.China6. .Silk mills ► India exports cotton textile highest . , to U S then to Russia and then to . .U K

:Manufacturing Industries

Jute Industry ► It is second most important after

cotton 1855 .► First Jute Mill in in Rishra 1859, ► In first power loom was

. 1884, 24,started Till they rose to 76 191819 112 1947.further in and in

, 81% ► In partition of jute output went to East Pakistan

, 73 ,► Today there are mills in India 85% out of which are between Naihati :and Calcutta Distribution

. ; 73, 56► First in W Bengal out of . , 14%.mills are in W Bengal produces

10% ► Second is Andhra Pradesh of .total production

. , ,► In W Bengal centres are Balli , , ,Rishra Serampore Budge Budge

, , ,Shamnagar Saikia Bansberia , , ,Uluberia Titagarh Agrapora . Birlapure

(Causes of Mills in Bengal in ):hierarchy

1. The Ganga Bhrahmaputra delta 90% ' grows about of India s jute and

therefore provides raw material to .jute mills

2. Coal is easily obtained from .Raniganj

3. Abundant water is available for , processing washing and dyeing of

.jute4. Humid climate is very convenient

.for spinning and weaving5. Calcutta is a big city of import

.and export6. Population is high so labour is

.cheap

► Mills in Andhra Pradesh are at , , ,Guntur Ongole Eluru

, (Vishakhapatnam Nellimorala near ), .Ongole Chellivelsa and Eburu

. ► Mills in U P are at Kanpur and Gorakhpur ,► Mills in Bihar are in Purnea

, , .Katihar Samastipur Gaya . ., ; .► In M P Raigarh in OrissaCuttak : ► Problems of Jute Mills The overall

demand for jute product is .decreasing in international market

The input coast for jute product in . India is quite high Basically jute is , export oriented industry in the

international market they have .developed substitute of jute

► The greatest importer from India , , , ,is USA Canada Australia Russia

. . .Czech Republic and U K 60% ► of the total production was

, , 20%.exported now it is only

Woolen Textile ► First woolen modern industry is Lal

, 1876.imli near Kanpur in 1881, ► Dhariwal in Punjab in Mumbai 1882 1886.in and Bangalore in 621 ► Today there are big and small

.mills in India :► Distribution

1. 297 , Punjab has mills maximum in , ,Dhariwal other centres are Amritsar .Ludhiana and Kharar

: Causes hydroelectricity Bhakara ; Nangal dam water from Kashmir and .Kumoun region

2. 31 Maharashtra has mills largely in .Mumbai

3. . . 37 U P has mills mainly at Kanpur ( ),birth place of woolen industry

, , , Shajahnpur Mirzapur Varanasi Agra4. 10 : Gujarat has mills important

, centers are Jamnagar Ahmadabad .and Vadodara

5. : 160 Harayana small mills in , , Panipat Gurgaon Faridabad and

.Bahadurgarh6. : 72 Rajasthan small mills at

, , , ,Bikaner Alwar Bhilwara Sikar , .Nagaur Pushkar and Ajmer

7. : ,Karnataka mills at Bangalore .Bellary

8. : West Bemgal at Howrah and Hooghly

: 240► Woolen Carpets India has ; 90% units ofthe production is

, , exported to USA Britain Canada and .Australia

: .► Hosiery Ludhiana is the largest :► Problems of woolen textiles

1. ( )Shortage of raw wool a productivity of Indian sheep is very

: 0.86 / , low kg annum whereas in 4.08 / .Australia kg annum

( ) .b the quality of wool is not good2. ; lack of market lack of modern

.equipments3. . fluctuating export market

Silk Textile 4 :► There are variations of silk

, , .mulberry tassar muga and irie:Distribution

1 . : 70% Karnataka of mulberry silk of ; the country impotant centres are

, , , ,Mysore Banglore Kolar Mandya , . Tumkur Belgaun and Kodagu

2. : 13% West Bengal of total silk ; mainly mulberry important centres

, , 24are Murshidabad Bankura .Parganas and Bir Bhum

3. & : 10% , ,J K at Anantnag Baramullah .Jammu and Udhampur

4. / : 8% ;Bihar Jharkhand of total silk ;largest producer of tassar silk

, ,important centres are at Patna Gaya , , Palamu Hazaribagh Bhagalpur and .Ranchi

5. . ./ : 2.5% M P Chhattisgarh of total ; , , silk at Balaghat Bastar Bilaspur and

.Sarguja6. . .: 2% ; ,U P below Mirzapur

, .Pratapgarh Shajahanpur7. : , ,Punjab Amritsar Ludhiana

, .Jullandhar Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur8. : ,Tamil Nadu Coimbatore

, , ,Tiruchurapalli Dharampur Nilgiri , , .Salem Tanjore Tirunelveli

9. : , Assam Golpara Kamrup and .Nangaon

10. : , ,Maharashtra Pune Nagpur . .Sangli Chandrapur and Sholapur

, ► Exports to USA Russia and Saudi . Arabia

:Synthetic Fibre . ► Travancore Rayons ltd is at

, 1950.Raipuram Kerala in ► National Rayon company is at

.Mumbai . .► Sirsilk Ltd Hyderabad 6 ► There are types of Synthetic

:fibres( ) : ( . .),a Rayon centres at Kagajnagar A P

( ), ( ),Junagarh Gujarat Raipuram Kerala ( ), ( . .),Udhana Gujarat Birlagram H P ( . ), ( ),Nagada M P Kota Rajasthan , , , Kalyan Pimpri Pune Goregaun

( ), ( . .),Maharashtra Mettupalayam T N ( . ), ( . )Kanpur U P Triveni W B

( ) : b Nylon Filament Yarn Unit at , , , , ,Kota Pimpri Pune Bhosari Mumbai

, , ,Nagpur Modinagar Vadodara , , ,Chennai Banglore Barauni

, , Triuvananthpuram Kanpur Ujjain and .Calcutta

( ) : c Nylon Stable Fibre at Kota and

.Mumbai( ) : ,d Nylon Tyre Cord Unit at Kota

, , , ,Mumbai Chennai Kalyan Kanpur , , Goregaon New Delhi Udhna

( ) : ,e Polyster Staple Fibre Thane , ,, ,Ahmedabad Vadodra Gaziabad

, .Mandi Kota( ) : ,f Polyster filament YarnUnit Mumbai

, , , , ,Kota Pimpri Pune Modinagar Ujjain Udhna and

.Vadodara

METALLURGY :Iron and Steel

► First modern unit was established 1830 . . in at Porto Novo in T N but the real beginning of modern factory was

1907 in named TISCO in Jamshedpur ( ); formerly Sakchi IISCO in 1919 ( . );atBurnpur W B ► Mysore Steel Works Bhadrawati

1923, now called Visvesaraya Iron and .Steel Works

► Second Five Year Plan came up 3 1. ; 2. ; 3.with plants Bhilai Rourkela

.Durgapur ► India is the tenth largest producer .in the world 1973, , ► In SAIL was established it

started to manage following : ; ; ;industries Bhilai Durgapur Rourkela

; ; Bokaro Burnpur Alloy Steel Plant at ;Durgapur and Salem Steel Plant . Visvesraya Iron and Steel Ltd in

1989. 10 :► Top Steel plants are

1. (1907) ;TISCO by Jamshedji Tata :causes for its establishment

High grade haematite ore was available from Nauwa Mundi mines

of Singbhum and Gurumahisani .mines in Mayurhanj

Coal was available in Jharia and .Raniganj

Manganese from Joda mines of . . ,Keonjhar dist of Orissa Dolomite Limestone and fireclay was available

( ).at Sundargarh Orissa Sufficient water from Suwarnarekha

. river Better transport and high . 'population density in Bihar TISCO s

( ).storage is at Gopalpur Orissa

2. : , IISCO it has three plants Kulti in 1864; 1908; 1937, Hirapur Burnpur all . .; in W B all these merged to become

1937.IISCO in : Why IISCO was formed iron ore is

available from Guna mines in ,Singhbhum and from Gurumahisani

.from Mayurbhanj Gets power from DVC and coal from

. .Raniganj Connected to Calcutta .Cheap labour

3. :Visvesraya Iron and Steel Ltd ,Earlier name was Mysore ISCO

1923. established in Located at , . Bhadravati Shimoga dist in . Karnataka It was put under state

1962 control in and named . Visvesarya Iron and Steel Ltd Why

: at Bhadrawati Bhadrawati valley is 13 . , km wide as a result of which

. enough land is available High grade haematite iron is brought from

, .Kemang Gundi mines Chikmaglur Availability of power from Saraswati

. power project Limestone is available .at Bhundi Guda

Shilong and Chitradung supply . Manganese

4. : 1957, Bhilai Steel Plant in . . ; Durgadist of M P in collaboration

. :with USSR Why at Bhilai Rich hematite iron are from Dhalli

. Rajhara mine Coal is obtained from . Korba and Kargali fields Limestone

.was from Nandini mines ( ) Bhandhara Maharashtra and

( . .) .Balaghat M P supply Manganese Korba Thermal Power supplies

. . electricity Dolomite from Bilaspur

5. : Rourkela Steel Plant Hindustan . Steel Ltd is the plant in Sundergarh

. , dist of Orissa set up in collaboration . 1959. with W Germany in Why in

: Rourkela Iron ore from Sundergarh .and Keonjhar .Coal from Jharia and Thalcher .Hydro electricity from Hirakud

.Manganese from Barajmada

.Dolomite from Baradwar . Limestone from Purnabani

6. : Durgapur Steel Plant in Burdwan . ( . ), 1959 dist W B established in with . .; the help of U K project was started

1962.in :Why at Durgapur Iron ore from Bolani mines in

.Mayurbhanj .Coal from Jharia and Raniganj

Limestone from Birmitrapur in . Sundergarh distt Manganese from

. .Keonjhar Dolomite from Birmitrapur .Kolkata Asansol rail network

. Manganese from Keonjhar

7. : ,Bokaro collaboration with USSR 1972.started production in

:Why Bokaro ( ).Iron ore from Kiriburu Orissa . Coal from Jharia Limestone from

. . Palamu Electricity from DVC Fourth : Five Year Plan

8. 1982, Salem Steel plant became . commercial

9. Vishakhapatnam Steel project ( ) 1982, Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Coastal

. location

10. . Vijaynagar Steel Plant Paradeep .Steel Plant

:► Consumption of steel20 . ; kg per capita while the world

143 .average is kg :► Production

Maximum on the basis of crude ; ;steel maximum saleable steel

.maximum pig ironBhilai Then comes Bokaro in crude and

. saleable steel Second in pig iron is ; IISCO Third is Rourkela in crude and

.saleable .Third in pig iron is Durgapur

► Problem of Indian Iron and steel :Industry

.Huge capital investment is required . Lack of technology Low productivity ,Low potential utilization like strike

, . energy crisis raw material crises .Heavy demand

Aluminum Industry ► Aluminum smelting is the second

important metallurgical industry after .iron and steel in India

50% ► About of total aluminum in India is consumed in the generation

.and distribution of electricity 20% ► used for utensils and industrial

; 5%;ware building and architecture 12%; 8% transport packing and

5%.miscellaneous ► Per capita consumption of

500 aluminium in India is gm whereas 5.9 .in America it is kg 1937, ► In Aluminium Corporation of

India was formed at Jay Kay Nagar . .in W Bengal 1943, ► In Indian Aluminium

( ) Company Limited INDAL started and the plant was set up in Allupuram

( ).Kerala 2 , ► During nd FYP two more plants

: (1) were established Indian , . Aluminium Company estd in Hirakud

( ); (2) Orissa Hindustan Aluminium . ( ), ( . .)Corp HINDALCO Renukut U P

1965, ► In BALCO established at . .Korba in M P

► Another plant was established at 1975.'Ratnagiri in

1965, ( ► In MALCO Madras Al ) Company Limited was established in

.Mettur 1981, ( .► In NALCO National Al Comp .) ,Ltd was established at Daman Jodi . near Jaypore at Koraput Dist of .Orissa

► NALCO is the largest 198889, ► In another unit was set up at Ankul in district Dhenkanal

( ).Orissa

► The production cost is quite high : (1) ;in India because costly electricity

(2) interruption in the supply of ; (3) bauxite inadequate supply of

; (4) electricity inadequate supply of ,some rawmaterials like petroleum , , coke cryolite caustic soda and

. aluminium fluoride

Copper Industry 1924, ► In Indian Copper Company

( ) ICC was set up 1924, ► In a plant was set up in

( ), .Singhbhum Ghatshila Bihar 1967, ► In Hindustan Copper Limited

, came into being took over the work 1972, , of ICC in since then the HCL is

sole major producer of copper in .India

: 1.► Copper is produced at two units , ; 2.Maubandhar near Ghatshila Khetri

, .in Jhunjhunu district Rajasthan ► Maubandhar receives copperore

, , ,from Mausabani Rakha Dhobani , , .Rajdah Tampohar Turamdih

► Khetri copper complex at Khetri , has been erected by HCL production

1974 .started from onwards ,► It receives copper ore from Khetri

, , Kolihan Chandmari Dariba ( ), .Alwar etc ,► Malanjkhand mines at Balaghat . . M P also supplies copperore to

.Khetri ► A new project is comingup in

, .Agnigundala in Guntur AP ► Per capita copper consumption in

250 .India is gm , ► Presently India produces only /12 l th part of its requirement rest is

, , imported from Zambia Zaire Chile and USA

Zinc Industry , ► At present four zinc smelter are

: , ,there in the country Alwaye Debari ( ) Chanderia Rajasthan and

.Vishakhapatnam ► Jawar near Udaipur has the largest

.reserve of zinc core .► Rampura Agucha of Bhilwara dist

► India produces half of its .requirements and imports rest

► Hindustan Zinc Limited was set up 1965.in

Lead Industry ► First lead smelting plant was set 194243.up at Tundu near Dhanbad in

ENGINEERING INDUSTRIES Machine Tools

1930 , . . ,► In s Kirloskar Bros Ltd but the first large scale modern factory was Hindustan Machine Tools Ltd

( ) 1953 HMT in at Bangalore with .Swiss collaboration

: ( ),It has multiunit Pinjore in Haryana 1963.

(1964)Kalamessary in Kerala (1965).Hyderabad

( ).Ajmer grinding unit. ► Another is Heavy Machine Tools

, 1966 .Plant at Ranchi in wiuTCzech .assistance

, ► Third is Parag Tools Limited at .Secunderabad

,► National Instrument Factory .Calcutta

► The Instrumentation Limited at . Kota and Palaghat

Heavy Mechanical Equipments ,► Heavy Engineering Corporation

, 1958.Ranchi .► Mining and Allied Machinery Corp . .Ltd at Durgapur

.,► Tungabhadra Steel Products Ltd 1947.setup in

. ,► Triveni Structural Ltd at Naini Allahabad with the assistance of

.Austria ► Bharat Heavy Plate and Vessels . 1956 Ltd established in at

.Vishakhapatnam & . ., .► Messers Jessop Co Ltd Calcutta & . .► Richardson Cruddas Ltd Mumbai & ., ,► Larsen Toubro Ltd Powai

.Mumbai

Heavy Electrical Equipment Industry 1956, .► Heavy Electricals Ltd

1964, ; ► Bharat Heavy Electricals later .both merged to form BHEL

,► BHEL exports boilers to Malaysia .Libya and Egypt

: ,► It has six units Bhopal , Tiruchirapalli Ramchandrapuram

( ), , near Hyderabad Bangalore Jammu .and Haridwar

: , ,► Electric fans Mumbai Kolkata , , .Chennai Delhi Secunderabad

Railway ► Chittaranjan Locomotives Works

( ), , ., .CLW Chittaranjan Burdwan dist W , 1950. Bengal It produced first engine

1952.in ► Diesel Locomotives Works at

, 1964.Varanasi- The Tata Engineering and

( ),Locomotive Works TELCO 1952.Jamshedpur in

► The Integral Coach Factory at Perambur near Chennai with Swiss

1955.collaboration in , .► Bharat Movers Bangalore , ,► Rail Coach Factory Kapurthala

1958.

Shipbuilding ► India ranks second in Asia next to

Japan in Shipbuilding ,► Hindustan Shipyards

, / Vishakhapatnam setup by M S ,Scindia Steam Navigation Company

1941. 1948.It produced first ship in ., , 1976.► Cochin Shipyard Ltd Kochi , .► Garden Reach Workshops Kolkata , , .► Mazgaon Dock Mumbai builds esp .for Indian Navy

, ► Goa Shipyards builds fibreglass . boats

Automobile ► First started by General Motors

. , 1928.India Ltd Mumbai 1930, .► Ford Motors in Chennai , 1995 ( ), .► Daewoo Korea Noida , ► Premier Automobiles Kurla

, 1947.Mumbai ., ,► Hindustan Motors Ltd Kolkata

1948. ., , 1983.► Maruti Udyog Ltd Gurgaon

, .► TELCO famshedpur .► Hyderabad , . .► Pithampura M P , .► Asron Ropar in Punjab ► Surajpur Light Motor Vehicle

( ).Ghaziabad ( );► Mobikes Dharuhara Haryana

, ( ); ( );Akundi Pune Hosur Tamil Nadu .Faridabad

; ; ( )► Scooters Lucknow Satara Akundi ; ; Pune Panki Odhav

► India ranks second in two . wheelers after China

Aircrafts 1940; .,► Hindustan Aircraft Ltd

.Bangalore 1964, ► it merged with Aeronautics

. India Ltd to form Hindustan . ( ) .Aeronautic Ltd HAL in Bangalore

: 1. ► HAL has three divisions MIG , ; 2. ;Complex Nasik Koraput

3. . Hyderabad Bicycles ► First manufacturing factory was 1940, .set up in Mumbai

,► India exports bicycles to Pakistan .Afghanistan and Srilanka

: , ,► Main centres Mumbai Asansol , , , Sonepat Delhi Chennai Jalandhar

.and Ludhiana

:Sugar Industry 2 ,► India is the nd largest after Cuba but India is the largest producer of .Gur and Khandsari

1840 ► First factory set up in in .North Bihar with Dutch help

► Difference between sugar industry :of North and South India

, Previously north India used to 90% ' produce of lndia s sugar but now

3040%, :it is reduced to because Peninsular India has tropical climate

which gives higher yields per unit .area as compared to north The sucrose content is also higher in the tropical variety of sugarcane in

. south India The crushing season is (78also much longer in south

, . ) (4months Oct to May than in north , . .). months Nov to Feb The

cooperative sugar mills are better

.managed in south than in north Most of the mills in south are new which are equipped with modern

.machinery : 1.► Problems of sugar industry Low

, 67 /yield of sugarcane tonnes hectare , 90 while in Java it is and in Hawaii

121 / . 2.tonnes hectares Short . 3. crushing season Low rate of , 10%, recovery are while in Java and

, 1416%, Hawaii it is highest recovery rate is in Gujarat followed by

. 4. Maharashtra High cost of . 5. production Small and uneconomic

. 6. size of mills Old and obsolete . 7. machinery Low per capita

, 9.2 . consumption only kg per year , 72.2 .per capita while in cuba it is kg

Cement Industry ► Mainly made from limestone and

.clay 21 3► A mixture composed of rd

, limestone with low magnesium 1/3 .content and rd clay

► Iron oxide and bauxite is also .added to make cement

► Bauxite assists quick setting of ; cement Gypsum is also added for

.the same 250 . ► On an average kg of coal is

1 required to produce tonne of 40% cement which is of the total

.cost 6065% , 2025%► cost is in limestone

512% .silica and in alumina 4 . , 0.4 . ► kg gypsum kg bauxite and

0.2 . kg clay is required to produce .one tonne of cement

► Limestone deposits used for : cements

, Assam Shivsagar Naogaon Meghalaya E and W Khasi hills and

. Jaintia hills: , ,Jharkhand Palamu Singhbhum . Shahabad

. / : , ,M P Chhattisgarh Satna Siddhi , , , ,Jabalpur Durg Bilaspur Raipur

. Bastar: , , ,Rajasthan Jaipur Ajmer Pali

, , ,SawaiMadhopur Jhunjhunu Bundi , , Chittorgarh Udaipur Sirohi and

. Banswara: , ,Gujarat BanasKantha Amreli , , , .Junagarh Kheda Panchmahal Kutch

: , ,Maharashtra Chandrapur Yawatmal .Nanded : . ,Andhra Pradesh E Godavari

, , . ,Nalgonda Khammam W Godavari , , .Krishna Guntur Cuddappah

Karnataka, , . Shimoga Gulbarga Bijapur

. .: , , ,T N Salem Coimbator Tiruchurapalli , . Ramnathpuram Tirunavelli

. .: , . U P Mirzapur Dehradun& : . J K Jammu and Anantnag

:Growth of Cement Industry 1904, .► First in in Chennai 191213, ► Second in Indian Cement

., Company Ltd set up in plant at .Porbander

1915 ., ► Katni Cement Co at Katni ( . ).M P 1916, , '► Lakheri Killick Nickson s

.Bundi Portland Cement Co .established a plant

1922,-23, 6 ► In new plants came at ( ), ( ),Dwarka Gujarat Japla Bihar , , ( Banmore Mehgaon Kymore all in

), ( ).MP Shahbad Karnataka 1934, 10 11 ► In out of companies

merged into Associated Cement ( ).Companies ACC

► Dalmia Cement Group started 1937.establishing plants after

: 1. ► The factories Dalmianagar ( ), 2. Bihar Dalmiachakari Dadri ( ).Haryana 1948, 18 ► By there were cement

.factories in India , 4 ,► Today India ranks th after China

, .Japan and USA 2010, ► By India is likely to become

2 . nd next to China

Paper Industries : 6062%► In India paper is made from

( );bamboo a cellulosic raw material 79% ; ; sabai grass bagasse rice and

; ; ;wheat straw eucalyptus pine .mulberry

: , ► Chemical used caustic soda soda , , ,ash sodium sulphate chlorine

, ,calcium bisulphate sulphuric acid

, , ,raisin and clay lime ferric alumina .ammonium

► One tonne of paper production 3.54 .requires tonnes of coal

:Development 1816, ; First factory in Chennai second

1832, , . in Serampore both failed Third 1870, factory Royal Bengal Paper

, , . 1879Mills Bellyganj near Kolkata , 1882 1887 Lucknow Titagarh Pune

1892 1892 Raniganj Kaukinara 1918 195051, Naihati By there were as

17 :many as mills News Print (1955), ► first factory Nepanagar in

( . ).Hoshangabad M P (1981), ► Second factory Mysore

, , .Paper Mills Shimoga Karnataka 1982, ► Third is Hindustan Paper

, , , .Mills Vellore Kottaiyam Kerala , 1985, ► Fourth Tamil Nadu News

., Print and Paper Ltd Pugalur in .Tiruchirapalli

1996, 26 ► Till there were news print .mills were there in India

► Per capita paper consumption in 3 ., . India is kg in European country

300 . :kg Trade ► Pulp and waste paper is imported

, , ,from Norway Sweden Canada .Holland

, ► Paper board Newsprint is imposed , , ,from Poland Sweden Czech Republic

.Slovakia Republic and Canada : 1.► Problems of Paper Industry

Scarcity of raw materials because of ; 2.degradation of forest Costly

.unconventional raw material3. Growing consciousness for the

preservation of forests and maintenance of ecology balance and

. biodiversity4. ,Very low rate of consumption

16% , population of world paper 1% .production of world

5. Small size of uneconomic . manufacturing units

:Fertilizer Industry ► Indian soils being generally

,deficient in fertilizing elements .namely P and K

1906, ► first superphosphate factory

. .was set up at Ranipet in T N 1951, ► In Fertilizer Corporation of

( ), .India FCI set up a plant at Sindri .► Public Sector Fertilizer Co FCI

1961; 4 :incorporated in it has units. ;a Sindri. ;b Gorakhpur. ;c Talcher. ( . ).d Ramagundum A P

23 . 1974, NFL established in Aug has 5 :units. : a Nangal Calcium almunium nitrate

;and Urea. ; b Bhatinda. ;c Panipat. .d Vijaypur It is largest producer of Nitrogenous

.fertilizer Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore

.( ) :Ltd FACT has three units. ;a Udyog Mandal. .b Two units at Kochi

Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers . Ltd it is a gas based fertilizer plant

.at Thai . .( ):Hindustan Fertilizers Corp Ltd HFCL

5 ( ),it has units at Namrup Assam ( . ), one at Durgapur W B one at

.Barauni .: Madras Fertilizers Ltd it is a joint ; venture of India and Iran established

.at Manali near Chennai Pyrites Phosphates and Chemicals

. ( ): 1960,Ltd PPCL set up in March ( , units at Amjher Bihar manufactures ), super phosphate Salodipura

( Rajasthan for exploration and ), production of Pyrites Mussorie

( Uttaranchal where mining of rock ).phosphate ore is done

.Project and Development India Ltd ( ): PDIL formerly Fertilizer Planning

., and Development India Ltd famous .for engineering

: (► Cooperative Sector IFFCO Indian .)Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative Ltd

24,000 ,has cooperative societies 1975; :incorporated in has four units

. ( ); . ( );a Kalol Gujarat b Kandla Gujarat . ( . ); . ( . ).c Phulpur U P d Anola U P

.Krishak Bharti Cooperative Ltd ( ) 1985; KRIBHCO started in has a gas

based urea ammonia plant at Hazira ( ).Gujarat ► Private Sector ( ); ( ); ( );IEL Kanpur SRC Kota DCM Delhi ( )NF Broach

( ) Coromandal Vishakhapatnam ZACL ( ); ( ); Goa EID Pary of Ennore GSFC ( ); ( ); Vadodra SBIC Tuticorin MFC ( ).Mangalore 1/4 ,► Imports th ofthe requirements

, , , .from USA Russia Canada Japan ► India imports largely Nitrogenous

, fertilizers then Potash then ( ).Phosphate NKP

► Nitrogenous Fertilizer is produced (19.9%); . (14.5%); .by Gujarat U P T N

(11.8%); (9.6%); Punjab Maharashtra (8.0%); (5.4%).Bihar ( 205),► In Phosphatic Fertilizer P

(31.7%), . . (23.1%),highest is Gujarat T N (14%). then Maharashtra Leather

► First tannery was set up in Kanpur 1867, ,in then Chennai and Kolkata

, , , Agra Bangalore Mokama Phulbari ( ); ( ),Orissa Sherbang Gujarat

( ), Kapurthala Punjab Paldavaram ( ), .Tiruchirapalli Perambur and Alluru ► The Central Leather Research

( ) Institute CLRI is situated at .Chennai

, ,► India exports to USA UK , , , .Germany Japan Russia Australia

Plastic , , , ,► Mumbai Delhi Calcutta Chennai

, , , ,Bangalore Vadodara Vapi Amritsar , , , ,Coimbatore Amritsar Barauni Pimpri

, , , .Boniagaon Kanpur Mettur Durgapur ► Central Institute of Plastics

( ),Engineering and Technology CIPET .Chennai

, , ,► Exports to UAE Kuwait Egypt , , .Kanya Nigeria Saudi Arabia

Drugs and Pharmaceuticals : ► Public Sector Units India Drugs

( ):and Pharmaceuticals Ltd IDPL 1961 (5 ); 5Established in th April has

:plants1. .Rishikesh synthetic drugs2. .Chennai surgical instruments3. .Gurgaon formulations

4. Muzaffarpur drugs and chemicals ( ) 3intermediate IDPL has

: 1. subsidiaries Rajasthan Drugs and . ( ), ; 2.Pharmaceuticals Ltd RPDL Jaipur

. .U P Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd ( ), ; 3. & .,UPDL Lucknow Orissa D P Ltd Bhubaneshwar

1954:Hindustan Antibiotics Limited in1. Maharashtra Antibiotics and

., ;Pharmaceuticals Ltd Nagpur2. & ., ;Karnataka A P Ltd Bangalore3. & , Manipur A P Ltd Imphal Bengal

( ), .Immunity Limited BIL Kolkata Bengal Chemical and

. ( ), .Pharmaceuticals Ltd BCPL Kolkata .Smith Stanistret Pharmaceuticals Ltd

( ), . SSPL Kolkata

Pesticides :► Hindustan Insecticides Ltd

1. , ;Udyog Mandal Kerala2. , .Rashayani Maharashtra and Delhi : ► Subsidiary Southern Pesticides

( ) .Corporation SPC at Kavour , , ,HIL produces BHC DDT Malatheon

IndoSulphan

Dye Stuff ► First unit was Associated Research

. ( .), 1947, .Lab AR Lab Pune , 1947, .► Atul Products Balsar , 1954.► Amar Dyechem ., 1954.► Indian Dye Stuff Ind ., 1956.► Alic Ind .► Suhrid Gaigi : , , ,► Kallu Chem Bayer Hoechst Ghai

, , 1961.Sandoz India Kolshed

Glass ► First factory was established in

1941 .in UP : ,► Rawmaterial used sodaash

, , ,feldspar limestone dolomite , ,manganese dioxide barium oxide

.sulphur and copper :► Distribution: 100 ; UP factories important centres : ( ), , ,are Ferozabad Agra Bahzoi Naini

, , ,Hirangau Shokohabad Hathras , .Sasni Jaunpur : 34 ; West Bengal factories important : , , ,places Kolkata Howrah Raniganj

, , ,Belgachia Belgharia Bellur , , , Sitarampur Rishra Durgapur Asansol

( gets sandstone from Mangalghat ). : 22and Palaghat Maharashtra

; : ,factories Important centres Mumbai , , , Talegaon Satara Nagpur Kolhapur

( ). bottles

Ceramics ► China clay is found in Rajmahal

( ).Hills Bihar ► First factory established in

( ).Patharghat Bihar , & . ( .► Second Barn Co Raniganj W

).Bengal : , ,► Centre Wankaner Thanagarh

, , ,Ranipet Roopnarayanpur Jabalpur , , .Nazarbagh Gwalior Jaipur

: , , ► India exports to Iran Iraq Saudi , ; : &Arabia Kuwait imports from China . Japan

: Chemical industries Sulphuric Acid , , ,► Fertilizer synthetic fibre plastic

, .paint dyestuff 90% ► India imports of its

.requirement : ,► Important Centre Kerala

, .Maharashtra Gujarat Nitric Acid

.► Used in fertilizer and explosives : ' ► Main producer FCL s Trombay Unit

Alkalies , , .► Common salt limestone coal

Soda ash , , ► Okhla Mithapur Dharandhar , , ,► Used in glass paper soap

.detergents Caustic Soda

, , , ► Detergents textiles soaps paper .and pulp

.► Mettur is the largest centre Benzene , .► Comes from naphtha coal : , ► Centre Koyali BombayPetroleum

, ( ).Naphtha Durgapur coal gas . ► Used in dyestuff

Match ► First factory was established in

1921.Ahmedabad in . ( )► Western India Match Co WIPCO

1923; 5 : 65% has units produces of ' :India s production

1. ; 2. ; 3. ;Baraeli Kolkata Chennai 4. , ; 5. , .Ambarnath Mumbai Dubri Assam

:Concentration and Distribution. : , W Bengal Jharia Raniganj Tamil

: , ,Nadu Ramnathpuram Tirunavelli , .Chennai Chingalput

: , , ,Maharashtra Pune Thane Chanda . : , ,Mumbai Gujarat Ahmedabad Petlad

Ambarnath: , , ,UP Barelli Meerut Allahabad

: :Varanasi Karnataka Shimoga Kerala . .: ,Thiruvanathpura A P Hyderabad

: :Warrangal Assam Dubri Rajasthan / :Kota Madhya Pradesh Chhattisgarh

, . Bilaspur Jabalpur

LAC , ► The insect Cerria Laca produces

; .Laca it lives in trees : . 12► Climatic requirements temp °C

-150 .and rainfall cm (► Stick lac is its crude form like

).resin : ' .► Main producer FCL s Trombay Unit

Livestock : ,► Highest livestock population UP

, , .Rajasthan MP Andhra Pradesh . ► Highest cattle density W Bengal

173/ ; : 59/sq km all India average sq .km

: 76/ ; ► Buffalos Haryana sq km Punjab 91/ ; :sqkm all India average density 21/ .sq km : ► Sheep Jammu and Kashmir

( ): 42/ ; :highest sq km all India average 15/ .sqkm : . 123/ ; ► Goats W Bengal sq km all

29/ .India average density sq km ( )► Female Buffalos milk and dry

: 114/ .; 41Chandigarh sq km Punjab . 111 sq km and all India average sq .km

Cattle ► India has largest number in the

, 20% .world total of world -14% ► Maximum cattle is in MP of

.total Indian cattle ; ; ► Second is UP third is Bihar fourth

; .is West Bengal fifth is Maharashtra ; ► Sixth Orissa seventh Karnataka

.and eighth Rajasthan 1 . ► Average yield of cow is It per

, day whereas New Zealand produces 3040 . , It per day therefore Indian cow ' '.is called TeaCup Cow . ► Highest density is in W Bengal

(173 / . .), , ,cattle sq km then UP Bihar , , .Assam Kerala Orissa

.► Minimum in Nagaland ,► Milch breed cattle in India are Gir

, , , Sindhi Red Sindhi Sahiwal Thar .Parkar and Deoni

, ► Gir is in Saurashtra Sindhi in , ,Gujarat Rajasthan and Maharashtra

( ),Red Sindhi in Sindh Pakistan , , Sahiwal in Pakistan Punjab Haryana

, and Rajasthan Deoni is found in .Andhra Pradesh

► Drought breeds include Nagori in , , . . .Jodhpur Haryana U P and M P

, . .,► Bauchaur in Bihar Mahi in M P Kenkatha or Kenwaria

. . , in Banda dist of U P Kherigarh in . . , Kheri dist of U P Halikar and

, Amritmahal in Tumken Hassan and .Mysore

,► Khillari in Sholapur and Satara ,Bargur and Kangyam in Coimbatore

.Siri in Darjeeling and Sikkim . ► Dual purpose breed i e both Milch

and drought breeds are Thar Parkar , ,in Sindh Gujarat and Rajasthan

, Mewati in Mathura Bharatpur and , , Alwar Kankrej in Gujarat Rath in

, ( . ),Haryana Nimari in Narmada M P , , ,Dhangi in Nasik Ahmadnagar Thane

, , Claba Gaobao in Chindwara Wardha , and Nagpur Ongole in Nellore and

.Guntur 59 ► Overall density of cattle is per . .sq km

Buffalo10% ► of the total buffalo of the world 18% is India and it is of total

.livestock of India ► Highest density of buffalo is in

(104), (98), . (68).Punjab Haryana U P 25► All India density of Buffalo is . .per sq km

► Highest number of Buffaloes are in ,Andhra Pradesh

. ., , , ,M P Rajasthan Maharashtra Bihar , . Gujarat Punjab Name of Breed and

. ( ):Place l Murrah draught breed , , . 2. :Rohtak Hissar Gurgaon Bhadwari

, .Agra and Etawa some parts of M P ; 3. : and Rajasthan Jafrabadi Gir in

; 4. : ; 5. :Gujarat Surti Gujarat Nagpuri ; 6. : ( );Nagpur Nilirani Ferozpur Punjab

7. ( )Mehsana Gujarat 7 ► There are cattle breeding forms :in India

( ), Suratgarh Rajasthan Dhamrod ( ), ( . .), Gujarat Alamadhi T N Chiplima ( ), ( ), Orissa Simligurhi Orissa Andesh

( . ), ( ).Nagar U P Hisargatha Karnataka ► Important fodder production

,termology centres are at Hissar ( ), ,Kalyani W Bengal Gandhinagar

, Alamadhi Suratgarh and Shehoma ( . .).J K

Sheep 15%.► All India average is 6 .► India has th position in the world