1

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Geomorphology Part I

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1. Interior of The Earth .................................... 3

1.1 The study of the earth’s interior is essential ... 3 1.2 Direct Sources of information about the interior ........................................................................... 4

1.3 Indirect Sources of information about the interior ........................................................................... 4

1.4 Seismic waves ...................................................... 5

How are earthquake waves produced? ...... 6

1.5 Types of Seismic waves or earthquake waves 6

Body waves ...................................................... 6

Surface waves (L-Waves) ............................... 7

How do seismic waves help in understanding the earth’s interior? ............ 8

1.6 The internal structure of the Earth ................... 9

The Crust ........................................................ 10

Lithosphere .................................................... 11

The Mantle .................................................... 11

Asthenosphere .............................................. 11

The Outer Core.............................................. 11

The Inner Core .............................................. 12

Seismic Discontinuities ................................ 12

2. Earth’s Magnetic Field.................................12

2.1 Dynamo theory: Generation of Earth’s Magnetic Field and Sustaining it .............................. 12

2.2 Magnetic poles ................................................... 13

2.3 Geomagnetic reversal ....................................... 13

Normal and Reversed field .......................... 13

The current location of the Magnetic Poles ......................................................................... 14

2.4 Compass .............................................................. 14

Magnetic declination ................................... 14

Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip ....... 15

2.5 Geomagnetic poles ............................................ 16

2.6 Magnetosphere ................................................. 17

Auroras........................................................... 17

Geomagnetic storms .................................... 18

2.7 Van Allen radiation belt .................................... 18

2.8 Magnetic field of other solar system objects 18

3. Geomorphic Movements ........................... 19

3.1 Endogenic Geomorphic Movements .............. 19

The force behind Endogenic Movements . 19

Classification of Endogenic movements ... 20

Diastrophism ................................................. 20

Sudden Movements ..................................... 21

3.2 Exogenic Geomorphic Movements................. 22

The force behind Exogenic Movements ... 22

Denudation .................................................... 22

Weathering.................................................... 23

4. Tectonics ................................................... 26

4.1 Important concepts that tried to explain the tectonic processes ..................................................... 26

4.2 Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, 1922) ............................................................................ 28

Forces behind the drifting of continents, according to Wegener ................................. 28

Evidence in support of Continental Drift .. 28

Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory .... 30

4.3 Seafloor Spreading ............................................ 30

Convection Current Theory......................... 30

Paleomagnetism ........................................... 31

The concept of Sea Floor Spreading .......... 32

Evidence for Seafloor Spreading ................ 32

4.4 Plate Tectonics ................................................... 32

Major tectonic plates ................................... 33

Minor tectonic plates................................... 35

Interaction of Plates ..................................... 35

Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics ..... 36

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The significance of Plate Tectonics ............ 37

Movement of The Indian Plate ................... 37

Movement ..................................................... 38

4.5 Comparison: Continental Drift – See Floor Spreading – Plate Tectonics ...................................... 38

5. Convergent Boundary .................................39

5.1 Ocean-Ocean Convergence or The Island-Arc Convergence ............................................................... 39

Formation of the Philippine Island Arc System ............................................................ 40

Formation of the Indonesian Archipelago 41

Formation of the Caribbean Islands........... 42

Formation of Isthmus of Panama ............... 43

Formation of the Japanese Island Arc ....... 43

Explain the formation of thousands of islands in Indonesian and Philippines archipelagos (20 marks – Mains 2014) ...... 44

In spite of extensive volcanism, there is no island formation along the divergent boundary (mid-ocean ridge) ....................... 45

5.2 Continent-Ocean Convergence or The Cordilleran Convergence ........................................... 45

Formation of Continental Arcs ................... 45

Formation of Fold Mountains (Orogeny) .. 46

Formation of the Andes ............................... 46

5.3 Formation of the Rockies ................................. 47

5.4 Continent-Continent Convergence or The Himalayan Convergence ........................................... 47

Formation of the Himalayans and the Tibetan Plateau ............................................. 47

Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas Mountains ..................................... 49

Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent-Continent Convergence ............................... 49

Why are the world’s fold mountain systems located along the margins of continents? Bring out the association between the global distribution of Fold Mountains and the earthquakes and volcanoes. ................ 49

5.5 Continent-Arc Convergence or New Guinea Convergence ............................................................... 50

6. Divergent boundary ....................................50

6.1 Evolution – Formation of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas and Oceans ............................................. 50

6.2 Rift valley lakes .................................................. 52

6.3 Great Rift Valley ................................................. 53

East African Rift Valley ................................. 53

7. Classification of Mountains ........................ 55

7.2 Fold Mountains .................................................. 56

‘Fold’ in geology ............................................ 57

Classification of fold mountains ................. 57

Characteristics of Fold Mountains ............. 58

7.3 Block Mountains ................................................ 59

‘Fault’ in Geology .......................................... 59

7.4 Volcanic mountains ........................................... 61

7.5 Significant mountains and mountain ranges 61

Longest Mountain Ranges........................... 61

The Andes ...................................................... 62

The Rockies.................................................... 62

The Great Dividing Range ............................ 64

Transantarctic Mountains ........................... 64

The Ural Mountains ..................................... 64

Atlas Mountains............................................ 64

The Himalayas ............................................... 65

The Alps ......................................................... 65

Highest mountain peaks .............................. 65

Geography is the study of

1. the physical features of the earth and its at-

mosphere,

2. human activity which affects and is affected

by the physical features of the earth and its

atmosphere. (Definition from Oxford Dictionary)

• Human activity which affects and is affected by

the physical features include the distribution of

populations, distribution of resources and eco-

nomic activities, and changes in the environ-

ment.

Geography, the natural science, is divided into two

main branches:

1. Physical geography: deals with the study

of processes and patterns in the natural en-

vironment like the atmosphere, hydro-

sphere, biosphere, and geosphere.

2. Human geography: deals with the envi-

ronment shaped by human activity.

Physical Geography can be divided into several

sub-fields, as follows:

• Geomorphology (‘geo’ meaning earth, ‘mor-

phe’ meaning form and ‘logos’ meaning dis-

course) is the field concerned with understand-

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ing the surface of the Earth and the processes

by which it is shaped.

• Climatology is the study of the climate (weath-

er conditions averaged over a long period).

• Meteorology focuses on weather processes

and short-term forecasting (in contrast with

climatology).

• Oceanography is the branch of physical geog-

raphy that studies the Earth's oceans and seas.

• Hydrology is concerned with the amounts and

quality of water moving and accumulating on

the land surface and in the soils and rocks near

the surface and is typified by the hydrological

cycle.

• Biogeography deals with geographic patterns

of species distribution and the processes that

determine these patterns.

• Environmental geography analyses the spatial

aspects of interactions between humans and

the natural environment. The branch bridges

the divide between human and physical geog-

raphy.

• Geomatics is the field of gathering, storing,

processing, and delivering geographic infor-

mation.

There are many other sub-branches in physical ge-

ography.

1. Interior of The Earth

• Understanding the structure of the earth’s inte-

rior (crust, mantle, core) and various forces

(heat, seismic waves) emanating from it is es-

sential to understand the evolution of the

earth’s surface, its current shape and its future.

1.1 The study of the earth’s inte-

rior is essential

• to understand the earth’s surface

• to understand the geophysical phenomenon

like volcanism, earthquakes, etc.

• to understand the earth’s magnetic field

• to understand the internal structure of various

solar system objects

• to understand the evolution and present com-

position of the atmosphere

• for mineral exploration

Earth’s surface

• Many different geological processes shape the

Earth's surface.

• The forces that cause these processes come

from both above and beneath the Earth's sur-

face.

• Processes that are caused by forces from within

the Earth are endogenous processes (Endo

meaning "in").

• By contrast, exogenous processes (Exo mean-

ing "out") come from forces on or above the

Earth's surface.

• The major geological features of the earth’s sur-

face like mountains, plateaus, lakes are mostly a

result of endogenous processes like folding,

faulting that are driven by forces from inside

the earth.

Geophysical phenomenon like volcanism,

earthquakes

• The forces that cause catastrophic events like

earthquakes, volcanic eruptions come from

deep below the earth’s surface.

• For example, earthquakes occur due to the

movement of the tectonic plates and the energy

required for this movement is supplied by the

conventional currents in the mantle.

• Similarly, volcanism occurs through the vents

and fissures created by the tectonic movements.

Earth’s magnetic field

• Earth’s magnetic field is a result of convection

currents in the outer core of the earth.

• Life on earth would not have been possible if

not for the earth’s magnetic field which protects

the earth’s atmosphere from the harmful solar

wind.

The internal structure of various solar system

objects

• The entire solar system was formed from a sin-

gle nebular cloud, and the process of the for-

mation of every solar system object is believed

to be similar to that of the earth.

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Evolution and present composition of the at-

mosphere

• For life to flourish on the surface of the earth,

the atmosphere needs to have essential com-

ponents like oxygen for respiration, CO2 and

other greenhouse gases to maintain the tem-

perature on the surface, ozone to protect life

from ultraviolet radiation and the right atmos-

pheric pressure.

• All these components of the earth’s atmosphere

owe their existence to the volcanic eruptions

that unlock them from the earth’s interior.

Mineral exploration

• Understanding volcanic activity and the nature

of rocks is essential for mineral exploration.

• Most of the minerals like diamonds (form at a

depth of 150-800 km in the mantle) that oc-

cur on the earth’s surface are formed deep be-

low the earth’s surface. They are brought to the

surface by volcanic activity.

1.2 Direct Sources of information

about the interior

• Deep earth mining and drilling reveal the nature

of rocks deep down the surface.

• But as mining and drilling are not practically

possible beyond a certain depth, they don’t re-

veal much information about the earth’s interi-

or.

• Mponeng gold mine (deepest mine in the

world) and TauTona gold mine (second deep-

est mine in the world) in South Africa are deep-

est mines reaching to a depth of only 3.9 km.

• And the deepest drilling is only about 12 km

deep hole bored by the Soviet Union in the

1970s over the Kola Peninsula.

The Kola Peninsula in north-west Russia. (TUBS, from

Wikimedia Commons)

• Volcanic eruption forms another source of ob-

taining direct information.

1.3 Indirect Sources of infor-

mation about the interior

• Gravitation and the diameter of the earth help

in estimating pressure deep inside.

• Volcanic eruptions and existence of hot springs,

geysers etc. point to an interior which is very

hot.

Seismic waves

• They are the most important source available to

understand the layered structure of the earth.

• The velocity of seismic waves changes as they

travel through materials with different elasticity

and density.

• The more elastic and denser the material is,

the higher is the velocity.

• They also undergo refection or refraction

when they come across materials with different

densities.

• Earth’s internal structure can be understood by

analysing the patterns of reflection, refraction

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and change in velocity of the seismic waves

when they travel through it.

Meteorites

• Meteorites and Earth are born from the same

nebular cloud. Thus, they are likely to have a

similar internal structure.

• When meteoroids they fall to earth, their outer

layer is burnt during their fall due to extreme

friction and the inner core is exposed.

• The heavy material composition of their cores

confirms the similar composition of the inner

core of the earth.

Gravitation

• The gravitation force differs according to the

mass of material. The uneven distribution of

mass of material within the earth influences this

value. Such a difference is called gravity anom-

aly.

• Gravity anomalies give us information about the

distribution of mass in the crust of the earth.

Magnetic field

• The geodynamo effect helps scientists under-

stand what's happening inside the Earth's core.

Shifts in the magnetic field also provide clues to

the inaccessible iron core.

Sources of earth’s heat

Radioactive decay

• The high temperature below the crust is

attributed to the disintegration of the radio-

active substances.

• The nuclear decay happens primarily in the

crust and the mantle.

• Scientists believe that uranium could become

sufficiently concentrated at the base of Earth’s

mantle to ignite self-sustained nuclear fission,

as in a human-made reactor.

• The new measurements suggest radioactive

decay provides more than half of Earth's to-

tal heat.

Nuclear fusion doesn’t occur inside the earth. For

nuclear fusion to occur there must be far more pres-

sure and temperature inside the earth. The earth is

not massive enough to cause such conditions.

Primordial heat

• The rest is the heat left over from Earth's for-

mation known as the primordial heat.

• Primordial heat is the kinetic energy transferred

to Earth by external impacts of comets and me-

teorites and the subsequent effects (friction

caused by sinking of heavy elements like Fe, ris-

ing light elements like Si) and latent heat of

crystallisation released as the core solidified.

Tidal friction

• The ocean tides are not the only effect of tidal

forces (gravitational influence of the moon and

the sun on earth; tides are explained in ocean-

ography). The solid body of the Earth also bulg-

es slightly in this way.

• The daily flexing of the Earth (both solid body

and the oceans) cause loss of energy of the

Earth's rotation, due to friction.

• This energy goes into heat, leading to miniscule

increase in the Earth's internal temperature.

• The loss of rotational energy means that the

Earth is slowing down in its rotation rate,

currently by about 0.002 seconds per century.

1.4 Seismic waves

• Seismic: relating to earthquakes or other vibra-

tions of the earth and its crust.

• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel

through the Earth's layers and are a result of

earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma

movement, large landslides and large human-

made explosions.

• The refraction or reflection of seismic waves is

used for research into the structure of the

Earth's interior.

• The terms seismic waves and earthquake waves

are often used interchangeably.

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Geomorphology for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com

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Geomorphology Part II

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1. Volcanism .................................................... 2

1.1 Causes of Volcanism ................................. 2 1.2 Lava types ................................................. 2

Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or Stratovolcanic lava...................................... 2 Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava ................... 3

1.3 Volcanic Landforms .................................. 3 Extrusive Volcanic Landforms ..................... 3 Intrusive Volcanic Landforms ..................... 6

1.4 Volcanism Types ....................................... 7 Exhalative (vapour or fumes) ..................... 7 Effusive (Lava outpouring) .......................... 8 Explosive (Violent ejection of solid material) ..................................................... 8 Subaqueous Volcanism ............................... 8

1.5 Eruptive Volcanism Types ...................... 10 Hawaiian Eruption .................................... 10 Icelandic Eruptions ................................... 10 Strombolian Eruption ............................... 10 Vulcanian Eruption ................................... 11 Plinian Eruption ........................................ 11 Pelean Eruption ........................................ 13

1.6 Hotspot Volcanism ................................. 13 Mantle Plumes .......................................... 13

1.7 Geysers and Hot Springs ........................ 18 1.8 Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes . 18 1.9 Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes across the World ............................................ 19

Pacific Ring of Fire .................................... 19 Other regions ............................................ 19 Mediterranean volcanism ........................ 20 Volcanos in India....................................... 20

1.10 Destructive Effects of Volcanoes ............ 20 1.11 Positive Effects of Volcanoes ................. 21

1.12 Rocks ...................................................... 21 Igneous Rocks or Primary rocks ............... 21 Sedimentary Rocks or detrital rocks ........ 23 Metamorphic Rocks ................................. 24

2. Earthquakes ............................................... 26

2.2 Causes of Earthquakes ........................... 26 2.3 Earthquakes based on the depth of focus 28

Shallow-focus earthquake ........................ 28 Deep-focus earthquake ............................ 28

2.4 Distribution of Earthquakes ................... 29 2.5 Richter magnitude scale ......................... 29 2.6 Effects of Earthquakes............................ 32

3. Tsunami ..................................................... 33

3.1 Mechanism of tsunami waves ................ 33 3.2 Properties of Tsunami Waves ................ 34 3.3 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami ................... 35

Plate tectonics .......................................... 35 Tsunami waves ......................................... 35 Shifts in Geography .................................. 35

3.4 Warning Systems .................................... 36

4. Soil erosion and Landforms ........................ 36

4.1 Water Erosion ......................................... 36 Raindrop erosion or splash erosion ......... 37 Sheet erosion ........................................... 37 Rill and gully erosion ................................ 37 Streambank erosion ................................. 37 Landslide .................................................. 38 Coastal erosion ......................................... 38 Glacial erosion .......................................... 38

4.2 Wind Erosion .......................................... 38 4.3 Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion . 38

2

Fluvial Erosional Landforms ...................... 38 Drainage systems (drainage patterns) ..... 43 Fluvial Depositional Landforms ................ 47

4.4 Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion .... 49 Sinkhole/Swallow Hole ............................. 50 Polje/Blind Valley...................................... 50 Cavern ....................................................... 50 Arch/Natural Bridge ................................. 51 Sinking Creeks/Bogas................................ 51 Stalactite and Stalagmite .......................... 51 Dry Valley/Hanging Valley/Bourne ........... 51 The Karst Cycle of Erosion ........................ 51

4.5 Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion 52 Marine Erosional Landforms .................... 52 Marine Depositional Landforms ............... 53 Coastlines ................................................. 54

4.6 Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion . 56 Glacial Erosional Landforms ..................... 56 Glacial Depositional Landforms ................ 57 Glacial Cycle of Erosion ............................. 57

4.7 Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ..... 58 Erosional Arid Landforms ......................... 58 Arid Depositional Landforms .................... 60

5. Lakes ..........................................................61

5.1 Classification of Lakes ............................ 61 5.2 Lakes and Man........................................ 63 5.3 Important Lakes on Earth ....................... 64

6. Plateau .......................................................66

6.1 Economic significance of plateaus ......... 66 6.2 Plateau Formation .................................. 67

Thermal expansion ................................... 67 Crustal shortening .................................... 67 Volcanic flood basalts ............................... 67 Others ....................................................... 68

6.3 Plateau Types ......................................... 68 Dissected plateau ..................................... 68 Volcanic plateau ....................................... 68 Others ....................................................... 68

6.4 Major plateaus of the World .................. 68 Others ....................................................... 70

1. Volcanism

• A volcano is a vent or a fissure in the crust from

which lava (molten rock), ash, gases, rock frag-

ments erupt from a magma chamber below the

surface.

• Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of

molten rock, pyroclastics and volcanic gases to

the surface through a vent.

1.1 Causes of Volcanism

• There is a huge temperature difference be-

tween the inner layers and the outer layers of

the earth due to the differential amount of ra-

dioactivity.

• This temperature difference gives rise to con-

vectional currents in the mantle.

• The convection currents in the mantle create

convergent and divergent boundaries (weak

zones).

• At the divergent boundary, molten, semi-

molten and sometimes gaseous material ap-

pears on earth at the first available opportunity.

• The earthquakes here may expose fault zones

through which magma may escape (fissure

type volcano).

• At the convergent boundary, the subduction of

denser plate creates magma at high pressure

which will escape to the surface in the form of

violent eruptions.

1.2 Lava types

• Magma is composed of molten rock and is

stored in the Earth's crust. Lava is magma that

reaches the surface through a volcano vent.

Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or

Stratovolcanic lava

• These lavas are highly viscous with a high

melting point.

• They are light-coloured, of low density, and

have a high percentage of silica.

• They flow slowly and seldom travel far before

solidifying.

• The resultant volcanic cone is therefore strati-

fied (hence the name stratovolcano) and

steep-sided.

• The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent ob-

structs the flow of the out-pouring lava, result-

3

ing in loud explosions, throwing out many vol-

canic bombs or pyroclasts.

Volcano (Medium69.Cette William Crochot, via

Wikimedia Commons)

• Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that they

form a lava plug at the crater like that of Mt.

Pelée in Martinique (an island in the Lesser An-

tilles, Caribbean Islands).

• Andesitic lava flow occurs mostly along the de-

structive boundaries (convergent boundaries).

Lava Plug at the crater

Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava

• These are the hottest lavas, about 1,000 °C and

are highly fluid.

• They are dark coloured basalt, rich in iron

and magnesium but poor in silica.

• They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and are

not very explosive.

• Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily with

a speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour.

• They affect extensive areas, spreading out as

thin sheets over great distances before they

solidify.

• The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a

wide diameter and forms a flattened shield or

dome.

• Shield type lava flow is common along the con-

structive boundaries (divergent boundary).

1.3 Volcanic Landforms

• Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive

and intrusive landforms based on whether

magma cools within the crust or above the

crust.

• Rocks formed by cooling of magma within the

crust are called Plutonic rocks.

• Rocks formed by cooling of lava above the sur-

face are called Igneous rocks.

• In general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is used to

refer all rocks of volcanic origin.

Extrusive and Intrusive volcanic landforms

Extrusive Volcanic Landforms

4

• Extrusive landforms are formed from material

thrown out to the surface during volcanic activi-

ty.

• The materials thrown out include lava flows, py-

roclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash, dust and

gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur

compounds and minor amounts of chlorine,

hydrogen and argon.

Conical Vent and Fissure Vent

Fissure vent

• A fissure vent (volcanic fissure) is a narrow, line-

ar volcanic vent through which lava erupts,

usually without any explosive activity.

• The vent is often a few meters wide and may be

many kilometres long.

• Fissure vents are common in basaltic volcan-

ism (shield type volcanoes).

Conical vent

• A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent

through which magma flows out violently.

• Conical vents are common in andesitic volcan-

ism (composite or stratovolcano).

Mid-Ocean Ridges

• The system of mid-ocean ridges stretches for

more than 70,000 km across all the ocean ba-

sins.

• The central portion of the mid-ocean ridges ex-

periences frequent eruptions.

• The lava is basaltic (less silica and hence less

viscous) and causes the spreading of the

seafloor.

Composite Type Volcanic Landforms

• They are conical or central type volcanic land-

forms.

• Along with andesitic lava, large quantities of

pyroclastic material and ashes find their way to

the surface.

• Andesitic lava along with pyroclastic material

accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings

leading to the formation of layers, and this

makes the mounts appear as a composite vol-

cano or a stratovolcano (divided into layers).

• The highest and most common volcanoes have

composite cones.

• Mount Stromboli (the Lighthouse of the

Mediterranean), Mount Vesuvius, Mount Fuji

are examples.

Shield Type Volcanic Landforms

• The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most familiar

examples.

• These volcanoes are mostly made up of basal-

tic lava (very fluid).

• These volcanoes are not steep.

• They become explosive if somehow water gets

into the vent; otherwise, they are less explosive.

• Example: Hawaiian volcanoes Mauna Loa (ac-

tive shield volcano) and Mauna Kea

(dormant shield volcano).

Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms (Lava Plat-

eaus)

• Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes through

cracks and fissures in the earth's surface and

5

flows after intervals for a long time, spreading

over a vast area, finally producing a layered,

undulating (wave-like), flat surface.

• Example: Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, Snake

Basin, Icelandic Shield, Canadian Shield.

Crater

• A crater is an inverted cone-shaped vent

through which the magma flows out. When the

volcano is not active the crater appears as a

bowl-shaped depression.

The crater of Mount Fuji, Japan

• When water from rain or melted snow gets ac-

cumulated in the crater, it becomes a crater

lake.

Caldera

• In some volcanoes, the magma chamber below

the surface may be emptied after volcanic erup-

tions.

• The volcanic material above the chamber col-

lapses into the empty magma chamber, and the

collapsed surface appears like a large cauldron-

like hollow (tub shaped) called the caldera.

• When water from rain or melted snow gets ac-

cumulated in the caldera, it becomes a caldera

lake (in general, the caldera lakes are also called

crater lakes).

• Due to their unstable environments, some

crater lakes exist only intermittently. Caldera

lakes, in contrast, can be quite large and long-

lasting.

• For example, Lake Toba (Indonesia) formed

after its supervolcanic eruption around 75,000

years ago. It is the largest crater lake in the

world.

• Mount Mazama (Cascade Volcanic Arc, USA)

collapsed into a caldera, which was filled with

water to form Crater Lake (the literal name of

the lake formed by the collapse of Mount

Mazama is ‘Crater Lake’!).

Caldera lake of Mount Mazama

A crater lake, in general, could be of volcanic

origin (volcanic crater lake, volcanic caldera

lake) or due to a meteorite impact (meteor

1

Climatology for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com

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Climatology Part I

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1. Latitudes and Longitudes ............................. 2

1.1 Latitude or Parallel ................................... 3 Important parallels of latitudes ................... 3 Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth ............. 3

1.2 Longitude or Meridian.............................. 3 Longitude and Time ..................................... 4 Standard Time and Time Zones ................... 4 Indian Standard Time .................................. 4 The International Date Line ......................... 4

1.3 Comparison: Latitude vs Longitude.......... 7

2. Motions of the earth .................................... 7

2.1 Rotation of Earth ...................................... 7 Shape of the earth ....................................... 8

2.2 Revolution ................................................ 9 Solstice ......................................................... 9 Equinox ...................................................... 10 Perihelion and Aphelion ............................ 11 Eclipse ........................................................ 12

3. Atmosphere ................................................16

3.1 Evolution of Earth’s atmosphere ........... 16 3.2 Composition of Atmosphere .................. 17

Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere ....... 17 Important constituents of the atmosphere ................................................................... 18

3.3 Structure of Atmosphere ....................... 19 Troposphere .............................................. 19 Stratosphere .............................................. 20 Mesosphere ............................................... 21 Thermosphere ........................................... 21 Exosphere .................................................. 22

3.4 Importance of Earth’s Atmosphere ........ 22

4. Temperature Distribution on Earth .............23

4.1 Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy ........... 23 Radiation ................................................... 23 Conduction ................................................ 24 Convection ................................................ 24

4.2 Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution .................................................... 24

The Angle of Incidence or the Inclination of the Sun’s Rays ........................................... 24 Duration of Sunshine................................. 24 Transparency of Atmosphere .................... 24 Albedo ....................................................... 25 Land-Sea Differential ................................. 25 Prevailing Winds ........................................ 25 Aspects of Slope ........................................ 25 Ocean Currents ......................................... 25 Altitude ...................................................... 25 Earth’s Distance form Sun ......................... 26

4.3 The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution .................................................... 26

General characteristics of isotherms ........ 26 General Temperature Distribution............ 26 Seasonal Temperature Distribution .......... 27

4.4 Latitudinal Heat Balance ........................ 28 4.5 Heat Budget ............................................ 29 4.6 Vertical Distribution of Temperature ..... 30

Latent Heat of Condensation .................... 30 Lapse Rate ................................................. 31 Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR) ........................ 31 Temperature Inversion ............................. 34

5. Pressure Systems and Wind Systems .......... 36

5.1 Atmospheric pressure ............................ 36 5.2 Atmospheric pressure cells .................... 36 5.3 Isobars .................................................... 37

Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure centres 37

5.4 Vertical Variation of Pressure ................ 37

2

5.5 Factors affecting Wind Movement ........ 37 Pressure Gradient Force ............................ 37 Buoyant force ............................................ 38 Frictional Force .......................................... 38 Coriolis force .............................................. 38 Centripetal Acceleration ............................ 39

5.6 Horizontal Distribution of Pressure ........ 40 Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’ ................................................................... 40 Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes .................................................... 41 Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt ..................... 42 Polar High-Pressure Belt ............................ 42 Factors Controlling Pressure Systems ....... 42 Pressure belts in July ................................. 43 Pressure belts in January ........................... 43

5.7 Pressure systems and General Circulation 43

Hadley Cell ................................................. 43 Ferrel Cell ................................................... 44 Polar Cell .................................................... 44

5.8 Classification of Winds ........................... 44 Primary winds or Prevailing Winds or Planetary Winds ........................................ 44 Secondary or Periodic Winds..................... 45 Land Breeze and Sea Breeze ...................... 45 Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze ......... 46 Tertiary or Local Winds .............................. 46

6. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle) .................47

6.1 Water Vapour in Atmosphere ................ 48 Humidity .................................................... 48

6.2 Evaporation ............................................ 49 Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation ....... 49

6.3 Condensation ......................................... 50 Processes of Cooling for Producing Condensation ............................................. 50

6.4 Forms of Condensation .......................... 51 Dew ............................................................ 51 White Frost ................................................ 51 Fog ............................................................. 51 Mist ............................................................ 52 Smog .......................................................... 52 Clouds ........................................................ 55

6.5 Precipitation ........................................... 57 6.6 Types of Rainfall ..................................... 57

Convectional Rainfall ................................. 57 Orographic Rainfall .................................... 58 Frontal Rainfall .......................................... 58

Cyclonic Rain ............................................. 58 Monsoonal Rainfall ................................... 59 World Distribution of Rainfall ................... 59

7. Thunderstorm ............................................ 60

Stage 1: Cumulus stage ............................. 60 Stage 2: Mature stage ............................... 60 Stage 3: Dissipating stage .......................... 61

7.2 Types of Thunderstorms ........................ 61 Thermal thunderstorm .............................. 61 Orographic thunderstorm ......................... 61 Frontal thunderstorm ............................... 61 Single-cell thunderstorm (Isolated thunderstorm) ........................................... 61 A multi-cell thunderstorm ......................... 61 A supercell thunderstorm ......................... 61

7.3 Tornado .................................................. 62 Formation .................................................. 62 Waterspout ............................................... 62 Distribution of tornadoes .......................... 62

7.4 Lightning and thunder ............................ 63 Thunder ..................................................... 63 Lightning from cloud to Earth ................... 63 Lightning deaths ........................................ 64

7.5 Hailstorm ................................................ 64 Favourable conditions for hail formation . 64 Formation of hail ....................................... 64

7.6 Hazards posed by thunderstorms and associated phenomenon ............................... 65

1. Latitudes and Longitudes

• Latitudes and Longitudes (coordinate system)

are imaginary lines used to determine the loca-

tion of a place on earth.

• Example: The location of New Delhi is 28° N Lat-

itude, 77° E Longitude.

3

Latitude (ϕ) and longitude (λ) are defined on a

perspective spherical modal (Wikipedia)

1.1 Latitude or Parallel

• Latitude is the angular distance of a place north

or south of the equator measured in degrees

from the centre of the earth.

• As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles,

the linear distance of a degree of latitude at

the pole is a little longer than that at the

equator.

• For example, at the equator linear distance of a

degree of latitude is 110.57 km (68.7 miles), at

45° it is 111.13 km (69 miles), and at the poles,

it is 111.7 km (69.4 miles). The average is taken

as 111 km (69 miles).

Important parallels of latitudes

• Besides the equator (0°), the north pole (90°

N) and the south pole (90° S), there are four

important parallels of latitudes:

1. The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the

northern hemisphere.

2. The Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the

southern hemisphere.

3. The Arctic circle (66½° N) in the northern

hemisphere.

4. The Antarctic circle is (66½° S) in the

southern hemisphere.

Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth

Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth

• The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least

once a year on all latitudes in between the

Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.

This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat

and is called the torrid zone.

• The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any

latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the

Tropic of Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays

goes on decreasing towards the poles.

• As such, the areas bounded by the Tropic of

Cancer and the Arctic circle, and the Tropic of

Capricorn and the Antarctic circle, have moder-

ate temperatures. These are, therefore, called

temperate zones.

• Areas lying beyond the Arctic circle and the

Antarctic circle are very cold. Here the sun does

not rise much above the horizon. Therefore, its

rays are always slanting. These are, therefore,

called frigid zones.

1.2 Longitude or Meridian

• Longitude is an angular distance of a place east

or west of the Prime (First) Meridian meas-

ured in degrees from the centre of the earth.

4

• On the globe, longitude is shown as a series of

semi-circles that run from pole to pole passing

through the equator. Such lines are also called

meridians.

• It was decided in 1884 to choose the meridian

which passes through the Royal Astronomical

Observatory at Greenwich, near London, as

the zero meridian or prime meridian.

• All other meridians radiate eastwards and

westwards of the prime meridian up to 180°.

• Unlike the parallels of latitude, the meridians of

longitude are of equal length.

• The meridians of longitude have one very im-

portant function; they determine local time in

relation to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT),

which is sometimes referred to as World Time.

Longitude and Time

• Since the earth makes one complete rotation of

360° in one day or 24 hours, it passes through

15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.

• The earth rotates from west to east, so every

15° we go eastwards, local time is advanced

by 1 hour.

• Conversely, if we go westwards by 15°, local

time is retarded by 1 hour.

• Thus, the places east of Greenwich gain time,

whereas places west of Greenwich lose time.

• A traveller going eastwards gains time from

Greenwich until he reaches the meridian 180° E

when he will be 12 hours ahead of GMT

(GMT+12).

• Similarly, in going westwards, he loses 12 hours

when he reaches 180° W. There is thus a total

difference of 24 hours or a whole day between

the two sides of the 180° meridian.

180° E and 180° W correspond to the same longi-

tude. The difference is the direction of travel.

Standard Time and Time Zones

• Standard Time is the time corresponding to a

certain longitude or longitudes as chosen by a

country.

• Most countries adopt their standard time from

the central meridian of their countries. E.g. IST

corresponds to the time at 82.5° E longitude.

• In countries that have a very large longitudinal

extent (large east-west span), such as Canada,

USA, Russia, it would be inconvenient to have a

single time zone. So, such countries have multi-

ple time zones.

• For example, Russia has nine time zones, and

Canada and USA have six time zones each.

Indian Standard Time

• Indian Standard Time (IST) is taken as the time

at 82.5° E longitude (passing close to the east

of Prayagraj or Allahabad). Which means, IST

is 5 hours 30 mins ahead of GMT (IST =

GMT+5:30).

Longitudinal extent of India

Chaibagaan Time

• One hundred fifty years ago, British colonialists

introduced “Chaibagaan time” or “Bagaan time”,

a schedule observed by tea planters, which was

one hour ahead of IST.

• This was done to improve productivity by

optimising the usage of daytime.

• After Independence, Assam, along with the rest

of India, has been following IST.

• The administration of the Indian state of Assam

put forward a proposal to change its time zone

back to Chaibagaan time to conserve energy

and improve productivity.

• Indian government refused to accept such a

proposal.

The International Date Line

• The International Date Line (IDL) an imaginary

line that passes through the Pacific Ocean.

5

Time Zones and International Date Line

The Island Groups of Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia

1

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Climatology Part II

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1. Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................................................. 3

1.1 Conditions necessary for the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone ............................................................... 3 Good Source of Latent Heat ................................................................................................................................... 4 Coriolis Force .......................................................................................................................................................... 4 Low-level Disturbances ........................................................................................................................................... 5 Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses .......................................................................................................... 5 Wind Shear ............................................................................................................................................................. 5 Upper Air Disturbance ............................................................................................................................................ 6

1.2 Convective Cyclogenesis (Development of Tropical Cyclones) ................................................................ 6 Mechanism – Early stage ........................................................................................................................................ 7 Mechanism – Mature stage .................................................................................................................................... 8

1.3 Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................. 9 Regional names for Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................................... 9

1.4 Path of Tropical Cyclones ....................................................................................................................... 10 Which sector of the cyclone experiences strongest winds? ................................................................................ 10

1.5 Why only a fewer cyclones form over the Arabian Sea as compared to the Bay of Bengal? ................ 10 1.6 Tropical Cyclone Scale ............................................................................................................................ 11

Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department ............................................................................ 12

1.7 Damage associated with Tropical Cyclones ........................................................................................... 12 Floods ................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Wind ..................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Storm surge .......................................................................................................................................................... 13 States Vulnerable to Cyclones .............................................................................................................................. 14

1.8 Positive effects of Tropical Cyclones ...................................................................................................... 14 1.9 Naming of Cyclones ................................................................................................................................ 14

Northern Indian Ocean Region ............................................................................................................................. 15

1.10 Warning of Tropical Cyclones ................................................................................................................. 15 4-stage IMD warning system for tropical cyclones .............................................................................................. 15

2. Jet streams ......................................................................................................................................... 16

2.1 Explanation of Jet Streams ..................................................................................................................... 16 Geostrophic Wind ................................................................................................................................................. 16 Upper tropospheric westerlies ............................................................................................................................. 17

2

High velocity ......................................................................................................................................................... 17 Meandering .......................................................................................................................................................... 18

2.2 Permanent jet streams ........................................................................................................................... 18 Subtropical jet stream (STJ) .................................................................................................................................. 18 Polar front jet (PFJ) ............................................................................................................................................... 18

2.3 Temporary jet streams ........................................................................................................................... 19 The Somali Jet ....................................................................................................................................................... 19 The Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet ................................................................................................... 19

2.4 Influence of Jet Streams on Weather..................................................................................................... 19 Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate Regions ................................................................................................. 19

2.5 Jet Streams and Aviation ........................................................................................................................ 20

3. Temperate Cyclones ........................................................................................................................... 21

3.1 Air Masses .............................................................................................................................................. 21 Source regions ...................................................................................................................................................... 21 Conditions for the formation of Air Masses ......................................................................................................... 21 Air masses based on Source Regions .................................................................................................................... 21 Influence of Air Masses on World Weather ......................................................................................................... 22

3.2 Fronts ..................................................................................................................................................... 23 Front Formation.................................................................................................................................................... 23 Classification of Fronts ......................................................................................................................................... 23

3.3 Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones .................................................................................. 26 Polar Front Theory ................................................................................................................................................ 26 Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cyclones ...................................................................................................... 27 Distribution of Temperate Cyclones ..................................................................................................................... 27 Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones ................................................................................................................ 27

4. Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones ― Comparison .................................................................. 28 5. Polar Vortex ....................................................................................................................................... 30

5.1 Polar Vortex Cold Wave ......................................................................................................................... 30 How it slips............................................................................................................................................................ 30

5.2 Polar Vortex and Ozone Depletion at South Pole .................................................................................. 31 Ozone depletion ................................................................................................................................................... 31

6. El Nino ................................................................................................................................................ 33

6.1 Normal Conditions ................................................................................................................................. 33 Walker circulation (Normal Years) ....................................................................................................................... 33

6.2 During El Nino year ................................................................................................................................. 33 El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) ..................................................................................................................... 34 Effects of El Nino................................................................................................................................................... 34 El Nino impact on Indian Monsoons ..................................................................................................................... 35 Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El Nino year is same in India) .................................................................. 35

6.3 El Niño Modoki ....................................................................................................................................... 36 6.4 La Nina .................................................................................................................................................... 36

Effects of La Nina .................................................................................................................................................. 36

7. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate ...................................................................................... 37

3

7.2 A – Tropical Humid Climates .................................................................................................................. 38 Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f – no dry season) ................................................................................... 39 Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A – Tropical, m – monsoon).............................................................................. 42 Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter) ..................................................... 46

7.3 B – Dry Climate ....................................................................................................................................... 48 Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude)........................................................................ 48 Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude) ........................................................ 49 Steppe or Temperate Grassland Climate (BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – high latitude) ........................................ 51

7.4 C – Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates ....................................................................................... 55 Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm Temperate, s – Dry summer) ................................................................. 55 Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate (Cfa) .................................................................................................. 57 British Type Climate or Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate (Cf) ............................................................... 60

7.5 D – Cold Snow-forest Climates ............................................................................................................... 64 Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: f – no dry season, c – cold summer) ......................................................... 64 Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate (Dfc) ................................................................ 67

7.6 E – Cold Climates .................................................................................................................................... 70 Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate .............................................................................................. 70

7.7 Questions ............................................................................................................................................... 71 Previous prelims questions ................................................................................................................................... 71 Descriptive questions ........................................................................................................................................... 73

1. Tropical Cyclones

• Tropical cyclones originate over oceans in trop-

ical areas in late summers.

• They are rapidly rotating violent storms charac-

terised by

✓ a closed low-pressure centre with steep

pressure gradients (category 1 cyclones

have a barometric pressure of greater than

980 millibars; category 5 cyclones can have

central barometric pressure of less than

920 millibars),

Closed Isobars in a Tropical Cyclone

✓ a closed low-level atmospheric circula-

tion (winds converging from all directions

― cyclonic circulation),

✓ strong winds (squalls ― a sudden violent

gust of wind), and

✓ a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms

that produce very heavy rain (torrential

rainfall).

• The low-pressure at the centre is responsible for

the wind speeds.

• The closed air circulation (cyclonic circulation) is

a result of rapid upward movement of hot

moist air which is subjected to Coriolis force.

1.1 Conditions necessary for the

Formation of a Tropical Cyclone

• Large sea surface with temperature higher

than 27° C.

• Presence of the Coriolis force enough to

create a cyclonic vortex.

• A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or

low-level-cyclonic circulation.

• Low wind shear.

• Upper-level divergence.

4

Good Source of Latent Heat

• Ocean waters having temperatures of 27° C and

depth of warm water extending for 60-70 m

deep supply enough moisture, and hence la-

tent heat of condensation, to generate and

drive a tropical storm.

• Thick layer of warm water ensures that the deep

convection currents within the water do not

churn and mix the cooler water below with the

warmer water near the surface.

Why tropical cyclones form mostly on the

western margins of the oceans?

• Because of warm ocean currents (easterly

trade winds drag ocean waters towards west)

that flow from east towards west forming a

thick layer of warm water with temperatures

greater than 27°C.

Why are tropical cyclones very rare on the

eastern margins of the oceans?

• The cold currents lower the surface tempera-

tures of the eastern parts of the tropical oceans

making them unfit for the breeding of cyclonic

storms.

Exceptional case: During strong El Nino years,

strong hurricanes occur in the eastern Pacific. This is

due to the accumulation of warm waters in the east-

ern Pacific due to weak Walker Cell.

Why do tropical cyclones weaken on land-

fall?

• On landfall, the storm is cut-off from adequate

moisture supply and hence it is deprived of la-

tent heat of condensation. Thus, the storm dis-

sipates (weakens or dies off) on landfall.

Rising of humid air parcel ➔ ambient pressure on

the air parcel decreases with altitude ➔ adiabatic

lapse rate (fall in temperature of air parcel) ➔

condensation of moisture in air parcel due to low

temperature ➔ latent heat of condensation is

released in the process ➔ air parcel is heated further

due to the release of latent heat of condensation and

becomes less denser ➔ air parcel is further uplifted

➔ more air comes in to fill the gap ➔ new moisture

is available for condensation ➔ latent heat of

condensation is released. The cycle repeats as long

as there is enough supply of moisture.

Coriolis Force

• The Coriolis force is zero at the equator, but

it increases with latitude.

• Coriolis force at 5° latitude is significant enough

to create a storm (cyclonic vortex).

• About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity occurs

between 10° and 20° latitude.

• The cyclonic circulation is anti-clockwise

(counterclockwise) in the northern hemi-

sphere and clockwise in the southern hemi-

sphere.

Why cyclones occur mostly in late summers?

1. Due to high specific heat of water, and mixing,

the ocean waters in northern hemisphere at-

tain maximum temperatures in August (in

contract continents attain maximum tempera-

tures in June-July).

2. Whirling motion (cyclonic vortex) is enhanced

when the doldrums (region within ITCZ) over

oceans are farthest from the equator (Coriolis

force increases with distance from the equa-

tor).

5

Why do 'tropical cyclones' winds rotate

counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemi-

sphere?

• As the earth's rotation sets up an apparent

force (called the Coriolis force) that pulls the

winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere

(and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere).

• So, when a low-pressure starts to form over

north of the equator, the surface winds will flow

inward trying to fill in the low and will be de-

flected to the right, and a counter-clockwise

rotation will be initiated.

• The opposite (a deflection to the left and a

clockwise rotation) will occur south of the equa-

tor.

Coriolis force is too tiny to effect rotation in water

that is going down the drains of sinks and toilets.

The rotation in those will be determined by the ge-

ometry of the container and the original motion of

the water.

Low-level Disturbances

• Low-level disturbance is a low-pressure trough

(an extended region of low-pressure) that

moves from east to west in the form of easterly

wave disturbances in the Inter-Tropical Con-

vergence Zone (ITCZ).

A disturbance is a persistent group of thunderstorms

with heavy rains and strong wind gusts.

Easterly wave disturbances: it is a convective

trough (thermal origin) ― a persistent group of

thunderstorms travelling together in east to west di-

rection (westward traveling disturbances) under the

influence of trade winds.

Easterly wave disturbances

• Easterly wave disturbances act as seedling cir-

culations (birthplace) for a large number of

tropical cyclones. However, not all disturbances

develop into cyclones.

Temperature Contrast Between Air

Masses

• The convergence of air masses of different

temperatures results in instability causing low-

level disturbances which are a prerequisite for

the origin and growth of violent tropical storms.

• Trade winds from both the hemispheres meet

along the inter-tropical front (ITCZ). Tempera-

ture contrasts between these air masses must

exist when the ITCZ is farthest from the equator

so that the low-level disturbances can intensify

into a depression (intensifying low-pressure

cell).

Wind Shear

• Wind Shear is the difference between wind

speeds at different altitudes.

• Tropical cyclones develop when the wind is uni-

form.

Why is convective cyclogenesis (tropical

cyclogenesis) confined to tropics?

• Because of weak vertical wind shear, cyclone

formation processes are limited to latitude

equatorward of the subtropical jet stream.

• In the temperate regions, wind shear is high

due to westerlies, and this inhibits convective

cyclogenesis.

Why there are very few Tropical Cyclones

during southwest monsoon season?

Large vertical wind shear

• The southwest monsoon is characterized by the

presence of strong westerly winds (south-west

monsoon winds) in the lower troposphere (be-

low 3 km) and strong easterly winds in the up-

per troposphere (above 9 km). This results in

large vertical wind shear. Strong vertical

wind shear inhibits cyclone development.

1

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Oceanography

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1. Ocean Relief ................................................ 3

1.1 Major Ocean Relief Features .................... 3 Continental Shelf ........................................ 3 Continental Slope ....................................... 4 Continental Rise.......................................... 4 Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain .................. 5

1.2 Minor Ocean Relief Features.................... 5 Oceanic Deeps or Trenches ........................ 5 Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges .. 5 Abyssal Hills ................................................ 5 Submarine Canyons .................................... 6 Atoll ............................................................ 6 Bank, Shoal and Reef .................................. 7

2. Major Oceans and Seas ................................ 7

2.1 Oceans of the World by Size .................... 7 2.2 The Pacific Ocean ..................................... 7 2.3 The Atlantic Ocean ................................... 8 2.4 The Indian Ocean ..................................... 9 2.5 Marginal Seas ......................................... 11

Human Impact on marginal seas .............. 11 Biomass Production and Primary Productivity .............................................. 12 Water Circulation in Marginal Seas .......... 15

2.6 Bays, gulfs, and Straits ............................ 15 Bays........................................................... 15 Gulfs .......................................................... 16 Straits ........................................................ 17 Isthmus ..................................................... 17

3. Ocean Movements ......................................17

3.1 Ocean Currents ....................................... 17 Primary Forces Responsible for Ocean Currents .................................................... 18

Secondary Forces Responsible for Ocean Currents .................................................... 18 Types of Ocean Currents .......................... 18 Pacific Ocean Currents ............................. 19 Phytoplankton and Fishing ....................... 20 Atlantic Ocean Currents ........................... 21 Indian Ocean Currents ............................. 23 Effects of Ocean Currents ........................ 25 Desert Formation and Ocean Currents .... 25

3.2 Tides ....................................................... 26 Tidal Bulge: Why there are two tidal bulges? ..................................................... 26 Types of Tides ........................................... 27 Importance of Tides ................................. 30 Characteristics of Tides ............................ 30 Tidal bore ................................................. 31 Impact of Tidal Bore ................................. 31

4. Temperature Distribution of Oceans .......... 32

4.1 Source of Heat in Oceans ....................... 32 4.2 Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution of Oceans ................................... 32 4.3 Vertical Temperature Distribution of Oceans ........................................................... 33

Thermocline ............................................. 33 Three-Layer System .................................. 34

4.4 Horizontal Temperature Distribution..... 34 4.5 General behaviour .................................. 35 4.6 Range of Ocean Temperature ................ 35

Sunspot .................................................... 35

5. Ocean Salinity ............................................ 36

5.2 Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity ............ 36 Horizontal distribution of salinity ............ 36

2

5.3 Vertical Distribution of Salinity .............. 37

6. Coral Reefs .................................................37

6.1 Coral Reef Relief Features ...................... 38 Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs) ..................... 38 Barrier Reefs ............................................. 38 Atolls ......................................................... 39

6.2 Development of Major Coral Reef Types 39 6.3 Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth ......... 39

Distribution of Coral Reefs ....................... 40

6.4 Corals and Zooxanthellae ....................... 40 Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals and Zooxanthellae ........................................... 40

6.5 Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching 40 Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching ........ 41 Spatial and temporal range of coral reef bleaching .................................................. 42

7. Resources from the Ocean ..........................42

7.1 Ocean Deposits....................................... 43 Terrigenous Deposits ............................... 43 Pelagic Deposits ....................................... 43

7.2 Mineral Resources .................................. 43 Mineral deposits found on continental shelves and slopes .................................... 43 Mineral deposits found on deep sea floor .................................................................. 45

7.3 Energy Resources ................................... 47 7.4 Fresh Water ............................................ 47 7.5 Biotic Resources ..................................... 47 7.6 United Nations International Conferences on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) ................... 48

Territorial waters ..................................... 48 Contiguous Zone or Pursuit Zone ............. 48 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) ................ 49 High Seas .................................................. 49 Land Disputes in South China Sea: Parcel Islands and Spratly Islands ....................... 49

World Water Day – March 22

Water on the Earth’s surface

Reservoir Volume (Million

Cubic km)

% of the

Total

Oceans 1,370 97.25

Icecaps and Glaciers 29 2.05

Groundwater 9.5 0.68

Lakes 0.125 0.01

Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005

Atmosphere 0.013 0.001

Streams and Rivers 0.0017 0.0001

Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004

• Water on earth in liquid form came into exist-

ence in Hadean Eon (4,540 – 4,000 mya).

• During the Hadean Eon, temperature on earth

was extremely hot, and much of the Earth was

molten.

• Volcanic outgassing created the primordial

atmosphere which consisted of various gases

along with water vapour.

• Over time, the Earth cooled, causing the for-

mation of a solid crust.

• The water vapour condensed to form rain and

rainwater gradually filled the depressions on the

newly solidified crust.

• The water in the depressions merged to give

rise to mighty oceans.

• During the Hadean Eon, the atmospheric pres-

sure was 27 times greater than it is today and

hence even at a surface temperature of close to

200° C water remained liquid in the oceans.

• Over time, both temperature and atmospheric

pressure dropped, and water continues to stay

as liquid in the oceans.

3

Ocean Relief Features

1. Ocean Relief

• Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcan-

ic, erosional and depositional processes and

their interactions.

• Ocean relief controls the motion of seawater.

• The oceanic movement in the form of currents,

in turn, causes many variations in both oceans

and atmosphere.

• The bottom relief of oceans also influences nav-

igation and fishing.

Ocean relief features are divided into major and

minor relief features:

1.1 Major Ocean Relief Features

Four major divisions in the ocean relief are:

1. the continental shelf,

2. the continental slope,

3. the continental rise,

4. the Deep Sea Plain or the abyssal plain.

Continental Shelf

• Continental Shelf is the gently sloping (gradi-

ent of 1° or less) seaward extension of a con-

tinental plate.

• Continental Shelves cover 7.5% of the total area

of the oceans.

• Shallow seas and gulfs are found along the

continental shelves.

• The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope,

called the shelf break.

• Examples of continental shelves: Continental

Shelf of South-East Asia (Sunda Plate), Grand

Banks around Newfoundland, Submerged

region between Australia and New Guinea, etc.

Formation

• The shelf is formed mainly due to

1. submergence of a part of a continent

2. relative rise in sea level

3. Sedimentary deposits brought down by

rivers, glaciers

• There are various types of shelves based on dif-

ferent sediments of terrestrial origin —

1. glaciated shelf (e.g. Shelf Surrounding

Greenland),

2. coral reef shelf (e.g. Queensland, Aus-

tralia),

3. shelf of a large river (e.g. Shelf around

Nile Delta),

4. shelf with dendritic valleys (e.g. shelf at

the Mouth of Hudson River)

5. shelf along young mountain ranges (e.g.

Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).

4

Various types of shelves

Width and depth of continental shelves

• Continental shelves have an average width of

70-80 km.

• The shelves are almost absent or very narrow

along a convergent boundary. E.g. coasts of

Chile.

• The width of continental shelf of eastern coast

of USA varies between 100-300 km.

• Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean is the largest

in the world and stretches up to 1,500 km from

the coast.

Width of various continental shelves

• Continental shelves may be as shallow as 30 m

in some areas while in some areas it is as deep

as 600 m.

Importance of continental shelves

• 20% of the world production of petroleum and

gas comes from shelves.

• Continental shelves form the richest fishing

grounds. E.g. Grand Banks around Newfound-

land.

Grand Banks, the richest fishing grounds on earth

• Marine food comes almost entirely from conti-

nental shelves.

• They are sites for placer deposits and phos-

phorites (explained in Ocean Resources).

Continental Slope

• The gradient of the slope region varies between

2-5°.

• The continental slope connects the continental

shelf and the ocean basins.

• The depth of the slope region varies between

200 and 3,000 m.

• The seaward edge of the continental slope loses

gradient at this depth and gives rise to conti-

nental rise.

• The continental slope boundary indicates the

end of the continents.

• Canyons and trenches are observed in this re-

gion.

Continental Rise

• The continental slope gradually loses its steep-

ness with depth.

• When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5°

and 1°, it is referred to as the continental rise.

• With increasing depth, the rise becomes virtual-

ly flat and merges with the abyssal plain.

5

Shelf, Slope and Rise (Wikipedia)

Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain

• Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of the

ocean basins.

• These are the flattest and smoothest regions of

the world because of terrigenous (marine sed-

iment eroded from the land) and shallow wa-

ter sediments that buries the irregular topog-

raphy.

• It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.

• The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.

• These plains are covered with fine-grained sed-

iments like clay and silt.

1.2 Minor Ocean Relief Features

• Ridges (along a divergent boundary),

• Abyssal Hills (submerged volcanic mountains):

Seamounts and Guyots,

• Trenches (along a convergent boundary),

• Canyons (erosional landform),

• Island arcs (formed due to volcanism along a

convergent boundary or hotspot volcanism),

• Atolls and Coral reefs.

Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

• The trenches are relatively steep-sided, narrow

basins (Depressions).

• These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans.

• They are of tectonic origin and are formed dur-

ing ocean-ocean convergence and ocean-

continent convergence.

• They are some 3-5 km deeper than the sur-

rounding ocean floor.

• The trenches lie along the fringes of the

deep-sea plain at the bases of continental

slopes and along island arcs.

• The trenches run parallel to the bordering

fold mountains or the island chains.

• The trenches are very common in the Pacific

Ocean and form an almost continuous ring

along the western and eastern margins of the

Pacific.

• The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in

the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench with, a

depth of more than 11 kilometres.

• Trenches are associated with active volcanoes

and strong earthquakes (like in Japan).

• Majority of the trenches are in the Pacific Ocean

followed by the Atlantic Ocean and Indian

Ocean.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine

Ridges

• A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains

of mountains separated by a large depression

(divergent boundary).

• The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as

2,500 m and some even reach above the

ocean’s surface.

• Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these

ridges form the largest mountain systems on

earth.

Mid Ocean Ridge

• The ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gen-

tly sloping or in the form of steep-sided narrow

mountains.

Abyssal Hills

1

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1. India as a Geographical Unit ................................3

1.2 India's Frontiers ...................................................... 4 1.3 Major Physical Divisions of India ............................ 6

2. Rock System .......................................................7

2.1 Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks) 7 Archaean Gneisses and Schists (4 billion years old) .................................................................... 7 Dharwar System (1 to 4 billion years old) ......... 9 Purana Rock System (600 to 1400 million years old) .................................................................... 9

2.2 Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic) ....................... 9 Carboniferous rocks (350 million years) .......... 10

2.3 Aryan Rock System ............................................... 10 Gondwana System ........................................... 10 Jurassic System ................................................ 10 Deccan Trap ..................................................... 10 Tertiary System ................................................ 11

3. Himalayan Ranges ............................................ 11

3.2 Shiwalik Range ...................................................... 11 Formation (Formation of Himalayas explained in C-C Convergence) ........................................ 12

3.3 The Lesser Himalayas or The Middle Himalayas or The Himachal ................................................................ 12

Important Ranges in the Lesser Himalayas ..... 12

3.4 The Greater Himalaya ........................................... 13 Passes in the Greater Himalayas ..................... 14

3.5 The Trans Himalayas ............................................. 14 Ranges in The Trans Himalayas ....................... 14

3.6 Purvanchal or Eastern Hills ................................... 16 3.7 Himalayas – Regional Divisions ............................ 15

Punjab Himalayas ............................................ 16 Western Himalayas.......................................... 17 Central Himalayas ............................................ 18 Eastern Himalayas ........................................... 18

3.8 Important Valleys in the Himalayas ...................... 18 Karewas ........................................................... 19

3.9 Snow in the Himalayas – Snowline ....................... 19 3.10 Glaciers in the Himalayas ..................................... 19 3.11 The significance of the Himalayas ........................ 20 3.12 Major Passes in Himalayas and Indian Sub-continent ...................................................................... 21

4. Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain ..................... 24

4.1 The formation of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain 25 4.2 Features of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain .... 26

Divisions of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain27 Regional Divisions of the Great Plains ............. 28 The significance of the Plain ............................ 29

5. Peninsular Plateau ............................................ 30

5.1 Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau ............ 30 Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau ................. 30 Central Highland .............................................. 30 Bundelkhand Upland ....................................... 30 Malwa Plateau ................................................ 32 Baghelkhand .................................................... 32 Chotanagpur Plateau ...................................... 32 Meghalaya Plateau .......................................... 32 Deccan Plateau ................................................ 34

5.2 Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau .................. 35 Aravalli Range .................................................. 35 Vindhyan Range .............................................. 35 Satpura Range ................................................. 35 Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris) .................. 36 Eastern Ghats .................................................. 36 The significance of the Peninsular Plateau ..... 37

6. Coastline of India .............................................. 37

6.1 East Coast of India ................................................ 38 6.2 West Coast of India .............................................. 38 6.3 Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence ........ 38 6.4 Western Coastal Plains of India ............................ 39

Kutch and Kathiawar region ............................ 39 Gujarat Plain .................................................... 39 Konkan Plain .................................................... 39

2

Karnataka Coastal Plain ................................... 39 Kerala Plain ...................................................... 39

6.5 Eastern Coastal Plains of India.............................. 40 Utkal Plain........................................................ 40 Andhra Plain .................................................... 40 Tamil Nadu Plain .............................................. 40

6.6 The significance of the Coastal Plains ................... 40

7. Indian Islands ................................................... 41

7.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands .............................. 41 7.2 Lakshadweep Islands ............................................ 42 7.3 New Moore Island ................................................ 42

8. Drainage Systems of India ................................. 43

8.2 Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the sea 43 8.3 Major River System or Drainage Systems in India 44 8.4 Indus River System ............................................... 45

Indus River ....................................................... 45 Jhelum River .................................................... 48 Chenab River ................................................... 49 Ravi River ......................................................... 49 Beas River ........................................................ 49 Sutlej River ....................................................... 49

8.5 Ganga River System .............................................. 49 Ganga River ..................................................... 51 Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga ............... 51 Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River ........ 53

8.6 Brahmaputra River System ................................... 54 8.7 Peninsular River System or Peninsular Drainage .. 56

Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage .............. 56 Comparison: Himalayan River System & Peninsular River System .................................. 57 East Flowing Peninsular Rivers ........................ 58 West Flowing Rivers of Peninsular India ......... 67 Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage ..................... 74

1. Indian Monsoons .............................................. 74

1.2 Mechanism of Indian Monsoons – Based on Modern Theories .......................................................... 76

March to May .................................................. 76 Indian Monsoons – Role of ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone) .......................................... 82 Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Jet Stream Theory ............................................................. 83 Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ) .................................. 84 Indian Monsoons – Role of Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) (African Easterly Jet) ............................... 88 Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet ..................... 89 Indian Monsoons – Role of Somali Jet ............. 89 Indian Monsoons – Role of Indian Ocean Dipole ......................................................................... 90

2. Indian Climate .................................................. 91

2.1 Features of Indian Climate ................................... 91 Rainfall ............................................................ 91 Temperature ................................................... 91

2.2 Factors Influencing Indian Climate ....................... 92 Latitudinal location ......................................... 92 Distance from the Sea ..................................... 92 Himalayas ........................................................ 92 Physiography ................................................... 92 Monsoon Winds .............................................. 93 Upper Air Circulation ....................................... 93 Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances . 94 El-Nino, La Nina and ENSO .............................. 94

2.3 Indian Climate – Seasons ..................................... 94 Winter Season in India .................................... 94 Summer Season in India .................................. 96 Rainy Season – South West Monsoon Season 99 North East Monsoon Season – Retreating Monsoon Season ........................................... 102 Annual Rainfall (South West Monsoons + Retreating Monsoons)................................... 105

2.4 Climatic Regions of India .................................... 106 Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions of India .............................................................. 106 Koppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India .............................................................. 107

3. Natural Vegetation of India ............................. 108

3.1 Classification of Natural Vegetation of India ...... 108 A. Moist Tropical Forests ............................... 109 B. Dry Tropical Forests .................................. 111 C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests .................. 112 D. Montane Temperate Forests .................... 113 E. Alpine Forests ............................................ 114

4. Biogeography – Soils ....................................... 114

4.1 Soil Types: Sandy, Clayey & Loamy .................... 114 4.2 Soil Profile (Soil Horizon) .................................... 115 4.3 Factors that influence soil formation in Indian Conditions ................................................................... 116

Parent Material ............................................. 116 Relief ............................................................. 117 Climate .......................................................... 117 Natural Vegetation ........................................ 118

4.4 Major Soil Groups of India ................................. 118 Alluvial Soils ................................................... 118 Black Soils ...................................................... 119 Red Soils ........................................................ 120 Laterite – Lateritic Soils ................................. 120 Forest – Mountain Soils ................................ 121 Arid – Desert Soils ......................................... 121 Saline – Alkaline Soils .................................... 122 Peaty – Marshy Soils ..................................... 123

3

1. India as a Geographical Unit

Map of Jammu and Kashmir showing the occupied

regions

Location: Indira Col and NJ9842

• The southernmost point of the country is the

Pygmalion Point, or Indira Point is located at

6° 45' N latitude.

• North-south extent from Indira Col in Kashmir

to Kanyakumari is 3,214 km.

• East-west width from the Rann of Kutch to Aru-

nachal Pradesh is 2,933 km.

East-West Extent (~30°) 68° 7' East to 97° 25' East longitude

South-North Extent of mainland India (Including POK)

(~29°)

8° 4' North to 37° 6' North latitude

South-North Extent of India (Including POK and the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands) (~31°)

6° 45' North to 37° 6' North latitude

Top 10 Largest Countries in the World by Area

Rank Country Capital City Continent Area (km2)

1 Russia Moscow Europe 1,70,98,242

2 Canada Ottawa North America 99,84,670

3 USA Washington DC North America 98,26,675

4 China Beijing Asia 95,96,961

5 Brazil Brasilia South America 85,14,877

6 Australia Canberra Oceania 77,41,220

7 India New Delhi Asia 32,87,263

8 Argentina Buenos Aires South America 27,80,400

9 Kazakhstan Astana Asia 27,24,900

10 Algeria Algiers Africa 23,81,741

4

Locational Extent of India

• With an area of 32,87,263 km2, India is the

seventh largest country in the world.

• India accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the

total surface area of the world.

• The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle

of the country dividing it into two latitudinal

halves.

• The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer is

near twice the area which lies to the south of it.

• South of 22° north latitude, the country tapers

off over 800 km into the Indian Ocean as a pen-

insula.

• East-West time difference is nearly 2 hrs. (A dif-

ference of 1° longitude will make a difference of

4 minutes in time. ~30 x 4 = ~120 minutes or

~2 hours).

India, Tropical or Temperate Country?

• The temperate part (north of Tropic of Cancer)

is twice the area of the tropical part.

• But India has always been treated as a tropical

country for two different reasons – physical and

cultural.

Physical Geographical (Climatic) Reasons

• The country is separated from the rest of Asia

by the Himalayas.

• The tropical monsoons dominate its climate.

• Himalayas blocks the cold temperate air mass-

es.

• Although winter night temperatures are low, yet

clear skies and intense insolation raise the day

temperatures to a tropical level.

Cultural Geographical Reasons

• Settlements, diseases, agricultural and primary

economic activities are all tropical in nature.

It is primarily because of the Himalayas that India is

a predominantly tropical country.

1.2 India's Frontiers

Data from the Ministry of Home Affairs (Depart-

ment of Border Management)

• India has 15106.7 Km of land border running

through 17 States.

• Indian has a coastline of 7516.6 Km (6100 km

of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197 In-

dian islands) touching 13 States and Union

Territories (UTs).

• Barring Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattis-

garh, Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana, all other

States in the country have one or more interna-

tional borders or a coastline and can be

regarded as frontline States from the point of

view of border management.

• India's longest border is with Bangladesh

while the shortest border is with Afghanistan.

• The length of India’s land borders with neigh-

bouring countries is given in the table below.

Neighbour Length of the border (in Km)

1) Bangladesh 4,096.7

2) China 3,488

3) Pakistan 3,323

4) Nepal 1,751

5) Myanmar 1,643

6) Bhutan 699

7) Afghanistan 106

15,106.7

Border with China

• This is the second longest border of India,

next only to its border with Bangladesh.

5

• Five Indian states, namely Jammu and Kashmir,

Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and

Arunachal Pradesh touch the Indian boundary

with China.

• The Sino-Indian border is generally divided into

three sectors namely: (i) the Western sector, (ii)

the Middle sector, and (iii) the Eastern sector.

The Western Sector

• Separates Jammu and Kashmir state of India

from the Xinjiang province of China.

• The western sector boundary is largely the out-

come of the British policy towards the state of

Jammu and Kashmir.

• China claims the Aksai Chin, the Changmo

valley, Pangong Tso and the Sponggar Tso

area of north-east Ladakh.

• China also claims a part of Huza-Gilgit area in

North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963 by Paki-

stan).

The Middle Sector

• Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Ut-

tarakhand touch this border.

The Eastern Sector

• The 1,140 km long boundary between India and

China runs from the eastern limit of Bhutan to a

point near Diphu pass (Talu-Pass) at the tri-

junction of India, Tibet and Myanmar.

Diphu Pass is a mountain pass around the area of

the disputed tri-point borders of India, China, and

Myanmar.

It is Talu pass on the Burmese side, and Diphu pass

on the Indian (Tibetan) side.

• This line is usually referred to as the Mc Mahon

Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon, then foreign

secretary of British India, who negotiated the

boundary agreement between Great Britain and

Tibet at Shimla accord in 1913-14.

The India-Nepal Boundary

• Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar

Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim touch

the Nepalese border with India.

• The border is a porous one with an unrestricted

movement of goods and people between Indi-

an and Nepal.

• Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border runs in

the east-west direction almost along the foothill

of the Shiwalik Range.

The Indo-Pakistan Boundary

• The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result of the

partition of the country in 1947 under the Rad-

cliffe award of which Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the

chairman.

• Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the major

disputed regions.

Creeks in the Kutch Region

The India-Bangladesh Border

• India's 4,096 km long border with Bangladesh is

the longest.

• This boundary has been determined under the

Radcliffe Award which divided the erstwhile

province of Bengal into two parts.

India-Myanmar Boundary

Economic Geography for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam

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Economic Geography Part I

Distribution of key natural resources across India and the World

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1. Iron ............................................................. 3

1.2 Types of Iron Ore............................................. 3 Magnetite (Fe3O4) ....................................... 4 Haematite (Fe2O3) ....................................... 5 Limonite ...................................................... 5

1.3 Iron Ore Distribution Across the World .......... 5 Iron ore in Africa: Transvaal, Liberia ........... 5 Iron Ore in China: Manchuria, Sinkiang, Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula ........................... 5 Iron Ore in Europe: Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine ....................... 6 Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region, Magnitogorsk .............................................. 6 Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes (Mesabi Region), Labrador ......................... 7 Iron Ore in South America: Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais .............................................. 7 Iron Ore in Australia: Pilbara Region, Koolyanobbing, Iron Duke, Iron Knob ........ 8 Largest iron ore producers ......................... 8 Largest iron ore reserves ............................ 9

1.4 Iron Ore Distribution in India .......................... 9 Hematite reserves ...................................... 9 Magnetite reserves ..................................... 9 Iron Ore Production in India ..................... 10

2. Coal ............................................................11

2.1 Formation of Coal ......................................... 11 Stages of coal formation ........................... 12

2.2 Classification of coal ...................................... 12 Peat ........................................................... 12 Lignite (brown coal) .................................. 13

Bituminous Coal (black coal) .................... 13 Anthracite Coal (Semi-metallic lustre) ..... 13 Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal (Thermal Coal) ......................................................... 13

2.3 Distribution of Coal in India .......................... 14 Gondwana Coal (formed 250 million years ago)........................................................... 14 Tertiary Coal (formed 60 – 15 million years ago)........................................................... 15 State-wise coal reserves and coal production in India ................................... 16 The demand of coal, production, supply and import of coal in India ....................... 16 Why does India import coal although it has enough reserves? ..................................... 16 Major Coalfields in India .......................... 17 Measures taken by the government to boost production ...................................... 17

2.4 Distribution of Coal across the World .......... 18 Global Coal Reserves ................................ 19 Top coal producers and consumers in the world ........................................................ 19

3. Petroleum and Mineral Oil ......................... 19

3.1 Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil ..... 19 Conditions for Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil ................................................ 19

3.2 Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India ...................................................................... 21

Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in India ......... 21 On-shore Oil Production in India .............. 22 Off-Shore Oil Production in India ............. 22

2

State-wise crude oil and natural gas production trends ..................................... 24 Share of major fuels in Power Generation in India ...................................................... 24 India’s Oil Imports .................................... 24 Oil Refiners in India .................................. 24 Crude Oil Pipelines ................................... 25

3.3 World distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil 28

Supergiants ............................................... 28 Countries with The Largest Proven Oil Reserves.................................................... 28 World’s Top Producers, Consumers and Exporters of Oil ......................................... 30 OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries .................................. 30

4. Natural gas .................................................30

4.2 Distribution of Natural Gas across Indian and the World .............................................................. 31

Top natural gas producers, consumers, and countries with highest reserves ............... 31

4.3 Petroleum and Gas Value Chain.................... 32

5. Unconventional Gas Reservoirs ...................32

5.1 Coalbed Methane .......................................... 33 Coalbed Methane in India ........................ 33

5.2 Shale Gas ....................................................... 34 Extraction of Shale Gas ............................. 34 Shale Gas Reserves across India and the World ........................................................ 35 Shale Gas Extraction Issues in India – If US can then why can’t India?......................... 35

5.3 Tight Gas ....................................................... 36

6. Bauxite .......................................................37

6.1 Bauxite Distribution in India ......................... 37 6.2 Bauxite Distribution across the World .......... 38

7. Lead & Zinc .................................................39

7.1 Lead ............................................................... 39 7.2 Zinc ................................................................ 39 7.3 Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores – India and World .................................................................... 39 7.4 Pyrites ........................................................... 40

8. Gold and Silver ...........................................41

8.1 Gold ............................................................... 41

Gold Reserves and Production in India .... 41 World’s Gold Reserves and Gold Production .................................................................. 41

8.2 Silver ............................................................. 42 Silver Reserves and Production – India & World ........................................................ 42

9. Ores of Metals used in Alloys ..................... 43

9.1 Manganese ................................................... 43 Manganese ore distribution in India ........ 43 Manganese ore distribution across the World ........................................................ 44

9.2 Tungsten ....................................................... 44 Distribution of Wolfram in India and across the World ................................................. 44

9.3 Copper .......................................................... 45 Copper Ore Distribution and Production in India .......................................................... 45 Distribution of Copper Ore and Production Across the World ...................................... 45

9.4 Nickel ............................................................ 46 Distribution of Nickel in India and World . 46

9.5 Molybdenum ................................................ 47 9.6 Chromite ....................................................... 47

Chromite Distribution across India and World ........................................................ 47

9.7 Cobalt ............................................................ 48 Distribution of Cobalt Reserves across India and the World .......................................... 48

10. Strategic Minerals ...................................... 48

10.1 Lithium .......................................................... 49 KABIL Set up to Ensure Supply of Critical Minerals ................................................... 49

11. Non Metallic: Graphite and Diamond ......... 49

11.1 Graphite ........................................................ 50 Distribution of Graphite across India and World ........................................................ 50

11.2 Diamonds ...................................................... 51 Distribution of Diamond Bearing rocks and gravels in India ......................................... 51 Diamonds Across the World ..................... 51 Differences Between Graphite and Diamond ................................................... 52

3

12. Non Metallic: Limestone, Dolomite and Magnesite .........................................................52

12.1 Limestone ...................................................... 52 Distribution of Limestone in India ............ 53

12.2 Dolomite........................................................ 54 12.3 Magnesite ..................................................... 54

13. Other Non-Metallic Mineral Resources .......55

13.1 Mica ............................................................... 55 13.2 Asbestos ........................................................ 55 13.3 Kyanite .......................................................... 55

Sillimanite ................................................. 55

13.4 Gypsum ......................................................... 56

14. Atomic Minerals .........................................56

14.1 Uranium ........................................................ 56 Uranium Reserves and Production across the World .................................................. 56 Uranium in India ....................................... 57

14.2 Thorium ......................................................... 58 Thorium Distribution ................................ 59

Economic Geography

• Economic geography is the study of patterns of

humans’ economic activities ranging from pro-

duction to consumption of various goods and

services across the world.

• By ‘human economic activities’ we mean, pro-

duction, location, distribution, consumption, ex-

change of resources, spatial organization of

economic activities, etc.

• Different subject matters of economic geogra-

phy include the distribution of mineral re-

sources, location of industries, economies of

agglomeration (economies of urbanization),

transportation, international trade, the relation-

ship between the environment and the econo-

my, etc.

Importance of studying economic geography:

• It allows us to understand an area's economy

and its economic relationship with other areas

around the world.

• It helps us understand the reasons and methods

of development of a region or lack of develop-

ment thereof.

• It helps us find solutions to economic develop-

mental challenges.

GS1 Syllabus:

1. Distribution of key natural resources

across the world (including South Asia

and the Indian sub-continent); {Economic

Geography Part I}

2. factors responsible for the location of

primary, secondary, and tertiary sector

industries in various parts of the world

(including India). {Economic Geography

Part II}

GS3 Syllabus:

1. Major crops cropping patterns in various

parts of the country, different types of ir-

rigation and irrigation systems storage.

{Indian Agriculture}

2. Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Air-

ports, Railways etc. {Will be covered as a

separate topic}

Natural Resources Classification

Biotic Abiotic

Renewable (Non-

conventional): bio-

mass, solar energy, wind

energy, etc.

Non-renewable (Con-

ventional): coal, oil, iron,

etc.

Metallic: Iron, copper,

tin, zinc, uranium (heavy

metal), etc.

Non-metallic: graphite,

diamond, mica, lime-

stone, etc.

Renewable and Non-renewable energy resources

will be covered as a part of General Science and

Science and Technology.

1. Iron

1.2 Types of Iron Ore • Based on the amount of ore and iron content,

iron ore is classified into various types.

4

• Magnetite (Fe3O4) and Haematite (Fe2O3) are

fine quality ores.

• Limonite, siderite, etc. are inferior ores that have

their own unique characteristics.

Magnetite (Fe3O4)

• Magnetite has excellent magnetic qualities,

hence the name.

5

• It is black in colour and has very high content

of Iron – upto 72 per cent (best quality iron

ore).

• Magnetite has higher iron content than hema-

tite (60-70 per cent); therefore, its quality is

higher.

• However, unlike haematite ore, magnetite ore is

not found in high grades.

• That is, while hematite ore generally contains

large concentrations of hematite, magnetite ore

generally holds low concentrations of magnet-

ite.

• Hence the ore needs to be beneficiated (treat

to improve its properties) for magnetite recov-

ery.

• End products (e.g. steel) made from magnetite

ore are typically of higher quality than those

made from hematite ore. That’s because mag-

netite has fewer impurities than hematite.

• Magnetite with less iron content (25% to 30%)

is known as Taconite.

• A naturally magnetized content of magnetite is

called lodestone.

• Distribution of magnetite ore in India: Dharwad

and Cuddapah systems – Karnataka (73%),

Andhra Pradesh (14%), Tamil Nadu (5%), Ra-

jasthan (5%), etc.

Haematite (Fe2O3)

• Reddish ore with naturally high iron content –

60 to 70 per cent.

• Because of its high iron content, hematite ore

can be used in steel production without bene-

faction.

• Hematite is the most abundantly available ore

in India.

• Distribution: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra

and Goa.

Limonite

• Limonite is inferior iron ore that is yellowish in

colour with 40 to 60 per cent iron content.

• Limonite mines are open cast mines; hence

mining is easy and cheap.

• Distribution: Damuda series in Raniganj coal

field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar

Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.

Siderite (FeCO3)

• It is iron carbonate ore of inferior quality with

less than 40 per cent iron content.

• It contains many impurities and hence mining,

in many places, is economically unviable.

• However, one good quality of the ore is that it

doesn’t contain sulphur or phosphorus.

• And also, it is self-fluxing due to the presence

of lime.

1.3 Iron Ore Distribution Across

the World

Iron ore in Africa: Transvaal, Liberia

Iron Ore in China: Manchuria, Sinkiang,

Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula

6

Iron Ore in Europe: Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine

Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region, Magnitogorsk

7

Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes (Mesabi Region), Labrador

Iron Ore in South America: Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais

56

• The main concentration of Sillimanite is found

in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh.

• Orissa is the largest producer of sillimanite in

India. Ganjam is an important sillimanite pro-

ducing district.

• Kerala is the second largest producing state.

13.4 Gypsum

• Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium.

• It is a white opaque or transparent mineral.

• It occurs in sedimentary formations such as

limestones, sandstones and shales.

• It is mainly used in making ammonia sulphate

fertilizer and in cement industry.

• It makes upto 4-5 per cent of cement.

• It is applied in agriculture for conserving mois-

ture in the soil and for aiding nitrogen absorp-

tion.

• Rajasthan is by far the largest producer of gyp-

sum in India (99 per cent of the total production

of India).

• The main deposits occur in Jodhpur, Nagaur

and Bikaner.

• The remaining gypsum is produced by Tamil

Nadu (Tiruchirapalli district), Jammu and Kash-

mir.

14. Atomic Minerals

• Uranium, Plutonium and Thorium are the

main atomic minerals.

• Other atomic minerals are beryllium, lithium

and zirconium.

• Zirconium is found along the Kerala coast & in

alluvial rocks of Ranchi & Hazaribagh districts of

Jharkhand.

• India has sufficient reserves of beryllium to

meet her requirement of atomic power genera-

tion.

• Plutonium has occurred naturally, but except for

trace quantities it is now not found in the

Earth's crust.

• Plutonium is formed in nuclear power reactors

from uranium-238 by neutron capture.

• The most common plutonium isotope formed in

a typical nuclear reactor is the fissile Pu-239.

• Pu-239 is the principal fuel in a fast neutron

reactor.

14.1 Uranium

• Uranium is a silvery-grey metallic radioactive

chemical element.

• It is only naturally formed in supernova explo-

sions.

• Uranium, thorium, and potassium are the

main elements contributing to natural terrestrial

radioactivity.

• Uranium has the chemical symbol U and atomic

number 92.

• Uranium isotopes in natural uranium are 238U

(99.27%) and 235U (0.72%).

• All uranium isotopes are radioactive and fis-

sionable.

• But only 235U is fissile (will support a neutron-

mediated chain reaction).

• Traces of Uranium are found everywhere.

• Commercial extraction is possible only in loca-

tions where the proportion of Uranium is ade-

quate.

Uranium Reserves and Production across the World

World’s Uranium (U) Reserves (TT) World’s Uranium (U) Production (TT) in 2017

Country Reserves as of 2015 Country/Region Production

1. Australia 1780 23% 1. Kazakhstan 23.3 39.2%

2. Kazakhstan 941 12% 2. Canada 13.1 22.1%

57

3. Canada 703 9% 3. Australia 5.8 9.9%

4. Namiba 463 6% 4. Namibia 4.2 7.1%

India 139 2% India 0.4 0.7%

Total 7641 TT World 59 TT

• Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine in South-

ern Australia are important mines in Australia.

• High-grade deposits are only found in the Ath-

abasca Basin region of Canada.

• The Chu-Sarysu basin in central Kazakhstan

alone accounts for most of the country's urani-

um resources

Uranium in India

• Monazite sands comprises the largest source

of uranium.

• Monazite sands occur on east and west coasts

and in some places in Bihar.

• But the largest concentration of monazite sand

is on the Kerala coast.

• Over 15,200 tonnes of uranium is estimated to

be contained in monazite.

• Some uranium is found in the copper mines of

Udaipur in Rajasthan.

• Uranium deposits occur in Jaduguda in

Singhbhum Thrust Belt and Hazaribagh dis-

tricts of Jharkhand, Gaya district of Bihar,

Cuddapah basin of Andhra Pradesh, Araval-

lis, & Mahadek basin of Meghalaya.

• Singhbhum Copper belt is known for a number

of copper deposits with associated nickel, mo-

lybdenum, bismuth, gold, silver etc.

• The state of Andhra Pradesh is the largest pro-

ducer of uranium in India.

• Tummalapalle village located in the Kadapa

(Cuddapah) district of Andhra Pradesh is

considered as one of the largest uranium re-

serves in India.

58

• India has no significant reserves of Uranium. All

needs are met through imports.

• India imports thousands of tonnes of uranium

from Russia, Kazakhstan, France, and Uzbeki-

stan.

• India is trying hard to import uranium from

Australia and Canada.

• However, there are some concerns regarding

nuclear proliferation and other related issues.

14.2 Thorium

• Thorium is a chemical element with symbol Th

and atomic number 90.

• Uranium and thorium are the only radioactive

elements that occur naturally in large quanti-

ties.

• Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its known

isotopes are unstable, with the seven naturally

59

occurring ones (thorium-227, 228, 229, 230,

231, 232, and 234).

• Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope of tho-

rium and accounts for nearly all natural thorium,

with the other five natural isotopes occurring

only in traces.

Thorium Distribution

• Thorium is estimated to be about three to four

times more abundant than uranium in the

Earth's crust and is chiefly refined from mona-

zite sands.

• Monazite contains 2.5% thorium and is scat-

tered along the Kerala Coast.

• The other mineral carrying thorium is thoria-

nite.

• Thorium is predicted to be able to replace ura-

nium as nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors, but on-

ly a few thorium reactors have yet been com-

pleted.

• The known reserves of thorium in India are es-

timated to be between 457,000 and 508,000

tonnes.

• Kerala, Jharkhand, Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Raja-

sthan are the main producers.

• United States, Australia, and India have par-

ticularly large reserves of thorium.

World’s Thorium Reserves (2011) India’s Thorium Reserves (2016)

Country Reserves in TT State Reserves

1. India 963 1. Andhra Pradesh 31%

2. United States 440 2. Tamil Nadu 21%

3. Australia 300 3. Odisha 20%

4. Canada 100 4. Kerala 16%

5. South Africa 35 5. West Bengal 10%

Related topics:

• Nuclear Fission, Components of Nuclear Reactor, Types of Nuclear Reactors

• India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme

1

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Economic Geography Part II (Industrial Locational Factors Part I)

Factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector

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1. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sectors .................................................................................................................... 5

1.1. Primary Activities .................................................................................................................................................. 5

1.1.1 Hunting and Gathering.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

1.1.2 Pastoralism.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5

1.1.3 Commercial Livestock Rearing ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

1.1.4 Subsistence Agriculture ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7

1.1.5 Plantation Agriculture ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7

1.1.6 Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8

1.1.7 Mixed Farming .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

1.1.8 Dairy Farming ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9

1.1.9 Mediterranean Agriculture ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

1.1.10 Market Gardening and Horticulture ........................................................................................................................................................................... 9

1.1.11 Co-operative Farming ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10

1.1.12 Collective Farming .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10

1.1.13 Mining .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10

1.2. Secondary Activities ............................................................................................................................................ 10

1.2.1 Modern Manufacturing Industry .................................................................................................................................................................................... 11

1.2.2 Classification of Manufacturing Industries ................................................................................................................................................................. 11

1.2.3 Foot Loose Industries .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

1.2.4 Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions ................................................................................................................................................................. 13

1.2.5 Concept of High Technology Industry ......................................................................................................................................................................... 13

1.3. Tertiary Activities................................................................................................................................................. 13

1.3.1 Types of tertiary activities .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14

1.3.2 Transportation ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14

1.3.3 Tourism...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15

1.4. Quaternary Activities ........................................................................................................................................... 16

1.4.1 The Quaternary Sector ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16

1.4.2 Quinary Activities .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 16

2

1.4.3 Outsourcing ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 16

1.5. Some of the factors influencing locations of various sectors (industries) ..................................................... 17

1.5.1 Historical Factors ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17

1.5.2 Access to Raw Materials ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17

1.5.3 Access to energy sources .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17

1.5.4 Access to Market ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17

1.5.5 Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities ..................................................................................................................................... 18

1.5.6 Supply of cheap labour and skilled workforce ......................................................................................................................................................... 18

1.5.7 Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries ...................................................................................................................... 18

1.5.8 Industrial inertia ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

1.5.9 Government Policy ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19

1.6. Questions .............................................................................................................................................................. 19

2. Iron and Steel Industry ................................................................................................................................................ 20

2.1. Smelting of Iron Ore ............................................................................................................................................ 20

2.1.2 What exactly happens in a blast furnace? .................................................................................................................................................................. 21

2.2. Factors that influence the location of Iron and Steel Industry ........................................................................ 22

2.2.1 Raw Material ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22

2.2.2 Transportation: Near coastal areas for cheaper raw material imports ........................................................................................................... 26

2.2.3 Transport Cost Minimization ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 26

2.2.4 Access to markets: Mini Steel plants ............................................................................................................................................................................ 26

2.2.5 Economies of Linkages and Agglomerations: Duluth-Detroit-Cleveland-Pittsburgh .............................................................................. 27

2.2.6 Competition ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 28

2.2.7 Technology .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 28

2.2.8 Quality of ore, economies of scale, Cheap labour .................................................................................................................................................. 28

2.2.9 Industrial Inertia ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28

2.2.10 Rules and regulations .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29

2.2.11 Strategic reasons ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 29

2.2.12 Government policies ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29

2.2.13 Distribution of Iron and Steel Industry .................................................................................................................................................................. 29

3. Cotton Textile Industry ............................................................................................................................................... 30

3.1. Factors that affect the location of the cotton textile industry ........................................................................ 31

3.2. Cotton Textile Manufacturing Regions of the World ....................................................................................... 32

3.2.1 Factors responsible for the Localization of the British Cotton Textile Industry .......................................................................................... 32

3.2.2 Factors responsible for the Localization of the American Cotton Textile Industry ................................................................................... 35

3.2.3 Factors responsible for the Localization of the Japanese Cotton Textile Industry .................................................................................... 37

3.2.4 Factors responsible for the Localization of the German Cotton Textile Industry. ..................................................................................... 38

3.2.5 Factors responsible for the Localization of Russian Cotton Textile Industry ............................................................................................... 39

3.2.6 Factors responsible for the Localization of the Chinese Cotton Textile Industry ...................................................................................... 40

3.3. Cotton Textile Industry in India ......................................................................................................................... 41

3.3.2 Factors responsible for the Localization of the Cotton Textile Industry in India ....................................................................................... 42

3.3.3 Issues Faced by the Cotton Textile Industry in India ............................................................................................................................................. 44

3.4. Top cotton producers, importers and exporters .............................................................................................. 45

4. Woollen Textile Industry ............................................................................................................................................. 45

4.1. Factors that affect commercial wool production ............................................................................................. 45

4.1.1 Major wool producing regions........................................................................................................................................................................................ 46

3

4.2. Factors that affect the location of the woollen textile industry ...................................................................... 46

4.2.1 Despite the added cost of transportation, the wool exports from southern to northern hemisphere remain competitive.

Explain. 47

4.2.2 U.K. – The Rise and Fall ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47

4.3. Indian Woollen Textile Industry ......................................................................................................................... 48

4.3.1 Punjab ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 49

4.3.2 Others ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 49

4.3.3 Problems of Indian woollen textile industry .............................................................................................................................................................. 49

5. Jute Textile Industry .................................................................................................................................................... 49

5.1. Factors responsible for the concentration of Jute Industry in the Hooghly Basin ........................................ 49

5.2. Issues faced by the jute industry ........................................................................................................................ 50

5.3. Future positives for the jute industry ................................................................................................................ 51

5.4. Top jute producing, exporting and importing countries ................................................................................. 51

6. Silk Textile Industry ..................................................................................................................................................... 51

6.1. Silk Industry in India ........................................................................................................................................... 52

6.1.1 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Karnataka .................................................................................................. 52

6.1.2 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Varanasi ..................................................................................................... 53

6.1.3 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Kanchipuram ........................................................................................... 54

6.1.4 Factors Responsible for the Localization of Silk Industry in Jammu and Kashmir .................................................................................... 54

6.1.5 Issues faced by Indian Silk Industry .............................................................................................................................................................................. 55

6.2. Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in China ........................................................... 55

6.3. Silk Industry Outside India and China ............................................................................................................... 55

6.3.1 Japan .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56

6.3.2 The U.S. ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56

6.3.3 Europe........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 56

7. Sugar Industry ............................................................................................................................................................. 57

7.1. Major Factors that influence the location of sugar industry ........................................................................... 58

7.2. Major Sugar Producers........................................................................................................................................ 58

7.2.1 The rise and fall of Cuban Sugar Industry .................................................................................................................................................................. 59

7.3. Sugar Industry in Peninsular India vs Sugar Industry in North India ............................................................. 60

7.3.2 Mains Question ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 61

7.4. Challenges faced by the sugar industry in India ............................................................................................... 61

8. Tea Industry ................................................................................................................................................................. 62

8.2. Factors that determine the location of the tea industry .................................................................................. 62

8.3. Major tea producing areas in India .................................................................................................................... 63

8.3.1 Tea industry of the Darjeeling district .......................................................................................................................................................................... 63

8.3.2 Tea industry of the Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills of TN, Kerala, and Karnataka ................................................................................... 64

8.4. The rise and fall of the British Tea Industry ...................................................................................................... 64

8.5. Tea Industry in China .......................................................................................................................................... 65

9. Coffee Industry ............................................................................................................................................................ 65

9.2. Factors that determine the location of coffee industry ................................................................................... 65

9.3. Coffee Industry in Brazil ..................................................................................................................................... 66

4

9.4. Coffee Industry in Nilgiris ................................................................................................................................... 67

10. Rubber Industry ........................................................................................................................................................... 67

10.1. Natural Rubber .................................................................................................................................................... 67

10.1.1 Evolution of the natural rubber industry ............................................................................................................................................................... 68

10.2. Synthetic Rubber ................................................................................................................................................. 69

10.2.1 Evolution of the synthetic rubber industry ........................................................................................................................................................... 69

10.3. Tyre Manufacturing ............................................................................................................................................. 69

10.4. Southeast Asian vs South American Natural Rubber Industry ........................................................................ 70

11. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry ......................................................................................................................... 72

11.1. Lumbering Industry in the Temperate Regions vs Lumbering Industry in the Tropical Regions ................. 72

11.2. Factors affecting the location of the sawmills (lumbering) industry .............................................................. 74

11.3. Factors affecting the location of paper pulp industry ..................................................................................... 75

11.4. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in Canada ............................................................................................... 76

11.5. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in Russia ................................................................................................. 77

11.5.1 What are the challenges faced by Russia in exploiting its vast Siberian Taiga forests?.................................................................... 77

11.6. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in U.S.A. .................................................................................................. 78

11.7. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in other regions ..................................................................................... 78

11.8. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in India ................................................................................................... 79

11.8.1 Paper Industry in India .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 79

11.8.2 Problems of Indian Paper Industry .......................................................................................................................................................................... 80

11.9. International lumber, pulp and paper imports and exports ............................................................................ 81

12. Commercial Marine Fishing Industry ......................................................................................................................... 81

12.1. Marine Capture Fisheries .................................................................................................................................... 81

12.2. Factors that create the most fertile marine fishing grounds ........................................................................... 83

12.3. Factors that determine the location of the commercial fishing industry ....................................................... 83

12.4. The major commercial marine fishing grounds of the world .......................................................................... 85

12.4.1 North-East Atlantic Region ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 85

12.4.2 North-West Atlantic Region ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 85

12.4.3 North-West Pacific Region .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 86

12.4.4 China, India and South-East Asia .............................................................................................................................................................................. 87

12.4.5 Southern Hemisphere (Peru and Chile Coast) .................................................................................................................................................... 88

12.4.6 Commercial marine fishing is little developed in the southern hemisphere. Explain ........................................................................ 89

12.4.7 Commercial marine fishing is little developed in the tropics. Explain ...................................................................................................... 89

5

1. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sectors

• Economic activities are broadly grouped into

primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary

activities.

1.1. Primary Activities

• Primary activities are directly dependent on

the environment as these refer to utilisation of

earth’s resources such as land, water, vegeta-

tion, building materials, minerals, etc.

• It thus includes hunting, gathering, pastoral ac-

tivities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, mining,

quarrying, etc.

• Industries that are involved in primary economic

activities are called as primary industries.

1.1.1 Hunting and Gathering

• Gathering is practised in regions with harsh cli-

matic conditions.

• It involves primitive societies that extract from

both plants and animals to satisfy their basic

needs.

• The yield per person is meagre and little, or no

surplus is produced.

• Gathering is practised in:

✓ high latitude zones which include northern

Canada, northern Eurasia and southern

Chile.

✓ Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Ba-

sin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Aus-

tralia and the interior parts of Southeast

Asia.

• They use various parts of the plants, e.g., the

bark is used for quinine, tanin extract and tree

trunk yield rubber, gums and resins.

• The chewing gum after the flavour is gone is

called Chicle — it is made from the juice of za-

pota tree.

• In modern times some gathering is market-

oriented and has become commercial.

• However, synthetic products often of better

quality and at lower prices have replaced many

items supplied by the gatherers in tropical for-

ests.

• However, synthetic products often of better

quality and at lower prices have replaced many

items supplied by the gatherers in tropical for-

ests.

Image Source: NROER

1.1.2 Pastoralism

• At some stage in history, as hunting was unsus-

tainable, humans began the domestication of

animals.

• People living in different climatic conditions se-

lected and domesticated animals found in those

regions.

Nomadic Herding (pastoral nomadism)

• Nomadic herding is a primitive subsistence ac-

tivity.

6

• They move from place to place along with their

livestock, depending on the availability of pas-

tures & water.

• A wide variety of animals is kept in different re-

gions.

• In tropical Africa, cattle are the most important

livestock, while in Sahara and Asiatic deserts,

sheep, goats and camel are reared.

• In the mountainous areas of Tibet and Andes,

yak and llamas and in the Arctic and sub-Arctic

regions, reindeer are the most important ani-

mals.

• Pastoral nomadism is associated with three im-

portant regions.

• The core region extends from the Atlantic

shores of North Africa eastwards across the

Arabian Peninsula into Mongolia and Central

China.

• The second region extends over the tundra re-

gion of Eurasia.

• In the southern hemisphere there are small are-

as in South-west Africa and on the island of

Madagascar.

Image Source: NROER

• The process of migration from plain areas to

pastures on mountains during summers and

again from mountain pastures to plain areas

during winters is known as transhumance.

• In mountain regions, such as Himalayas, Guj-

jars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas migrate

from plains to the mountains in summers and

to the plains from the high altitude pastures in

winters.

• The number of pastoral nomads has been de-

creasing due to the imposition of political

boundaries.

1.1.3 Commercial Livestock Rearing

• Commercial livestock rearing is more organised

and capital intensive.

• Commercial livestock ranching is associated

with western cultures and is practised on per-

manent ranches.

• These ranches (a large farm where cattle are

bred) cover large areas and are divided into a

number of parcels, which are fenced to regulate

the grazing.

• When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals

are moved to another parcel.

• This is a specialised activity in which only one

type of animal is reared.

• Essential animals include sheep, cattle, goats

and horses.

• Meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and

packed scientifically and exported world mar-

kets.

• Rearing of animals in ranching is organised on a

scientific basis.

• The main emphasis is on breeding, genetic im-

provement, disease control and health care of

the animals.

Image Source: NROER

7

• New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay

and the United States of America are im-

portant countries where commercial livestock

rearing is practised.

1.1.4 Subsistence Agriculture

• In subsistence agriculture, almost all the pro-

duction is consumed locally with little or noth-

ing left for trade.

• Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive

Subsistence Agriculture are the two types.

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

• Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting

cultivation is widely practised by many tribes in

the tropics.

• The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, and the

ashes add to the fertility of the soil.

• Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash and

burn agriculture.

• It is prevalent in the tropical region in different

names, e.g. Jhuming in Northeastern states of

India, Milpa in Central America and Mexico and

Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

• This type of agriculture is largely found in

densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.

• There are two types of intensive subsistence

agriculture.

Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by

wet paddy cultivation

• Landholdings are very small due to the high

density of population.

• Farmers work with the help of family labour

leading to intensive use of land.

• Use of machinery is limited, and most of the

agricultural operations are done by manual la-

bour.

• Farmyard manure is used to maintain the fertili-

ty of the soil.

• In this type of agriculture, the yield per unit

area is high but per labour productivity is

low.

Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by

crops other than paddy

• Due to the difference in relief, climate, soil, etc.

it is not practical to grow paddy in parts of

monsoon Asia.

• Wheat, soyabean, barley & sorghum are grown

in northern China, North Korea and North Ja-

pan.

• In India wheat is grown in plains and millets are

grown in dry parts of western and southern In-

dia.

• Most of the characteristics are similar to that of

wet paddy cultivation except that irrigation is

often used.

Image Source: NROER

1.1.5 Plantation Agriculture

• Plantation agriculture was introduced by the

Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics.

• Plantations are mainly profit-oriented large

scale production systems.

• E.g. tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, palm,

sugarcane, banana & pineapple.

• The characteristic features of this type of farm-

ing are

8

✓ large estates or plantations,

✓ large capital investment,

✓ managerial and technical support,

✓ scientific methods of cultivation,

✓ single crop specialisation,

✓ cheap labour, and

✓ a good system of transportation which

links the estates to the factories and mar-

kets.

• The French established cocoa and coffee plan-

tations in west Africa.

• The British set up large

✓ tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka,

✓ rubber plantations in Malaysia and

✓ sugarcane and banana plantations in West

Indies.

• Spanish and Americans invested heavily in co-

conut and sugarcane plantations in the Philip-

pines.

• The Dutch once had a monopoly over sugar-

cane plantation in Indonesia.

• Some coffee fazendas (large plantations) in

Brazil are still managed by Europeans.

1.1.6 Extensive Commercial Grain Cultiva-

tion

Image Source: NROER

• Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the

interior parts of semi-arid lands of the midlati-

tudes.

• Wheat is the principal crop, though other crops

like corn, barley, oats and rye are also grown.

• The size of the farm is very large. Therefore en-

tire operations of cultivation are mechanised.

• There is a low yield per acre but high yield

per person.

• This type of agriculture is best developed in the

Eurasian steppes, the North American Prai-

ries, Pampas of Argentina, Velds of South Af-

rica, the Australian Downs and the Canter-

bury Plains of New Zealand.

1.1.7 Mixed Farming

• This form of agriculture is found in the highly

developed parts of the world, e.g. North-

western Europe, Eastern North America, and

the temperate latitudes of Southern continents.

• Mixed farms are moderate in size & the crops

grown are wheat, barley, oats, maize, fodder

& root crops.

Image Source: NROER

• Animal husbandry is an essential component

of mixed farming.

• Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry pro-

vide the primary income along with crops.

• Crop rotation and intercropping play an es-

sential role in maintaining soil fertility.

• Mixed farming is characterised by high capital

expenditure on farm machinery and building,

extensive use of chemical fertilisers and

9

green manures and also by the skill and exper-

tise of the farmers.

1.1.8 Dairy Farming

• Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of

rearing of milch animals.

• It is highly capital intensive.

• Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feed-

ing and milking machines add to the cost of

dairy farming.

• Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding,

health care and veterinary services.

• It is highly labour intensive as it involves rig-

orous care in feeding and milking.

• There is no offseason during the year as in the

case of crop raising.

• It is practised near urban centres which pro-

vide a neighbourhood market for fresh milk &

dairy products.

• The development of transportation, refrigera-

tion, pasteurisation and other preservation pro-

cesses have increased the duration of storage of

various dairy products.

• There are three main regions of commercial

dairy farming.

• The largest is North Western Europe the sec-

ond is Canada, and the third belt includes

South Eastern Australia, New Zealand and

Tasmania.

Image Source: NROER

1.1.9 Mediterranean Agriculture

• Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised

commercial agriculture.

• It is practised in the countries on either side of

the Mediterranean Sea, southern California,

central Chile, southwestern parts of South Africa

and south and southwestern parts of Australia.

• This region is an important supplier of citrus

fruits.

• Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality

of the Mediterranean region.

• Best quality wines in the world are produced

from high-quality grapes in various countries of

this region.

• The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and

currants. This region also produces olives and

figs.

• The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is

that more valuable crops such as fruits and

vegetables are grown in winters when there is a

great demand in European and North American

markets.

1.1.10 Market Gardening and Horticulture

• Market gardening and horticulture specialise in

the cultivation of high-value crops such as veg-

etables, fruits and flowers, solely for the urban

markets.

• Farms are small and are located where there are

good transportation links with the urban cen-

tre.

• It is both labour and capital intensive and lays

emphasis on the use of irrigation, HYV seeds,

fertilisers, insecticides, greenhouses and artifi-

cial heating in colder regions.

• This type of agriculture is well developed in

densely populated industrial districts of north-

west Europe, northeastern United States of

America and the Mediterranean regions.

10

• The farming where farmers specialise in vegeta-

bles only is known as truck farming.

• The distance of truck farms from the market is

governed by the distance that a truck can cover

overnight.

• The modern development in the industrial re-

gions of Western Europe & North America is

factory farming.

• Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle rearing,

is done in stalls and pens.

• They fed on manufactured feedstuff and care-

fully supervised against diseases.

• This requires heavy capital investment, veteri-

nary services and heating and lighting.

1.1.11 Co-operative Farming

• A group of farmers form a co-operative society

voluntarily for more efficient and profitable

farming.

• Individual farms remain intact, and farming is a

matter of cooperative initiative.

• Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure

all valuable inputs of farming, sell the products

at the most favourable terms and assist in the

processing of quality products at cheaper rates.

• The co-operative movement has been success-

ful in many western European countries like

Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, It-

aly etc.

1.1.12 Collective Farming

• It is based on social ownership of the means of

production and collective labour.

• Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was

introduced in erstwhile USSR to improve upon

the inefficiency of the previous methods of ag-

riculture and to boost agricultural production

for self-sufficiency.

• The farmers used to pool in all their resources

like land, livestock and labour.

• They were allowed to retain very small plots to

grow crops in order to meet their daily re-

quirements.

1.1.13 Mining

• The actual development of mining began with

the industrial revolution.

• Mining is of two types: surface mining (open-

cast mining) and underground mining.

• Surface mining is the easiest and the cheapest

way of mining minerals that occur close to the

surface.

• The output is both large and rapid.

• When the ore lies deep below the surface, the

underground mining (shaft method) has to be

used.

• In this method, underground galleries from ver-

tical shafts radiate to reach the minerals.

• Minerals are extracted and transported to the

surface through these passages.

• It requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage

vehicles, ventilation system for safety and effi-

ciency.

• This method is risky — poisonous gases, fires,

floods, and caving lead to fatal accidents.

• The developed economies are retreating from

mining, processing and refining stages of pro-

duction due to high labour costs, while the de-

veloping countries with large labour force are

becoming more important.

• Several countries of Africa and Asia have over

fifty per cent of the earnings from minerals

alone.

1.2. Secondary Activities

• Secondary activities transform raw materials

into valuable products by the processes of pro-

cessing, manufacturing, and construction.

• In each of these processes, the common charac-

teristics are the application of power, mass

11

production of identical products and special-

ised labour in factory settings for the produc-

tion of commodities.

1.2.1 Modern Manufacturing Industry

• Modern large scale manufacturing undertakes

mass production of standardised parts by each

worker or robot performing only one task re-

peatedly.

Mechanisation

• Mechanisation refers to using gadgets which

accomplish tasks.

• Automation (manufacturing without the aid of

human thinking) is the advanced stage of

mechanisation.

Technological Innovation

• Technological innovations through research and

development strategy are an important aspect

of modern manufacturing for quality control,

eliminating waste and inefficiency, and combat-

ing pollution.

Organisational Structure and Stratification

• Modern manufacturing is characterised by:

1. a complex machine technology

2. extreme specialisation and division of labour

for producing more goods with less effort,

and low costs

3. vast capital

4. large organisations

5. executive bureaucracy.

1.2.2 Classification of Manufacturing Industries

Industries based on Size

• The amount of capital invested, number of em-

ployees, and volume of production determine

the size of industry.

• Accordingly, industries may be classified into

household or cottage, small-scale and large-

scale.

Household industries or cottage manufacturing

12

• It is the smallest manufacturing unit.

• The artisans use local raw materials and simple

tools to produce everyday goods in their homes

with the help of their family members or part-

time labour.

• Finished products may be for consumption in

the same household or, for sale in local markets.

• Some common everyday products produced in

this sector of manufacturing include foodstuffs,

fabrics, mats, tools, furniture, leather, pottery,

bricks from clays, etc.

• Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver and

bronze.

Small Scale Manufacturing

• Small scale manufacturing is distinguished from

household industries by its production tech-

niques and place of manufacture (a workshop

outside the home/cottage of the producer).

• This type of manufacturing uses local raw mate-

rial, simple power-driven machines and semi-

skilled labour.

• It provides employment and raises local pur-

chasing power.

• Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia

and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensive

small scale manufacturing in order to provide

employment to their population.

Large Scale Manufacturing

• Large scale manufacturing involves a large mar-

ket, various raw materials, enormous energy,

specialised workers, advanced technology, as-

sembly-line mass production and large capital.

• This kind of manufacturing developed in the

last 200 years, in the United Kingdom, north-

eastern U.S.A. and Europe. Now it has diffused

to almost all over the world.

• On the basis of the system of large scale manu-

facturing, the world’s major industrial regions

may be grouped under two broad types, name-

ly

1. traditional large-scale industrial regions

which are thickly clustered in a few more

developed countries.

2. high-technology large scale industrial re-

gions which have diffused to less developed

countries.

Industries based on Inputs/Raw Materials

• On the basis of the raw materials used, the in-

dustries are classified as: (a) agro-based; (b)

mineral based; (c) chemical-based; (d) forest-

based: and (e) animal-based.

• Major agro-processing industries are food pro-

cessing, sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages

(tea, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats and

textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.

• Agro-processing includes canning, producing

cream, fruit processing and confectionery.

• Timber for the furniture industry, wood, bam-

boo and grass for the paper industry, lac for lac

industries come from forests.

• Leather for the leather industry and wool for

woollen textiles are obtained from animals.

Industries Based on Output/Product

• The industries whose products are used as raw

material to make other goods are called basic

industries.

• E.g. Iron and steel, copper smelting and alu-

minium smelting industries.

• The consumer goods industries produced

goods which are consumed by consumers di-

rectly.

• E.g. industries producing bread, tea, soaps, pa-

per, etc. are consumer goods or non-basic in-

dustries.

1.2.3 Foot Loose Industries

51

• However, domestic production is simply not enough to satisfy the demand of Indian jute mills.

• The constant increase in rice cropped area in the delta region further complicates the situation.

• India imports significant quantities of jute fibre from Bangladesh to meet the shortfall.

• Antiquated technology and machinery, shortage of power and industrial sickness affect production.

• Newly established factories in Bangladesh are posing a tough competition.

• Adoption of synthetic alternatives (polythene, nylon) has resulted in the decline of demand for jute.

5.3. Future positives for the jute industry

• Emerging environment consciousness can turn the fortunes of jute as it meets all the standards of safe

packaging (natural, renewable, biodegradable).

• Some advanced countries are already switching to jute.

• The main buyers of Indian jute products are the USA, EU, Canada, Russia, etc.

5.4. Top jute producing, exporting and importing countries

• Top producers of jute: India and Bangladesh.

• Top consumers of jute: India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.

• Top exporters of jute: Bangladesh and India.

• Top importers of jute: Pakistan and India.

6. Silk Textile Industry

• Silk is a fibre made up two different proteins –

sericin and fibroin.

• A layer of sericin surrounds the fibroin core

(80% of silk fibre).

• The pigments in the sericin layer impart colour

to the silk.

• Silk is used to make silk fabric, parachutes,

teeth braces (Italy) and fishing nets around

the world.

• Sericulture is the process of breeding silkworms

and extracting silk from them.

• The production of mulberry silk involves the fol-

lowing processes.

1. Moriculture: the cultivation of mulberry

leaves.

2. Silkworm rearing: promoting the growth of

the silkworm by feeding mulberry leaves.

3. Silk reeling: the extraction of silk filaments

from the silkworm cocoons.

4. Silk yarn: the silk filaments are woven to-

gether to form a thread. These threads are

often plied together to form a yarn.

52

• Mulberry plant that can be grown under var-

ied climatic conditions ranging from temper-

ate to tropical.

• The pant grows well in slightly acidic soils that

receive an annual rainfall ranging from 60 to

250 cm.

• Today, China accounts for over 70% of the

global silk production and 90% of the

world's silk exports.

• India is a distant second with 18% of the

world's silk production.

6.1. Silk Industry in India

• There are mainly four types of silk varieties pro-

duced by different species of silkworms.

• Mulberry silk (white) is secreted by the cater-

pillar of Bombyx mori which feeds on mulberry

leaves.

• Wild Silks ― Tussar (creamy), Eri (coppery) and

Muga Silk (golden) ― are secreted by wild

silkworms.

• India is the only country producing all known

commercial varieties of silk.

• Mulberry silk (80 per cent of the country's total

silk; Eri silk is second) is of superior quality and

is produced in the states of Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jam-

mu and Kasmir.

• Wild silks are mostly produced in the forests of

Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Bi-

har, Odisha, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and

Nagaland.

• Muga silk (golden silk) is exclusively obtained

from the Brahmaputra valley of Assam.

• Assam has received a geographical indication

(GI) for the production of Muga silk.

State Production of silk in

Tonnes (2016-17)

Silk producing regions

1. Karnataka 9571 31.5 % Mulberry silk in Mysuru (Ramanagara), Kolar, Bengaluru

Rural (Devanahalli) and Chikkaballapura districts in the Old

Mysore region

2. Andhra Pradesh 5971 19.7 % Anantapur, Chittoor Districts (Rayalaseema region)

3. Assam 3810 12.6 % Muga silk in Brahmaputra Valley region

4. Jharkhand 2631 8.7 % Tussar (tasar) silk in Singhbhum District

5. West Bengal 2565 8.5 % Murshidabad and Birbhum district

6. Tamil Nadu 1914 6.3 % Coimbatore, Dharmapuri and Salem district

Total 30348

• Important centres of silk industry are

✓ Mysore in Karnataka;

✓ Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh;

✓ Dharmavaram, Pochampalli, Venkatagiri,

Narainpet in Andhra Pradesh;

✓ Kashmir division;

✓ Bhagalpur in Bihar and

✓ Murshidabad in West Bengal.

• Varanasi, Kanchipuram, Murshidabad (W.B.),

Dharmavaram (Anantapur District) in Andhra

Pradesh and Bhagalpur in Bihar are famous for

silk sarees.

• There is a massive demand for these sarees in

the local market.

• Silk and silk products are exported to USA, U.K.,

Kuwait, Russia, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Singapore,

and UAE.

6.1.1 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Karnataka

53

• Silk textile industry in Karnataka is concentrated in the Old Mysore regions and Belagavi district.

Historical aspects • Tipu Sultan was the first to import silk cocoons from China in the 18th century.

• He sent craftsman to Bengal to learn sericulture.

• More impetus was provided by the demand for Mysore silk for the manufacturing of

parachutes during WW II.

Raw material • Karnataka is the largest raw silk producing state in India.

• It produces only mulberry silk and accounts for over 50 per cent of India's mulberry silk.

• Sericulture is concentrated around Mysuru (Ramanagara), Kolar, Bengaluru Rural (De-

vanahalli) and Chikkaballapura districts in the Old Mysore region.

Labour • Cheap labour is readily available.

Technology • The Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (CSRTI) is located in Mysore.

• The institute has developed many high yielding varieties of mulberry and silkworms.

• GOI has set a goal of making the nation self-sufficient in bivoltine silk, a high-grade

variety made with silkworms that lay two batches of eggs per year.

• In response, the Japan International Cooperation Agency has provided technical co-

operation to the country since 1991.

• Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu saw the widespread adoption of bivoltine

production techniques since then.

Water • Cauvery and Arkavathi rivers provide water for washing, bleaching and dyeing.

Market • The crepe silk saris (made of pure silk interwoven with gold zari threads) have market

throughout India.

• Silk and silk fabric produced in Karnataka are exported to famous silk saree making

centres like Varanasi, Kanchipuram, Bhagalpur, Jammu and Kashmir, etc.

Government

support

• Mysore Silk, crafted under the aegis of the Karnataka Silk Industries Corporation, now

has the additional distinction of a GI tag.

6.1.2 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Varanasi

• Banarasi silk sarees are famous for intricate weaving and craftsmanship with a tinge of Mughal and Indian

cultures.

• The sarees are worked on both handlooms (85% of the silk consumption) and power looms.

Historical aspects • The Mughals heavily patronized the Banarasi silk industry.

• Muslim craftsman are involved in weaving silk sarees in Banarasi since the Mughal era.

Labour • Highly skilled Muslim craftsman (Muslim weaver community known by the name of An-

sari) are involved in weaving silk sarees in Banarasi since the Mughal era.

Raw material • Silk is obtained from Karnataka. (Silk Industry is not a weight losing industry)

• Fine quality silk is also imported from China.

• Zari thread (thread made of fine gold or silver) is obtained from Gujarat

Water • Varanasi is located on the left bank of the Ganges (provides water for washing and dye-

ing of silk).

Market • Banarasi saris are very popular all across India.

54

Government

recognition

• In 2009, weaver associations in Uttar Pradesh secured Geographical Indication (GI)

rights for the 'Banaras Brocades and Sarees'.

• This means, saree or brocade made in the six districts of Uttar Pradesh, that is Varana-

si, Mirzapur, Chandauli, Bhadohi, Jaunpur and Azamgarh districts, can be legally

sold under the name of Banaras saree and brocade.

6.1.3 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Kanchipuram

Historical

aspects

• During the reign of Krishnadevaraya (Vijayanagara Dynasty) two weaving communities from

Andhra Pradesh, the Devangas and the Saligars moved to Kanchipuram and started their

hereditary profession there.

Labour • Highly skilled weavers with generations of experience are available throughout the region.

• The sarees are handwoven.

Raw material • Silk is obtained from Karnataka. Cotton yarn is available in the vicinity.

• Zari thread (thread made of fine gold or silver) is obtained from Gujarat.

Water • Kanchipuram is located close to the left bank of the Palar river.

Market • Kanchipuram saris are worn as bridal & special occasion saris by most South Indian women.

Government

recognition

• Kanchipuram saris have been recognized as a Geographical indication by GOI.

6.1.4 Factors Responsible for the Localization of Silk Industry in Jammu and Kashmir

Historical

aspects

• Jammu and Kashmir was one of the centres of the ancient silk route.

• The modern silk industry was started in Srinagar in the 1890s under the patronage of Brit-

ish.

Labour • The famous shawl industry of Kashmir which had provided means of livelihood to a sizeable

section of the population had started to decline.

• In order to compensate for this decline, the state took several measures for the develop-

ment of the silk industry.

Raw material • Jammu and Kashmir produces the best quality bivoltine mulberry silk because of condu-

cive climatic conditions.

Technology • Reeling machinery was imported from Europe early on.

Market • Kashmiri Silk Saree has a good market in India.

55

6.1.5 Issues faced by Indian Silk Industry

• India imports a considerable amount of silk (bivoltine mulberry silk) from China as the domestic raw silk

is nowhere near the quality of the Chinese silk. Chinese silk can be easily worked on power looms.

• Domestic raw silk is not of uniform thickness due to poor quality of cocoon, and our producers use obso-

lete reeling machines to make yarn.

• The synthetic fibres (nylon) and artificial silk being less expensive and easy to maintain, have been re-

sponsible for reducing the popularity of silk.

• Investment is had to find as most of the silk industry operates in the unorganized sector at the household

level.

6.2. Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in China

• China has dominated the global silk industry as the world's largest silk producer, exporter, and consumer.

Historical aspects • Silk was discovered around 3500 BC in China. It was a closely guarded secret for centu-

ries.

Labour • Low-cost labour for producing silk are readily available.

• Highly skilled labour force with generations of experience in weaving silk fabric is also

available.

Raw material • China is the world's largest silk producer.

• Chinese silk is of high quality and is easy to be worked on power looms.

• Silk is mainly produced in the south of the Yangtze River Delta (Jiangsu, Zhejiang and

Guangdong provinces).

Climate • China's climate is highly favourable for cultivating multiple varieties of silk.

• Unvoltine (hatch once a year), bivoltine (hatch twice a year) and polyvoltine (hatch

more than twice a year) mulberry silk cocoons are successfully reared.

Economic Link-

ages

• Cities such as Hangzhou and Nanjing are well known for their silk industries.

• Their proximity to the Shanghai textile industries has been an advantage.

Technology • The Chinese scientists have developed hybrid varieties using European and Japanese

silkworms, which makes it possible to rear silkworms up to seven times a year.

Innovation • In Pearl River valley, additional income is obtained by combining sericulture with fisher-

ies (dead silkworm and their wastes are fed to fishes) for higher income.

Water • Yangtze River provides water for washing, bleaching and dyeing.

Market • India, Europe and the U.S. import a large quantity of Chinese silk and silk fabric.

Government

support

• The Chinese government encourages the formation of silk cooperatives (silk com-

munes) for greater efficiency.

• It also provides various incentives for the modernization of the industry.

• As the land cost and workforce cost is increasing on the east coast, business is shifting to the west.

• Western parts are more focused on raw silk production due to its natural weather and soil conditions.

6.3. Silk Industry Outside India and China

56

• Sericulture outside India and China was not

successful.

• Several textile industries in Europe import Chi-

nese silk and cotton to cater to the nearby mar-

kets.

6.3.1 Japan

• During the medieval times, poor peasants in

Japan used silk production as a secondary

source of income.

• After the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the port of

Yokohama (South of Tokyo) was developed for

trading silk.

• By the early 20th century, rapidly industrializing

Japan was producing as much as 60% of the

world's raw silk.

• The Japanese silk fabric was in demand in Brit-

ain and the U.S.

• Post-WW II, the continued rise of synthetic fi-

bres (nylon in the U.S.), high labour costs, com-

petition from shipping, automobile & semicon-

ductor industries contributed to the decline of

Japan's silk industry.

• For example, in Toyota in Aichi Prefecture

near Nagoya (previously, Koromo town), the

less profitable silk industry was replaced by

Toyota Motor Corporation's manufacturing

plants.

• The demand for silk fabric in the domestic mar-

ket also fell due to westernization of Japan.

• By 1975, Japan was no longer a net exporter of

silk.

6.3.2 The U.S.

• There was some limited silk production in Vir-

ginia and Georgia from 1600s to 1760s.

• A blight on mulberry trees in the 1840s forced

American factories to switch to importing Chi-

nese raw silk.

• America's silk experiment finally failed as the

comparative advantage of sericulture in the

Gulf region (that had suitable climatic condi-

tions) was never higher than that of tobacco

(Virginia), soybean (Virginia) and cotton (Geor-

gia).

6.3.3 Europe

• Sericulture was even introduced in Europe

(France & Italy) in the early 19th century.

• Several epidemics in silkworms across Europe in

the 1840s wiped out most of the sericulture in-

dustry.

• Due to high labour costs, the sericulture indus-

try never took off after the epidemics.

Cotton Textile Industry in Italy (Lombardy and

Prato) and Silk Textile Industry in France (Lyon)

• In the world of high fashion, the "Made in Italy"

and "Made in France" tags have a distinct brand

value.

• Some of the finest fashion designers and textile

companies are based in France and Italy.

• Hence, apparel and other fashion goods with

these tags command a higher price across the

world.

• The Italian and French fabric producers are

closer to high-value markets (Europe, U.S. and

rich royal families in the Middle East), and in the

fast-paced world of high fashion, this matters.

• These factors along with the Chinese capital,

raw material and workforce have given rise to

modern

✓ cotton textile industry in Lombardy and

Prato (Italy) and

✓ silk textile industry in Lyon (France), even

though these regions have no raw material

base.

• To accommodate the Chinese workforce, direct

flights are run between China & Italy (Go Coro-

na Go!).

57

7. Sugar Industry

You must first read GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns > Major Cash Crops of India > Sugarcane

• Producing sugar involves the following steps:

1. extracting the juice from the sugarcane (in

tropical regions) or sugar beet (a tuber

crop in the temperate areas ― used as an

alternative to expensive sugar imports from

tropical countries),

2. removing the impurities from the juice,

3. crystallizing the sucrose content in the juice

to obtain raw brown sugar.

4. refining raw sugar to obtain refined white

sugar.

• The production of raw sugar is done in a sugar

mill.

• The refining (removal of impurities) of the raw

sugar is done in a sugar refinery.

Sugar mill Sugar refinery

Inputs • Raw sugarcane, water, power • Brown sugar, water, power

Output • Brown sugar that contains impurities like

molasses.

• Molasses: provides the raw material for

manufacturing alcohol (ethanol).

• Bagasse (cane residue): used for manufac-

• White refined sugar

58

turing paper and also as fuel in the mills.

• Pressmud: used as soil amendment (com-

post) to increase fertility.

Most de-

termining

locational

factor

• Sugarcane (and also sugar beet) is bulky,

highly perishable and significantly weight

losing (sugar accounts for only ~10% of

the bulky sugarcane).

• Sugar mills can be operated only during

the cane harvesting period.

• Hence a sugar mill must be located close

to the cane growing areas.

• Brown sugar is neither perishable nor

weight losing.

• Sugar refining can be done year-round.

• Hence a sugar refinery can be set up near

or relatively at a distant location (near

ports for export ― Mumbai port, Kol-

kata and Haldia ports, etc.) from a sugar

mill.

• Markets are the most determining factor.

7.1. Major Factors that influence the location of sugar industry

Raw material • The quality of sugarcane plays the most important role in production costs.

• Fifty per cent cost of production is accounted for by sugarcane alone.

• Hence the sugarcane mills are confined to the sugarcane growing regions of the tropics

(hot, humid, less windy areas).

Transportation • Sugarcane is highly perishable and significantly weight losing raw material.

• Once the sugarcane is harvested, the cane starts to dry up, and the sucrose content

starts to decline rapidly.

• It is prohibitively expensive to transport sugarcane over long-distances.

• Hence the sugar mills are always located close to the cane growing areas (Hence the cane

is always grown close to the mills ― usually within a 100 km radius).

Water • Sugarcane is a water-intensive crop with a crop season of 12 to 18 months.

• The germination to ripening phase is itself close to a year.

• Hence the availability of water year-round is a critical factor for cane cultivation.

Labour • Sugarcane is not harvested year-round & the crushing season varies from 4 to 8 months.

• Hence the availability of seasonal labour is critical for both harvesting and processing.

• In India, harvesting and milling is done by migrant workers.

Capital • Sugarcane processing is a capital intensive industry. Financial services and policy support

are critical for the industry to remain competitive.

Policy • In India, lack of proper policy support and timely financial services have severely ham-

pered the modernization of the industry.

Power • Power is readily available in the form of bagasse.

• Hence sugar mills can be set up far away from coal and other power sources.

7.2. Major Sugar Producers

• Approximately 80% of the world's sugar is pro-

duced from sugarcane in tropical and subtropi-

cal climates with the remaining 20% derived

from sugar beet.

• In the 2018-2019 crop year, sugar production

was 179 million metric tons (MT).

59

• India (33 MT) became the world's largest sugar

producer in 2018/2019.

• It overtook Brazil (29.5 MT) for the first time in

16 years.

• Brazil, Thailand, Australia, India are the leading

exporters of sugar.

• Uttar Pradesh is the leading sugarcane produc-

ing State.

• Sugar production in U.P. in 2018-19 is estimat-

ed to be around 13.5 MT.

• Sugar production in Maharashtra in 2018-19 is

estimated to be around 11.5 MT.

• In Feb 2020, for better use of surplus sugar

stock, GOI approved an increase in the price of

ethanol to be procured by public sector oil

marketing companies (OMCs) from sugar mills

for blending with petrol.

• The decision will help in further increasing the

ethanol blend levels in petrol from the current

6%.

• For 2019/2020, India expects sugar production

to drop to 26%.

• This is because of droughts in 2018 and floods

in 2019 in Maharashtra.

• Sugar mills in India are concentrated in the sug-

arcane growing regions.

• Uttar Pradesh: The western belt includes Mee-

rut, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Bijnor and Mo-

radabad, and the eastern belt includes Gorakh-

pur, Deoria, Basti and Gonda.

• Bihar: extension of the eastern UP belt, which

includes Darbhanga, Saran, Champaran and

Muzaffarpur.

• Maharashtra: Ahmednagar, Kolhapur, Solapur,

Satara, Pune and Nashik districts.

• Tamil Nadu: Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Karur and

Tiruchchirappalli districts.

• Karnataka: Belgaum, Mandya and Mysore dis-

tricts.

• Andhra Pradesh. East Godawari West Godavari,

Krishna, Vishakhapatnam, and Chittoor districts.

7.2.1 The rise and fall of Cuban Sugar In-

dustry

• Cuba is known as the sugar-bowl of the world.

But it is nowhere in the list of top exporters.

The rise

• In the 18th century, Cuba became a prosperous

sugar-producing colony of Spain.

• Just like cotton in the American South, the Cu-

ban sugar industry benefited greatly from slav-

ery.

• Cuba's independence from Spain in 1898 led to

financial and technological investments in the

Cuban sugar economy from the USA.

• The USA remained the biggest importer of Cu-

ban sugar.

• Cuba remained unchallenged as the world's

largest sugar producer until the 1960s.

60

The fall

• Cuba's sugar production suffered greatly at the

outset of the industrialization drive in 1962.

• The industrial restructuring (formation of collec-

tives) created a severe labour shortage.

• The fragmentation of landholding due to

Castro's policy of redistribution of the confis-

cated American owned plantations among

workers led to higher production cost per unit

area.

• USA's embargo against Cuba restricted sugar

imports and export of machinery.

• The loss of the single largest market – the USA

– meant that Cuba had to rely heavily on USSR.

• After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991,

the Cuban sugar industry collapsed.

7.3. Sugar Industry in Peninsular India vs Sugar Industry in North India

North India (Sutlej-Ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar) South India (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,

Andhra Pradesh)

• Low yield and productivity.

• High summer temperatures ranging from 30° to

35°C and Loo (dry, scorching wind in May and

June with a desiccating effect) leads to low growth

and fibrous crop.

• In winter months (December and January) the crop

is likely to be damaged by severe cold and frost.

• Hence it must be harvested before frost season.

• The tropical climate gives a higher yield per unit

area as compared to north India.

• No winds like 'loo' during summer.

• Reasonably high temperature during winter.

• Frost-free climate throughout the year.

• High maritime influence = moderate climate = de-

creased crop duration and higher sucrose con-

tent.

• Perennial rivers and large scale irrigation facilities. • Non-perennial rivers.

• Irrigational facilities have improved over time.

• The crushing season ranges from 4 to 8 months. • Yearlong crushing (factories keep running

throughout the year)

• Has more mills than the south but they are of

comparatively smaller size and use antiquated

technology.

• Mills are comparatively large and modern.

• The co-operative sugar mills are under the pres-

sure of undue political & social interferences.

• The co-operative sugar mills are better managed

in the south than in the north.

Uttar Pradesh

• Vast alluvial plains with soils rich in lime and pot-

ash.

• Abundant water for washing and processing.

• Seasonal labour is readily available.

Maharashtra

• The regur soils (black clayey soils) of the Deccan

Plateau are good at soil retention.

• The major sugar belt lies along the river valleys of

Western Maharashtra which is close to the Mum-

bai port.

Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh

• Maritime influence (moderate climate) and fertile

soils ― high yield per hectare, higher sucrose con-

61

tent, high recovery rate and long crushing season

• As a result of better conditions prevailing in peninsular India, the sugar industry is gradually shifting from

north India to peninsular India.

7.3.2 Mains Question

Mains Practise: South India offers more favour-

able climatic conditions for the growth of sug-

arcane, but the most important sugarcane belt is

in north India. What is the reason for this para-

doxical situation?

• Before World War I, the northern plain area was

mainly used for growing indigo.

• With the introduction of cheap aniline dyes, in-

digo lost its market by the time of WW I.

• Consequently, indigo's place was taken by sug-

arcane cultivation in the north.

Other factors

• Sugarcane needs good irrigational facilities

throughout the year.

• Such facilities were available in the north due to

perennial river systems.

• On the other hand, south has only non-

perennial rivers.

• Also, irrigational facilities were previously non-

existent in most parts of the south.

• In the southern states, sugarcane faces tough

competition from cotton, tobacco, groundnut,

coconut, etc.

• The peninsular sugarcane is not grown in com-

pact blocks (close to mills), as in Uttar Pradesh

and Bihar.

Mains 2013 Question: Do you agree that there is

a growing trend of opening new sugar mills in

the southern states of India? Discuss with justifi-

cation (5 marks) (100 words)

• Previously, north India used to produce about

90 per cent of India's sugar.

• It has now reduced to around 40%.

More sugarcane cultivation = More sugar mills.

• Most favourable weather conditions (free from

loo and frost).

• Development of extensive irrigational facilities

in the past few decades.

• Yearlong crushing season. (In the north, the

crushing period is restricted to 4-8 months)

• High maritime influence = moderate climate =

does not reduce sugar content (extremely high

temperature and low rainfall lead to fibrous

crop).

7.4. Challenges faced by the sugar

industry in India

• The Indian sugarcane has low sucrose content

and gives poor yields compared to the global

average.

• The production cost of sugar in India is one of

the highest in the world.

Issues faced by mills

• Since the harvesting can be done only in a par-

ticular season, the crushing is confined to a lim-

ited period, and the sugar factories remain idle

for the rest of the period.

• Most of the machinery used in Indian sugar

mills, particularly those of UP and Bihar are old

and obsolete.

• Due to low profitability, the industry is unwilling

to modernize.

• Low rate of recovery: the average rate of recov-

ery in India is less than 10 per cent compared to

other major sugar-producing countries (14- 16

per cent).

Fluctuating availability of sugarcane for mills

• Sugarcane requires 10 to 18 months to mature.

62

• This makes it extremely vulnerable to vagaries

of the monsoons.

• Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar con-

tent & deficiency in rainfall produces a fi-

brous crop.

• Two-thirds of the total sugarcane produced in

India is used for making jaggery and khandsari,

and the rest goes to sugar factories.

• Since khandsari industry is free from excise du-

ty, it can offer higher prices of cane to the cane

growers.

• Sugarcane has to compete with several other

crops like cotton, oilseeds, rice, etc.

Government apathy

• GOI imposes high excise duty on sugar exports.

• GOI has made it mandatory to use jute bags

instead of synthetic bags to store 20% of the

produced sugar.

• Through it is done to save the jute industry, it

has turned out into a problem for the sugar in-

dustry as jute bags lead to more spillage.

8. Tea Industry

You must first read GS3: Major Crops and Crop-

ping Patterns > Plantation Crops in India > Tea

& Coffee

Major steps involved in the cultivation and pro-

cessing of tea leaves:

• Plantation: tea plantations are managed as large

estates with a dedicated labour force.

• Pruning: tea plants will grow into a tree if left

undisturbed. Hence, they must be pruned

(trimming away dead or overgrown branches)

for ease of plucking of leaves by women la-

bourers from the ground.

• It also enables the growth of new shoots bear-

ing soft leaves.

• Plucking: hand picking is done by skilled wom-

en labour. Proper picking is essential to main-

tain the quality of the leaves and for enabling

the quick growth of new leaves.

• Fermentation: The tea leaves are placed in a

controlled humid atmosphere allowing the

leaves to oxidize.

• The duration of exposure to oxygen affects the

degree of fermentation, resulting in darkened

leaves.

• Black tea leaves (consumed with milk in India)

are fermented leaves whereas green tea leaves

(consumed without mixing with milk in coun-

tries like Japan where dairying is absent) are un-

fermented.

• Drying: the leaves are dried with hot air to pre-

vent further fermentation. The flavour, aroma

and character of the tea are controlled at this

stage.

• Auctions: The various grades produced by the

tea estates are tasted and auctioned by traders.

• Blending: The tea leaves are blended at this

stage to create many varieties of tea.

8.2. Factors that determine the location of the tea industry

Climate • Tea bush requires warm (20°-30°C), moist (150-300 cm), frost-free climate through the year.

• Tea plantations in India are rarely above 1,800 meters. Above this height, low temperatures

and frost become the detrimental factors.

• Frequent showers evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender

leaves. E.g. Darjeeling tea.

• High humidity, heavy dew, and morning fog favour rapid development of young leaves.

63

E.g. Darjeeling tea.

Vegetation • Tea is a shade-loving plant and develops more vigorously under shade.

Topography • Waterlogging is detrimental to its roots.

• Hence good soil drainage is a must for tea cultivation.

• The undulating topography of hilly areas with virgin soils is ideal for teal cultivation.

Soil • Virgin forest soils rich in humus and iron content are considered to be the best. E.g. Darjee-

ling tea.

• A relatively large proportion of phosphorus and potash in the soil gives a special flavour

to the tea. E.g. Darjeeling tea.

Capital • Tea cultivation and processing is a capital intensive industry.

• Tea plants take about four years to mature.

• Labour costs have accounted for around 45-60% of the total cost of production.

• In the initial stages, the tea plantations were entirely financed by the British.

• At present, the formal banking sector is playing a crucial role in supporting the organized

tea industry.

Labour • Tea has to be processed within the tea garden to preserve its freshness and quality.

• Everything from fermentation to auctions occur at the tea estate itself.

• Mechanization is not feasible as the tea cultivation is carried out on undulating topogra-

phy of hilly areas.

• This makes tea cultivation a labour-intensive industry that requires abundant, cheap, and

skilled labour at every stage (from plantation to blending).

8.3. Major tea producing areas in In-

dia

• Upper Assam (upper Brahmaputra valley),

Lower Assam and Darjeeling, Nilgiri Hills of

South India.

8.3.1 Tea industry of the Darjeeling district

• Climate: frequent showers, heavy dew, and

morning fog improve tea quality.

• Cold winters retard plant growth and result in

low yield compared to other regions in the NE.

• Soil: deep clayey soils rich in potash and phos-

phorous give the tea a distinctive flavour.

• Topography: Less steep hills (low gradients) is

an added advantage.

• Labour: large estates with permanent labour

force thrived since the time of the British.

• The Plantation Act permitted bonded labourers

from Bihar & Bengal to work and settle on the

plantations.

• Capital: initially, in the 1830s, it was the British

that infused the capital and created a thriving

tea industry in Darjeeling. The tea industry is

now self-reliant.

• Market: Darjeeling tea, because of its distinc-

tive aroma, is highly valued in the international

markets.

• Initially, the British had a full monopoly over the

Darjeeling tea trade. With India gaining inde-

pendence, the Darjeeling tea thrived in the in-

ternational market.

• Transport: Kolkata port for exports.

Mains 2014 Question

Whereas the British planters had developed tea

gardens all along the Shivaliks and Lesser Hima-

layas from Assam to Himachal Pradesh, in ef-

81

• The small size of the manufacturing units with

obsolete technology makes them uneconomic.

• The cost of imported wood pulp and wastepa-

per is ever increasing.

• The production of paper, paper board and

above all, newsprint has always fallen short of

the demand.

• This has forced the country to resort to heavy

imports. Pulp, paper, paper board, newsprint

and wastepaper are imported from Norway,

Sweden, Canada, etc.

• Effluents released by the paper mills into open

drains and rivers cause severe environmental is-

sues.

11.9. International lumber, pulp and

paper imports and exports

Major exporters of forest products (2018)

• Sawn wood: Russia (20%); Canada (19%); Swe-

den (8%); Germany (6%); Finland (6%); U.S.A.

(5%).

• Pulp for paper: Brazil (24%); Canada (15%);

U.S.A. (11%); Chile (8%); Indonesia (7%); Finland

(6%).

• Recovered paper: U.S.A. (34%); United Kingdom

(8%); Japan (7%); Netherlands (5%); Germany

(5%).

• Paper and paperboard: Germany (12%); U.S.A.

(10%); Finland (9%); Sweden (8%); Canada (6%);

China (4%).

Major importers of forest products (2018)

• Sawn wood: China (25%); U.S.A. (18%); United

Kingdom (5%); Japan (4%); Germany (4%).

• Pulp for paper: China (35%); U.S.A. (9%); Ger-

many (7%); Italy (6%).

• Recovered paper: China (31%); India (12%);

Germany (9%); Indonesia (6%).

• Paper and paperboard: Germany (10%); U.S.A.

(8%); China (5%); Italy (5%); United Kingdom

(4%).

Source

12. Commercial Marine Fishing Industry

• Aquaculture involves cultivating aquatic (freshwater and saltwater) populations (fish, crustaceans, molluscs,

shrimp, crab, etc.) under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is

the harvesting of wild fish (fish, whales, seals, etc.).

• In 2018, an estimated 59.5 million people were engaged in the primary sector of fisheries and aquaculture.

• In total, about 20.5 million people were employed in aquaculture and 39.0 million in fisheries.

• World aquaculture production of farmed aquatic animals has been dominated by Asia (89 per cent share).

• China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, etc. are the major aquaculture producers.

12.1. Marine Capture Fisheries

• Commercially, marine fisheries are a lot more important than freshwater (inland) fisheries.

Production of fisheries & aquaculture 2017 2018

Capture

Inland 11.9 12.0

Marine 81.2 84.4

Total capture 93.1 96.4

Aquaculture

82

Inland 49.6 51.3

Marine 30.0 30.8

Total aquaculture 79.5 82.1

Total world fisheries and aquaculture 172.7 178.5

• China, Indonesia, India, U.S.A., Russia, Peru, Japan, Vietnam, Norway, Denmark, Canada, etc. are the

major marine fishing nations.

• Tropical countries like Indonesia, India, Vietnam, etc. are mostly involved in intensive inshore (near the

shore) fishing by small fishers and small to medium scale fishing trawlers.

• China, U.S.A., Russia, Japan, Norway, Denmark, etc. are focused on both inshore and deep-sea fishing.

• The deep-sea fishing operations are carried out by highly mechanized trawlers.

• Modern canning and refrigeration facilities have greatly helped the fish export trade of these countries.

• Canada, the U.S.A., Greenland, Norway, South Africa and Argentina are the major sealing nations.

• Japan, Norway & Russia are the leading whaling nations. Most of the whaling happens in the North Pacific.

• In recent years, whaling and sealing have decreased due to pressure from conservationists.

83

12.2. Factors that create the most fertile marine fishing grounds

Water temperature • Marine life is best developed in oceans of the high latitudes whose waters are at

temperatures lower than 20 °C.

• This is because the fish feed on minute marine organisms called plankton, and the

plankton multiplies best in colder waters.

• In the tropics, the warmer waters significantly inhibit the growth rate of the

plankton population.

• Hence the temperate and sub-polar seas (seas in the higher latitudes) offer better

fishing grounds compared to the tropics.

Ocean topography • Plankton of all kinds are abundantly available in shallow waters (continental

shelves) where they have access to both sunlight as well as nutrients (brought by

rivers).

• Hence the most exceptional fishing grounds are found above continental shelves in

the higher latitudes.

Ocean water mix-

ing and upwelling

zones

• Plankton need both sunlight and nutrients (such as nitrate and phosphate) to be

able to photosynthesize.

• Sunlight is only available in the uppermost layers.

• During photosynthesis, the nutrients are quickly used up by phytoplankton, so they

are not available for long periods in the upper layers under normal circumstances.

• To escape this problem, the seawater needs to be mixed regularly to bring the nu-

trient-rich deep waters up to the sunlight zone.

Phytoplankton production is highest at high latitudes

• Furthermore, in surroundings where atmospheric temperatures are often colder than

oceanic temperatures, the top layers of the ocean are cooled by the atmosphere.

• This increases the density of the surface waters and causes them to sink and therefore

causes mixing (nutrient-deficient water sinks and nutrient-rich water is upwelled).

• Hence the cold & warm current mixing zones (e.g. Grand Banks) and nutrient-

rich cold water upwelling zones (e.g. upwelling near Peruvian coast) form fertile

fishing grounds.

12.3. Factors that determine the location of the commercial fishing industry

84

Proximity to the

fishing grounds

• Proximity to the fishing grounds reduces refrigeration and transportation costs.

• However, with the highly mechanized modern trawlers, proximity to the fishing

grounds is no longer a significant factor.

• For example, Japanese trawlers venture into waters as far as Antarctica & Grand Banks.

Climate • The cold climate of the higher latitudes makes refrigeration (preservation and storage

of fish) economical.

• Whereas in tropics, the warmer climate and higher humidity (fungal and bacterial

attacks) make preservation and storage (refrigeration) more expensive.

• Hence the commercial marine fishing industry is less viable in tropics.

Ports • Sheltered inlets and estuarine coasts make ideal sites for fishing ports and villages.

• Both the Atlantic and Pacific coastlines of the middle and high latitudes in the north-

ern hemisphere are very much indented and are backed by strong relief.

• Here, ports exclusively for fishing industry are developed. The fishing ports have all the

necessary infrastructure from processing to canning units.

• Fishing ports make the fishing industry efficient and cost-effective.

Capital • The commercial success of marine fishery depends on the cost optimization with the

help of efficient technology.

• Hence a lot of capital is required for R&D, mechanization and infrastructure.

• Europe, Japan, U.S.A. and Canada have the requisite capital and well established finan-

cial services for the cost-intensive and risky marine fishery industry.

Market • Fish are used as food, and raw material for fertilizers, lubricants, cosmetics, etc.

• Seals and whales are hunted for meat, fur and oil.

• Fish, fish meal, and fish waste are widely used as animal feed and feed for aquacul-

ture and as fertilizer for paddy fields.

• Fish oil represents the richest available source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty

acids (PUFAs), which perform a wide range of critical functions for human health.

Fish as a primary food source

• Europe is a net exporter of horticulture products and a net importer of food grains

and meat.

• Fish meat is the most affordable option in many countries like Norway (hilly terrain;

ice-covered land; little scope for agriculture and dairying; most of the population liv-

ing along the coast).

• Just like Norway, Japan has very few dietary alternatives to fish.

Fish as an essential part of the diet

• There is a great demand for fish along the North American coasts which are mostly in-

habited by European settlers.

• With the rapid economic development in Asia since the 1990s, fish is gaining a lot of

importance as an inexpensive alternative to meat in the densely populated coastal re-

85

gions.

The insignificant market in the southern hemisphere

• On the other hand, commercial fishing is not of prime importance in the southern hem-

isphere (Peru, Falkland Islands are an exception) where cattle rearing and dairying

are more economical options.

• (Cattle rearing in Pampas of South America and Eastern Australia, dairying in New

Zealand and agriculture in South Africa).

Employment • Lack of viable alternate employment opportunities in the primary sector since time im-

memorial has played a significant role in high dependence of Japan and Norway on

the fishing industry.

• Japan has high population pressure, hilly terrain & forests and very little cultivable land.

• Norway is mostly hilly and experiences long, harsh winter months.

• Hence, venturing into deep-sea fishing has remained the most practical and feasible

primary economic activity for these countries.

12.4. The major commercial marine fishing grounds of the world

• The continental shelves of North-East Atlan-

tic, North-West Atlantic and North-West Pa-

cific are the most important global commercial

fishing grounds.

• The continental shelf around the Falkland

Islands and upwelling zones along the Peru-

vian and Chilian coast are other major fishing

regions.

12.4.1 North-East Atlantic Region

• Colder atmospheric temperatures, and warmer

oceanic temperatures (influenced by warm

North Atlantic Drift), cause mixing and nutri-

ent upwelling in the North-East Atlantic Region.

• This explains the abundant fish resources in the

region (Iceland continental shelf & North Sea

continental shelf).

• Fishing is done on a highly organized basis by

Norway, Denmark, Spain, Iceland and the

U.K.

• Fishing goes on all round the year in the shal-

low waters of the North Sea.

• Dogger Bank is the most vigorously exploited

region.

12.4.2 North-West Atlantic Region

• The North-West Atlantic Region extends from

Newfoundland to the New England states of the

U.S.A.

• Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold Labra-

dor currents and gently sloping continental

shelves makes the region around the Grand

Banks of Newfoundland the world's largest

fishing ground.

• The gently sloping continental shelves stretch

for over 200 miles south-east of Newfoundland.

86

• Fish of all types and sizes feed and breed here

and support a thriving fishing industry.

• In Newfoundland, the fishing industry employs

almost the entire population.

• All the fishing activities are carried out by highly

mechanized trawlers which can store fish in re-

frigerated chambers for months.

• St. John's, chief port of Newfoundland is the

headquarters of the Grand Banks fishing indus-

tries.

• All processing activities like cutting, gutting,

cleaning, packing (canning) are done at the

ports itself.

• Along with Canada and U.S.A., countries like

Norway, U.K., Portugal, Denmark, Russia and Ja-

pan, also send fishing fleets to the Grand Banks.

12.4.3 North-West Pacific Region

• The North-West Pacific Region extends from

the Bering Sea to the East China Sea.

• China leads in the catch, followed by Russia,

Japan, South and North Koreas.

• Within the enclosed seas ― the Sea of

Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea and the

East China Sea ― intensive forms of inshore

(close to the shore) as well as deep-sea fishing

are carried out.

• In the case of inshore fishing, processing (gut-

ting to meat cuts) and canning is done at the

fishing ports.

• In deep-sea fishing, processing happens on the

vessel, and the meat is refrigerated for canning

at the ports.

• Commercial fishing is best developed in Japan,

where the industry is very highly organized.

Pearl Fishery in Japan

• Natural pearls are derived mainly from oysters.

• It was the Japanese that invented cultured

pearls in 1913.

• Young oysters are first collected, and grains of

mother-of-pearl (the inner lining of oyster

shells) are inserted into them. They are then

placed in wire cages and lowered into shallow

coastal waters.

• After about two to five years, these oysters will

be collected, and the artificial pearls will be ex-

tracted.

• Japan is the leader in the production of artificial

pearls.

Why is fishing the dominant primary sector oc-

cupation of Japan?

Fishing is the only reliable primary sector activi-

ty

• The rugged (mountainous) nature of Japan

and parts of mainland eastern Asia support little

agricultural activity (80 per cent land in Japan is

classified as 'non-agricultural'. Around 50% is

covered by forests).

• Japan is not well endowed with natural re-

sources.

87

• Hence fishing forms a dominant aspect of the

primary economy.

Geographical advantage

• The continental shelves around the islands of

Japan are rich in plankton, due to the meeting

of the warm Kuroshio and the cold Oyashio

currents and provide excellent breeding

grounds for all kinds of fish.

Cold and warm ocean current mixing zone off Japan

• The indented coastline of Japan provides

sheltered fishing ports, calm waters and safe

landing places, ideal for the fishing industry.

• Hakodate and Kushiro are large fishing ports

with complete refrigeration facilities.

Ready market

• The scarcity of meat (there is little pasture in

Japan for livestock farming of any kind)

popularised fish as the principal item of diet

and the chief protein food of the Japanese and

the Chinese as well.

• There exists a great demand for fish and fish

products in the nearby countries where the fish-

ing industry is under-developed.

• The Japanese make use of fish wastes, fish meal

and seaweeds as fertilizers in their farms.

Capital, technology and infrastructure

• Japan has huge stakes in international fishing

enterprises, and her advanced fishing tech-

niques give her an edge over competitors.

• The Japanese fishing trawlers venture far and

wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the Atlan-

tic waters.

• Advanced financial services, encouraging gov-

ernment policy, an advanced technology at

hand, skilled workforce with decades of experi-

ence in fishing make Japan a leader in the fish-

ing industry.

Whaling

• Hunting and eating whales is a part of Japanese

culture.

• Whale meat consumption became widespread

after World War II when other food was scarce.

• In 2018 Japan withdrew from the Internation-

al Whaling Commission (I.W.C.) for banning

whale hunting.

• This means Japan will no longer hunt whales

in the Antarctic, as it did earlier under the

guise of research.

• The whaling will be conducted within Japan's

territorial waters and Exclusive Economic Zone.

12.4.4 China, India and South-East Asia

China

• China and India are the world's leading pro-

ducers of inland fish and aquaculture.

• When it comes to commercial marine fishing,

China was nowhere in the scene until the 1980s.

• Opening up of the economy in the 1980s, the

inflow of foreign capital and the subsequent

rise in income levels has made China one of the

major marine (inshore) fishing countries.

• It is now far ahead of Japan in marine fish pro-

duction.

• However, for China, aquaculture and inland

fisheries are far more important compared to

commercial marine fishing.

88

• Most of China's marine fishing happens in the

Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South

China Sea.

• From the table, it is clear that aquaculture in

the dominant form of fisheries in the tropics

and China and in the higher latitudes com-

mercial marine fishing is dominant.

• By 2030, most of the fish production is going

to come from aquaculture.

India & South East Asia

• In India, the west coast is more significant for

fishing than the east coast as the west coast

has a more extensive continental shelf.

• However, just like in China, aquaculture and

inland fisheries produce far more fish (70-

80%) than commercial marine fishing.

• Technological lag and financial constraints have

been the major bottlenecks in the take-off of

the commercial marine (inshore and deep-sea)

fishing industry in India.

• The case is the same in the South East Asian

nations.

• In South-East Asia, the South China Sea and

the Sunda continental shelf are major fishing

grounds.

World fisheries harvest for 2018

Country Capture Aquaculture Total

Productio in 2018 in Million Tons (MT) 93.7 MT 101.1 MT 199.7 MT

China 17.8 63.7 81.5

Indonesia 6.6 16.6 23.2

India 5.1 5.7 10.8

United States 4.9 0.4 5.4

Russia 4.8 0.2 4.9

Peru 3.8 0.1 3.9

Japan 3.3 1.1 4.3

Vietnam 2.8 3.6 6.4

Norway 2.2 1.3 3.5

12.4.5 Southern Hemisphere (Peru and Chile

Coast)

• The continental shelf along the South Ameri-

can west coast is quite narrow.

• However, the Walker Circulation causes

upwelling off the coasts of Peru, Chile and Ec-

uador.

• This brings nutrient-rich cold water to the

surface, increasing fishing stocks.

• The bulk of the fish caught is not eaten but is

used in the manufacture of fertilizers.

Normal Conditions

• Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Cold Ocean

Water == Good for Fishing.

El Nino

• Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Warm Ocean

Water == Fishing industry takes a hit.

Falkland Islands (British overseas territory)

89

• Off the Argentine coast, the continental shelf is

wide, and the cold Falkland current meets the

warm Brazilian current, thus providing fertile

grounds for fishing.

12.4.6 Commercial marine fishing is little

developed in the southern hemisphere. Ex-

plain

• Topography: The continents in the southern

hemisphere have very narrow continental

shelves (except for the region around the

Falkland Islands).

• Market: Cattle rearing in Pampas of South

America and Eastern Australia, dairying in New

Zealand and agriculture in South Africa means

that the southern hemisphere has more afford-

able alternatives to fish.

12.4.7 Commercial marine fishing is little

developed in the tropics. Explain

• Climate: Warm ocean waters are less favoura-

ble for plankton growth. Warm and humid cli-

mate increases the cost of refrigeration.

• Economies of scale: Fish occur in smaller and

scattered groups which make fishing relatively

expensive.

• Market: Fish are not the primary dietary choice

as the tropics have abundant agricultural re-

sources and cheaper proteinaceous foods like

poultry.

• Export potential: Tropical fish have higher oil

content compared to the proteinaceous

temperate fish.

• Capital: The poor tropical countries do not

stand a chance against their affluent temperate

counterparts in the capital intensive commercial

fishing industry.

• Coastline: Most of the tropics have a straight

coastline, unlike the temperate region where

most of the coast is indented and deep. Hence

commercial fishing ports are hard to develop in

the tropics.

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