General Papar

8/10/2019 General Papar

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UGC Research and Teaching Study Material

1.Teaching Aptitude

Teaching is a complex process which brings socially desirable behavioral change in a

person. Teaching is a part of teachinglearning process. !t is re"uired to bring certain

changes in a person according to the need of his society and environment in which he is

living. Teaching is not an act as it is dynamic in nature so it is termed as process. !t is

also not a fundamental concept as it is greatly influenced by social and human factors.

Teaching is both art and science. !t isan activity involving teacher and student with a

view to the development of student. The main aim of teaching is to bring about sociallydesirable behavioural changes in the students and can be achieved only if teaching is

effective and based on certain values or principles. Teaching is one of the main parts of

the teachinglearning system. So effective teaching is mostly depending on the teacher.

!t is a common fact that a good teacher is born and not made. Training and research

can ma#e a good teacher better and a better teacher best. Teacher should follow

various methods of teaching devised from time to time. $ teacher encourages the

practice of thin#ing among students. Teacher should give to the students the freedom

and opportunity to express their ideas. Teaching is re"uired to give education to the

students.

%ducation may be defined as the process of drawing out least in an individual. &e candefine education as 'the aggregate of all processes by means of which a person

develops attributes( attitudes and other forms of behaviour of positive value in the

society in which he lives) &e can also define it as 'the social process by which people

are sub*ected to the influence of a selected and controlled environment( so that they

may attain social competence and optimum individual development) The complete

process of education must contain four common factors

+. %ducator ,teacher-

. %ducand ,Student-

/. the sub*ect matter

0. the context ,setting-

1ow( education is the process of developing some abilities in an individual. Though

abilities are in born "uality( it is also a fact that these can be nurtured and developed in

an educand through various means by a n educator. %ducation must also be relevant

and useful to the society in which educand has to live. Since every individual is uni"ue


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in their own way( the educator has to adopt strategies and methods suitable to

individual needs. %ducation is also productive. The educational productivity ,rate of

efficiency of wor#- can be classified as. 2ualitative and "uantitative. 3or better

education both "ualitative and "uantitative productivity is re"uired. 2uality means here

the excellence in the part of textboo#( teachers students aids( facilities and other

teaching aids where as "uantity refers the number of teachers( institutions(

professionals( etc. %ducation and teaching are interrelated. %ducation is a complex

social cultural and ethical process designed in a social or cultural content. !t is related

with social structures( cultural environments( values( and ideas of people( society and

government. $ll these factors are dynamic in nature. So teaching is also a dynamic

process and its definition changes according to place and time. Morrison defines it as a

disciplined social process in which teacher influences the behaviours of the less

experienced pupil and helps him develop according to the needs and ideas of the

society. Smith termed it as an organised system of wor#er. 4e5she must have proper

guts to lead specific activities aimed to help the learner learn by an example at a

superior level as he is the something. 6eader of his pupil. 4e5she has to exercise $nanalytical approach ma#es it clear that any influence for bringing the. 7esired neither of

the definition fulfills the purpose modification in behaviour.

.8arriers at the receiver

The communication cycle may brea# down at the receiving end for some of these

reasons9

+. 6ac# of !nterest. !f a student does not have any interest in your class or sub*ect

he will not ta#e care of what you are telling.

. 6ac# of :nowledge. !f a student don;t #now the basics of a topic or sub*ect(

he5she is unable to understand the topic or sub*ect if you will start at a higher level.

/. 6ac# of Communication S#ills. Those who have wea# reading and listening s#ills

ma#e ineffective receivers.


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fault. Student may misinterpret words and read negative impressions between the

lines. Conse"uently( he5she is li#ely to misunderstand part or all of the report.

=. >hysical 7istractions. !f a classroom is full of bright lights( glare on computer

screens( loud noises( or in an area of excessively hot or cold place( or physical

ailments( those students will probably experience communication brea#downs on a

regular basis.

/Characteristics of Good Teacher

+. Teacher should be mentally and physically fit.

. Teacher should be #een in his wor# and should be enthusiastic and anxious to

#eep his #nowledge fresh ? update.

/. 4e should possess patience and tolerance and try to study the difficulties and

problem of students and try to solve them in a "uiet and calm manner.

0. 4e should have feelings of love and sympathy.

=. 4e must not be superstitious about his students and class.

@. 4e should be well dressed and well maintained.

A. 4is voice should be sweet( polite and clear.

B. 4is language should be understandable to the students.

. 4e must not give any false promise.

+D. 4e5she should have interest in his profession and the #nowledge must be

updated.

++. 4e must not have any bad habits.

+. Teacher must have a good communication s#ill and must be a master of his area

or field of teaching.

+/. Teacher should be trained in various methods of teaching.

+0. 4e should #now the child psychology.


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+=. Teacher should be a good researcher.

+@. 4e should have a control over studentsto maintain peace and order in class.

+A. Teaching should be pupil central rather than sub*ect centres is given opportunity

to compare two or more sets of facts. This enhance the understanding of lessonamong students as they compare and observe different facts.

+B. Teacher should arose interest among students about the sub*ect.5order to give a

generalised truth.

+. Teacher must be fair in grading and mar#ing.

D. Teachershould organiEe extra curricular activities forbetter understanding of

sub*ect matter.

+. Good interpersonal relationship should be maintained.

. Rewards and punishments should be given according to their behavior but

usually punishment should be avoided.

/. Teacher should use modern techni"ues( methods and gadgets in teaching for

better understanding of sub*ect matter.

0. Teacher should evo#e curiosity of the pupils by presenting the sub*ect matter in

an effective manner with clear explanation leading to better understanding of the

matter.

=. Teacher should arrange sub*ect matter in a logical way.

@. Teacher should ma#e a lesson plan before presenting the lesson in the class

A. Teacher should wor# as a leader in the class.

B. Teacher should maintain a democratic atmosphere in the class so that every

student will be able to put his doubt( "uestions and ideas with suggestion.

. Teacher should act as a role model for his students with his character and

behaviour. 4e way follow the way of 'simple living and great thin#ing)

/D. Teacher should inspire his pupil.


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08arriers


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=. !t is systematic( ob*ective and logical.

@Classroom !nteraction

The classroom interaction between a student and a teacher is completely based on the

climate created by teacher. 4e should be able to bring the bendiness of friendship with

a definite degree of firmness. The interaction must be smooth and pleasant without any

friction for a complete and fruitful teaching learning process. 1ormally( verbalisM;goes

on in the name of teaching. Students are merely expected to listen to thF explanation

and lectures. This is #nown as direct teaching. The effectiveness of direct teaching has

been "uestioned many times and it is found that this type of teaching is not very

effective one. 3or effective teaching the active( participation of students !S veryimportant. This participation !S done through the classroom interaction.

This interaction consist of their explanations and lectures with students( suggestions(

ideas concepts( and "uestions( etc. These activities of students ma#e important for

ma#ing teaching learning process effective( democratic and friendly. !nteraction is

re"uired for the rectification of the drawbac#s of direct teaching. This interactive

teaching is #nown as indirect teaching. Through the interaction the teacher analyses

thecapacity and re"uirement of students and can bring subse"uent changes in their

behavior according to the re"uirement and can also change way of teaching. !


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4ard wor# and Since teaching is a process and it is mental alertness should be the rest

re"uisite of dynamic in nature so it changes its concept the educational training.

$ccording to time and place. !t is a professional. The teacher has to provide intellectual

and activity. Teaching can be analysed and. Social leadership. 4e is to follow a

curriculum assessed. This analysis and assessment but his tas# is beyond this. 4e acts

as an ideal provides feedbac# for further improvement in for his students. 4e has to

follow the way of methods of teaching. Teaching is highly simple life with great thin#ing(

4is morale dominated by communication s#ill. !t is should be high. 4e must be

competent. 4is interactive process carriedwith purpose and efficiency and enthusiasm

is also very ob*ectives( Teaching may have various forms as important. 4e must also

possess some other formal( imformal( diiectional( lnstructional. 2ualities as he is the

pivot of educational formational training( conditioning( tal#ing9 System. Such as

Use of good means for good showing etc. $ll these words single handly can;t ends( clear

thin#ing no pre*udice( ability of be synonym of teaching. Teaching is a much critical

*udgements at the right time( tolerance broader term( $ll these activities are parts ofare all needed for a teacher. Teacher must be teaching at different level. Ready to

impart to their students all Teaching has been analysed in several information

geographical( historical( political ways for understanding it( for designing social practical

and strategic and scientific. Teaching methods and materials with a view. To The

complete educational process has four realism. Specific ob*ectives ma#ing teaching

important common factors more effective

Teacher wor#s to change the behaviour of

+. Tell whether teaching is a process or students according to the need of thesociety. $ct. 4e5she must also creates situation to increase

. Clearly indicates constitutional factors. The thin#ing capacity of mind of students.

4e

/. Reveals ob*ectives( and give education to the people. %ducation is a

0. Say something about its organisational tripolar process involving educator(

educant and structural aspect and social milieu.

Basis of Modification

This modification is based on

+. teacher

. student


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/. sub*ect matter feedbac#s.

B>lan of Chapters

Thin# about the plan of chapters and decide what is best for your research. Then ma#e

a list( in point form( of what will go in each chapter. $lways represent the text of thesisin logical order. Ma#e a plan for each chapter and section( the result will probably be

clearer and easier to read. The different heading may be the following9

+. Copyright &aiver9 This gives the university library the right to publish your wor#.

. 7eclaration9 This page declares that the thesis is your own wor# and is not ta#en

from any other;s wor#.

/. Title >age9 The format of this page may be Title5$uthor9 $ thesis submitted for

the degree of 7octor of >hilosophy in faculty of science in university on date.

0. $bstract9 This part is most important part of the thesis it is most widely page. !t

is best written towards the end. !t should be self contained and contains a consise

description of the problem ,s- addressed. Kour method of solving( result and

conclusion.

=. $c#nowledgements9 !t is the than#s giving page to all the people who helped in

the research or whose wor# you used;for your research.

@. Table of content9 !ntroduction starts from page +( the earlier pages should have

different numbering system.

A. !ntroduction9 This gives the details about the topic its importance. This must be

very interesting. Kou should not bore the reader. 1ever overestimate the reader;s

familiarity with your topic.

B. 6iterature Review9 &here did the problem come fromL what is already #nown

about the problemL !f you have been #eeping up with the literature as you vowed to


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do three years ago( and if you have made notes about important papers over the

year( then you have some good points for the review.

. Materials and Methods9 This varies from thesis to thesis and may be absent in

theoretical thesis. !t explains the methods used for research.

+D. Theory

++. Results and 7iscussion9 The results and discussion are veryoften combined in

thesis. The division of results and 7iscussion material into chapters is usually best

done according to sub*ect matter. !n most cases your result need discussion. &hat

do they meanL 4ow can they fit into existing body of #nowledgeL $re they

consistent with present theoriesL 7o they give new insightL 7o they suggest new

theories or mechanismL

+. Conclusion9 Generally abstract also contains conclusion in very brief form. $summary of conclusions may be put in point form after the result and discussion

chapter.

+/. Reference and $ppendices

+0. 8ibliography

2ualities reviously schools were not designed to successfully teach all students. 1owadays their

motto have been changed. Their new motto is I7< 6%$R1J This setting is dynamic and

flexible. This is changing in viewof ma#ing it beneficial to society rather than for an

individual. Teaching is a process carried out in different steps. There are five main steps

of teaching

+. >reparation9 This stage is re"uired orintended for the preparation of both the

teacher and the students. The teacher prepare the student for a new topic or lesson

in variety of ways.

. >resentation9 $t this stage the new lesson actually begins. The students #now

that what they are going to learn. The sub*ect material should be carefully arranged

by the teacher. 4e has to encourage the students to observe( compare and contrast


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the. 3acts presented to them. This stage re"uires mental alertness from the

students. The presentation rests in. The principle of selection of the area to be

covered. !t is not necessary for ateacher to cover up all areas of the course of

study. 4e. May leave some areas for students selfstudy.

/. Comparison9 !n this section after presentation of sub*ect matter.

0. GeneraliEation9 This stage comes after the comparison and observation. 7ifferent

types of conclusions can be drawn from comparison and generaliEation. These

conclusions are systemiEed in a particular

=. $pplication9 $t this stage the generaliEed facts are applied for various

+DResearch $ptitude

Research9 Research is the systematic and ob*ective analysis and recording of controlled

observations that may lead to the development of generalisations principles or theories

resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. Scientific research is a

systematic and ob*ective attempt to provide answers to certain "uestions. !t is an

essential and powerful tool in leading towards progress( $ significant research leads to

progress in some field of life. Research is born lout of human curiosity. Curiosity

aroused to study movements( behaviour patterns etc. &e can also define research as

'ideally( the careful unbiased investigation of a problem( based in so far as possible

upon demonstrable facts and involving refined distinctions( interpretations and usually

some generalisations) %ducational research is the study and investigation in the field of

education or bearing upon educational problems. Since research is. a continuous

problem solving approach to learning it aims and assists in achieving the goals through

analysis and comprehensiveinvestigation.

++Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting units ,e. g. people- from a population of interest so

that by studying the sample we may fairly generaliEe our results bac# to the population

from which they were chosen. $ response is a specific measurement value that a

sampling unit supplies. !f you measure the entire population and calculate a value li#e a

mean or average( it is called parameter of the population. The distribution of an infinite


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number of samples of the same siEe as the sample in your study is #nown as the

sampling distribution.

!n sampling contexts( the standard error is called sampling error. Sampling error gives

us some idea of the precision of our statistical estimate. $ low sampling error means

that we had relatively less variability or range in the sampling distribution. 4ow do we

calculate sampling errorL on the standard deviation of our sample. The greater the

sample standard deviation( the greater the standard error5the sampling error. The

standard error is also related to the sample siEe. The greater your sample siEe( the

smaller the standard error. 8ecause the greater the sample siEe( the closer your sample

is to the actual population itself. !f you ta#e a sample that consists of the entire

population you actually have no sampling error because you don;t have a sample( you

have the entire population. !n that case( the mean you estimate is the parameter.

Probability sampling method

!t is any method of sampling that utiliEes some form of random selection such as

pic#ing a name out of a hat( or choosing the short straw.

The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Simple

random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to explain to others. 8ecause

simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample( it is reasonable to generaliEe

the results from the sample bac# to the population. Simple random sampling is not the

most statistically efficient method of sampling and you may( *ust because of the luc# of

the draw( not get good representation of subgroups in a population.

Stratified Random Sampling( also sometimes called proportional or "uota random

sampling( involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then

ta#ing a simple random sample in each subgroup. !t assures that you will be able to

represent not only the overall population( but also #ey subgroups of the population(

especially small minority groups. Second( stratified random sampling will generally have

more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This will only be true if the

strata or groups are homogeneous.

The problem with random sampling methods when we have to sample a population

that;s disbursed across a wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a lot of

ground geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled. !t is for

precisely this problem that cluster or area random sampling was invented. !n cluster

sampling( we follow these steps9

+. divide population into clusters ,usually along geographic boundaries-

. randomly sample clusters


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/. measure all units within sampled clusters

Non-probability sampling

The difference between non probability and probability sampling is that non probability

sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. &e candivide non probability sampling methods into two broad types9 $ccidental or purposive.

!n accidental sampling( sample is chosen accidently and we have no evidence that they

are representative of the populations we;re interested in generaliEing to and in many

cases we would clearly suspect that they are not. e. g. College students in some

psychological survey. !n purposive sampling( we sample with a purpose in mind. &e

usually would have one or more specific predefined groups we are see#ing. 3or

instance( have you ever run into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a

clipboard and who are stopping various people and as#ing if they could interview themL

Most li#ely they are conducting a purposive sample. >urposive sampling can be very

useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample "uic#ly and wheresampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. &ith a purposive sample( you

are li#ely to get the opinions of your target population( but you are also li#ely to

overweight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible.

roportional and non proportional. !n proportional "uota sampling you want to

represent the ma*or characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional

amount of each. e. g. Getting 0D females from a population of say +DDD.

Then there is snowball sampling. !n snowball sampling( you begin by identifying

someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. Kou then as# them to

recommend others who they may #now who also meet the criteria.

+Research 7esign

Research design provides the glue that holds the research pro*ect together. $ design is

used to structure the research( to show how all of the ma*or parts of the research

pro*ect the samples or groups( measures( treatments or programs( and methods of

assignment wor# together to try to address the central research "uestions. 7esign can

be either experimental or nonexperimental.


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7ata analysis is the last part of the research. !n most social research the data analysis

involves three ma*or steps( done in roughly this order9

Cleaning and organiEing the data for analysis ,7ata >reparation-

7escribing the data ,7escriptive Statistics-

Testing 4ypotheses and Models ,!nferential Statistics-

Data Preparation

!t involves chec#ing or logging the data in chec#ing the data for accuracy entering the

data into the computer transforming the data and developing and documenting a

database structure that integrates the various measures.

+/Types of Statistics

7escriptive Statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study.

They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with

simple graphics analysis( they form the basis of virtually every "uantitative analysis of

data. &ith descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is( what the data shows.

!nferential Statistics investigate "uestions( models and hypotheses. !n many cases( the

conclusions from inferential statistics extend beyond the immediate data alone. 3orinstance( we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the

population thin#s.


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$pplied research is research underta#en to solve practical problems rather than

to ac"uire #nowledge for #nowledge sa#e.

8asic research is experimental and theoretical wor# underta#en to ac"uire new

#nowledge without loo#ing for longterm benefits other than the advancement of

#nowledge.

Time is an important element of any research design. The most fundamental

distinctions in research design nomenclature9 Crosssectional versus longitudinal

studies. $ crosssectional study is one that ta#es place at a single point in time. !n

effect( we are ta#ing a IsliceJ or crosssection of whatever it is we;re observing or

measuring. $ longitudinal study is one that ta#es place over timewe have at least

two ,and often more- waves of measurement in a longitudinal design.

$ variable is any entity that can ta#e on different values. $nything that can vary

can be considered a variable. 3or instance( age can be considered a variable

because age can ta#e different values for different people or for the same person at

different times. Similarly( country can be considered a variable because a person;s

country can be assigned a value.

There is a distinction between an independent and dependent variable. !n fact

the independent variable is what you ,or nature- manipulatesa treatment or

program or cause. The dependent variable is what is affected by the independent

variableyour effects or outcomes. 3or example( if you are studying the effects of a

new educational program on student achievement( the program is the independent

variable and your measures of achievement are the dependent ones.

$ hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. !t describes in concrete ,rather

than theoretical- terms what you expect will happen in your study. 1ot all studies

have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory.

2ualitative research is research underta#en to gain insights concerning attitudes(

beliefs( motivations and behaviours of individuals to explore a social or human

problem and include methods such as focus groups( indepth interviews( observation

research and case studies.

2uantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes(

behaviours and perceptions and includes interviewing methods such as telephone(

intercept and doortodoor interviews as well as selfcompletion methods such as

mail outs and online surveys.

Three basic types of "uestions that research pro*ects9

7escriptive9 &hen a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or

what exists. >ublic opinion polls that see# only to describe the proportion of people

who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. 3or instance( if we


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want to #now what percent of the population would vote for a 8N> or Congress in the

next election( we are simply interested in describing something.

Relational9 &hen a study is designed to loo# at the relationships between two or

more variables. $ public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and

females say they would vote for a 8N> or Congress candidate in the next election isessentially studying the relationship between gender and voting preference.

Causal9 &hen a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables

,e. g. a program or treatment variable- causes or affects one or more outcome

variables. !f we did a public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent

political advertising campaign changed voter preferences( we would essentially be

studying whether the campaign ,cause- changed the proportion of voters who would

vote 8N> or Congress ,effect-.

1!"teps #f esearch

!dentification of research9 The very +ststep of research is to identify the sub*ect

and nature of the problem.

>roposal of $ction9 $fter identifying the sub*ect or the problem( we proposed an

action plan to solve the problem or find a solution for that.

Constructing hypothesis9 4ypothesis is a tentative explanation for an

observation( phenomenon( or scientific problem that can be tested by further

investigation. !t is a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain

certain facts or phenomena. Characteristics of hypothesis9 ,+- !t should state the

relationship between variables ,-. !t must consist of #nown facts ,/-. !t can be

tested. ,0-. !t must be dear in its concept ,=-. !t must be ob*ective and specific ,vi-.

!t should be amendable to testing with in a reasonable time. So our next step is to

construct a hypothesis for research and after that he plans to explain it either based

on laboratory experiment or field experiment.

Collection of data9 The researcher collects data either in experimental way or in

non experimental way( for his problem.

>resentation of data9 The next step is to represent the collected data in logical

manner so that he or anyone else will be able to analysEe that easily. Most generalway of presentation of data in scientific or social research is to ma#e table of the

collected data in certain way which shows the relation between variables.

$nalysis of data9 The analysis is done in both ways statistical and descriptive

analysis.


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7eclaration of Result9 $fter analysing the data( the researcher declares the result

of the research.

+@Sub*ect Matter

!t is also #nown as curriculum. Curriculum is a 'general overall plan of the content or

specific material of instruction( that an educational institution should offer to the

student by way of "ualifying him for graduation or certification) !t is also a body of

prescribed educational experience under an institutional supervision( designed to

provide an individual with the best possible training and experience to fit him for the

society of which he5she is a part( or to "ualify him for a trade or profession. !t is also

defined as 'a sub*ect matter( instructional materials( situations oF experience that may(

help to develop understanding( s#ills( appreciation and attitudes) Curriculum should be

logical( >sychological and according to the needs of the pupil and also the society. !t

should be ob*ective in approach. Curriculum can be of two types9

+. Teacher oriented curriculum9 !n this type of curriculum the process of selection of

materials content is based on the needsof the instructor5teacher. The teacher is

proficient in( his particular field and is considered superior.

. Child5student oriented curriculum9 $ curriculum in which the criteria for the

selection and se"uence of material( activities and experiences for any particularpupil are the needs( maturity( interests and experiential bac#grounds of the

individual child. !n our country the 1C%RT is the main institution authoriEed for

ma#ing curriculum. %very state has. 4is own curriculum ma#ing bodies #nown as

SC%RT. Some states follows the 1C%RT curriculum. $ll schools affiliated uses. This is

the most important step ofteaching learning process. The C8S% boards generally

follow 1C%RT curriculum. $t higher Olevel every university ma#e their own

curriculum according to the guidelines of University Grant Commission which acts for

the uniformity in curriculum at higher level in our country.

+AThesis

Thesis and its format9


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one or two heading may be irrelevant or one or two more heading may be re"uired. &e

can divide the whole thesis in four parts9

+. !ntroduction

. %xplanation of the topic

/. 7etails of research ? its result

0. Reference and appendices.

+BTransmitting 8arriers

Such as if a teacher started saying something in a class of deafs verbally he will not be

able to communicate properly to his students. Things that get in the way of message

transmission are sometimes called 'noise.) Communication may be difficult because of

noise and some of these problems9

+. >hysical 7istractions. $ noisy classroom can destroy communication. !f a notes

or something on board is not formatted properly( or if it contains grammatical and

spelling errors( the receiver may not be able to concentrate on. The message

because the physical appearance of the massage is sloppy and unprofessional.

. Conflicting Messages. Messages that cause a conflict in perception for the

receiver may result in incomplete communication. 3or example if a teacher re"uests

his pupil to answer some "uestions immediately without giving the students enough

time to gather the proper information.

/. Channel 8arriers. !f the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of

communication( communication may not reach in a proper way.

+Types of Communication


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$ntrapersonal %ommunication

This means communicating within yourself. &hen you thin#( daydream( solve problems(

and image( you are in the realm of intrapersonal communication. Some investigators

also include all physical feedbac# mechanisms( such as the sensations of hunger( pain(

and pleasure in this area.

$nterpersonal %ommunication

This form of communication describes the interact ions of two or more people. The most

significant setting for interpersonal communication !S direct facetoface

communication between two persons. $n interview( a conversation( and in climate

communications come under this heading. !t is more persuasive and int+uential than

any other type of communication. 3or it involves( the in( terplay of words and gestures(

the warmth of human closeness and in fact all the five senses. 3eedbac# is the #ey

word here. 3eedbac# is instantaneous.

&roup %ommunication

Group communication shares all these "ualities( though in a much less measure. The

larger the group the less personal and intimate is the possibility of exchange. !n fact( as

the group grows in siEe communication tends to become more and more of monologue(

for participation becomes problematic. The degree of directness and intimacy(

therefore( depends upon the siEe of the group( the place where it meets( as also the

relationship of the members of thegroup to one another( and to the group message.

Mass %ommunication

&hen a message needs help to get from its source to its destination( mass

communication begins to function. Usually some form of mediumone meaning of which

is IbetweenJ is needed to connect the sender to receivers. These media and visibility to

some people and points of views( whereas it mutes other voices and viewpoints. Thus

mass communication affects our perceptions of issues( events( and people.

DTypes of Research

There are many classifications of research. Some of the important classifications are9

+. %xploratory and conclusive research9 %xploratory or formulate research aims at

probing into phenomenon to formulate a more precise research problem or to


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develop a hypothesis. &hile conclusive research tests these hypothesis. 7eveloped

through exploratory research and may suggest a new idea or a new opportunity.

. 3undamental or pure or basis research( applied research and action research9 $

fundamental research is the formal and systematic process where the researcher;s

aim is to. 7evelop a theory or a model by identifying all the important variables in

the situation and by discovering broad generalisations and principles about these

variables. $pplied research( applies the theory or model developed theories but to

test those existing theories in actual problem situations. $ction research has

recently been popular in the field of social psychology( industrial psychology and

education. !n action research( researcher focuses upon the immediate conse"uences

and applications of a problem of a theory or a model.

/. 4istorical research( descriptive research and experimental research9 4istorical

research describes what was. The process involves investigation( recording(

analyEing and interpreting the events of the past for the purpose of discoveringgeneraliEations that are helpful in understanding the past and the present and to a

limited extent( in anticipating the future. 7escriptive research describes records(

analyEeS;and interprets the conditions that exist( practices that prevail( beliefs(

points of views or attitudes that are held processes that are going in effects that are

being felt( or trends that are developing. !t involves some type of comparison or

contrast and attempts to discover relationship between existing nonmanipulated

variables. !t can be of various types( li#e survey studies( interrelationship studies

casual comparative studies and development studies. %xperimental research

describes what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or

manipulated. The focus is on variable relationship. 7eliberate manipulation is alwaysa part of experimental method. %xperimental research is the description and

analysis of what will be( or what will occur( under carefully controlled conditions in

which one factor is varied and the others are #ept constant and can be repeated by

another investigator( by the same investigator or another occasion with nearly

identical results.

0. %xperimental and nonexperimental research9 This classification is based on the

nature of research. $n experimental research is one where the independent

variables can be directly manipulated by( experimenter. !t is further divided into two

main types6aboratory experiment and field experiment. $ non experimental

research is one where independent variables cannot be manipulated and therefore

cannot be experimentally studied. $ non experimental research can be divided into

three main typesfield( studies( expost factor research and survey research.


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#ther important types

6aboratory %xperiment9 !t is the study of a problem in a situation in which some

variables are manipulated and some are controlled in order to have an effect upon

the dependent variable. The variables which are manipulated are #nown as

independent variables and the variables which are controlled are #nown asextraneous or relevant variables. Thus in laboratory experiment the effect of

manipulation of an independent variables upon the dependent variable is observed

under controlled conditions.

3ield %xperiments9 !t is a study carried out is a more or less realistic situation or

field where the experimenter successfully manipulates one or more independent

variables under the maximum possible controlled conditions.

3ield Study9 !t is a study which systematically discovers relations and

interactions among variables in real life situations such as school( factory(

community college etc. !t field study the investigator depends upon the existing

conditions of a field situation as well as upon the selection of sub*ect for determining

the relationship among variables.

%xpost 3acto Study9 !n this the investigators attempt to trace an effect which has

already occurred to its probable causes. The effect becomes the dependent

variable and the probable causes become the independent variable. The

investigator has no direct control over such variables.

Survey Research9 !t is a techni"ue where( the investigator or researcher studies

the whole population with respect to certain sociological and psychological

variables. 7epending upon the ways of collecting data( survey research can be

classified into different categories( namely( personal interview( main

"uestionnaire( panel techni"ue arid telephone survey.

+>aper

!t is an essay or dissertation read at a seminar or published in a *ournal !t is a formal

written composition intended to published( presented( or read aloud or a scholarly

essay.

$rticle9 !t is a nonfictional literacy( composition that forms an independent part of a

publication( as of a newspaper or magaEine.

&or#shop9 $ meeting at which a group engages in intensive discussion and activity on a

particular sub*ect or pro*ect.


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Seminar9 $ conference for discussion on training on a specific sub*ect.

Conference9 $ formal meeting for discussion or debate. Symposium9 $ meeting or

conference for discussion of a topic( especially one in which the participants form an

audience and ma#e presentation.

7issertation or Thesis9 $dvancing a new point of view resulting from research usually a

re"uirement for an advanced academic degree.

Documents

General Papar