European Journal ofPsychology ofEducation1996, Vol. XI, n° 3,269-282© 1996, J.S.P.A.

Gender-related differences in exposure to and useof computers: Results of a survey of secondaryschool students

Maria BannertPaul Roland ArbingerUniversity ofKoblenz-Landau, Germany

A number ofempirical studies on the use ofcomputers reveals gen­der-related differences, with women and girls showing more negativefeelings toward modern computer technology. Within the scope of anevaluation study of the pilot project "CULAS" (Computer AssistedLearning in Secondary Schools in Rhineland-Palatinate) the data ofover 1000 students from grades 5 to 10 were analyzed with specialfocus on gender-related differences, The results of this study provideinformation on the following aspects: frequency and duration of com­puter use, computer experiences, computer interests, attitudes towardcomputers, emotional responses while working with computers, andlocus ofcontrol.

On a whole the results support the assumption of gender-relateddifferences in exposure to and use of computers. However, these find­ings also indicate that this assumption may not hold true in a generalsense, and that future studies must examine gender-related differenceswith more sophisticated methods.

The recent increase in computing courses just-for-women offered by a number of traininginstitutes (presently more than 50 organizations in Germany provide computer training forwomen only, see Specht & Beck, 1993) is one consequence of the topic under discussion here,namely gender-related differences in exposure to and use of computers. Besides the fact thatcomputer skills are becoming more and more important today and that recent research hasfound classes homogenous in gender to have advantages for women and girls (see e.g.,

The authors would like to thank Susanne Arbinger for translating the German manuscript and Eleonore Hertweckfor her fruitful comments on the last version of this paper.

This study is part of the pilot project CULAS (Computerunterstiltztes Lemen an allgemeinbildenden Schulen, i.e.,computer assisted learning in secondary schools) financed by the Bundesministerium flir Bildung und Wissenschaft(Federal Ministry of Education and Science of Germany) and the Ministerium fur Bildung und Kultur des LandesRheinland pfalz (Ministry of Education and the Arts of Rhineland-Palatinate). CULAS was evaluated by the Zentrumfur empirische padagogische Forschung der Universitat Koblenz-Landau (Centre of Educational Research of theUniversity of Koblenz-Landau).

270 M. BANNERT & P.R. ARBINGER

Faulstich-Wieland, 1991; Kreienbaum & Metz-Gockcl, 1992), the key motive for offeringcomputing courses for females only is women's assumed "wariness of computers" whichrequires a different approach to hardware and software training.

Is computer use really a "territory dominated by men"? Do women and girls truly differfrom males as far as exposure to and use of computers is concerned, i.e., distinctly less use of,knowledge of, and interest in computers? Does the so-called "computer gender gap" indeedexist? Although these questions have already been studied in the past, they must be re­addressed today because many research results have become completely obsolete due to therapid rate of technological development (e.g., Frey, 1989; Lehmann, 1989).

Due to the general question under investigation in the CULAS project, the study present­ed here differs to some extent from other national and international research projects concern­ing gender-specific use of computers (for a summary see Aichele-Mey, Krahn, &Niederdrenk-Felgner, 1989; Bundesminister fur Bildung und Wissenschaft, 1992). In additionto providing a descriptive account, these studies focussed on measures to promote girls' use ofcomputers. In contrast, the aim of this paper is to examine the use of and attitudes towardscomputers of pupils today in a more descriptive manner. In the following section a survey offindings in particular in the German speaking area is presented. The data of the large CULASsample could serve as a basis for a renewed discussion of the results of previous studies.

Relevant research findings

During the early and mid eighties, as computers were becoming more widespread at theworkplace and in schools, gender-related differences became a popular research topic. Thekey issues of this research include the impact of new technology on female labour and wom­en's jobs, computer education for girls and women, as well as gender-related differences in theexposure to and use of computers (Hoffmann, 1987).

The study presented here is based on numerous reports providing evidence of a gender­specific approach to computers. Turkle's classic study of the rise of the computer culture in theUSA reveals a difference between girls and boys in regard to programming styles already atelementary school age (Turkle, 1984). The "soft" style of dealing with a computer ascribed togirls has been repeatedly confirmed in other studies and applies in like manner to women (e.g.,Hoffmann, 1987). Girls' and women's attitudes toward computers are determined by practicaland social aspects to a much greater extent than males, i.e., females are much more interestedin its usefulness and the social consequences of its implementation than in purely technologicalaspects. The computer enthusiasm of many males, as reflected in their high interest in pro­gramming and computer games as well as in a general fascination with technology per se, con­trasts sharply with the practical and social orientation of females (Schiersmann, 1987).

Interestingly no gender-related differences worth mentioning have been found in refer­ence to various parameters of achievement, provided that boys and girls have passed throughthe same curriculum. For example, girls and boys learn equally well with computer assistedinstructional material (e.g., Niegemann, 1995), and likewise there are no differences in learn­ing programming languages (Linn, 1985). However, boys have considerably more positiveattitudes towards computers, far greater computer-related interests, and use computers morefrequently than girls (Frey, 1989).

Thus, in addition to national and international research findings of a gender-specificaccess to the fields of science and technology, a new case of "gender-specific discrimination"(Schiersmann, 1992) arising from the introduction and diffusion of computers has become afurther matter of concern. "One thing is clear: if women do not keep up with advances in com­puter technology, they will become tomorrow's illiterates" (Vogelheim, 1984, quoted byHoffmann, 1987; orig. in German).

In order to counteract such a gender gap, research dealing with the issue of computer usein schools was initiated quite early in the Lander of former West Germany. The aim of this

GENDER AND COMPUTERS 271

research was to determine possible causes of gender-related differences, which broad repre­sentative studies had repeatedly revealed (e.g., Hecker & Jansen, 1986; Fauser, 1992).Primarily gender-specific technology-related socialization processes, and less the lack of apti­tude or ability on the part of the girls, are made responsible for these differences. Instructionalmaterial as well as computer programmes, generally not meeting girls' interests, gender-spe­cific teacher-pupil interaction distinctly favoring boys over girls, and insufficient opportunitiesfor girls to identify with a female model are some important factors mentioned in these stud­ies. The thesis of gender-specific socialization in the technological field is corroborated byresults demonstrating that differences in exposure to and use of computers between boys andgirls become greater as they grow older (Lage, 1991). Furthermore, girls in all-girl (computer)classes clearly show greater interest in computers than girls being taught together with boys(e.g., Kreienbaum & Metz-Gockel, 1992). Hence, gender-specific role stereotypes seem todevelop much more readily in co-educational settings.

On the basis of these findings, special programmes tailored to the specific needs andinterests of girls have been developed to promote their use of computers (for a summary, seeBundesminister fUr Bildung und Wissenschaft, 1992; Niederdrenk-Felgner, 1993), and theconduction of such special programmes in schools has been evaluated (e.g., Faulstich-Wieland& Dick, 1989; Alterrnann-Koster, Holtappels, Pfeiffer, & De Witt, 1990; Dathe & Engelhardt,1988). However, the question to which extent girls' interest in computers can be stimulatedand their attitude towards computers can be improved on a long-term basis is still open to fur­ther research

To summarize available research findings on gender-specific contact with computers, onecan say that gender-related differences in the use of and interest in computers definitely exist,placing girls at a disadvantage. The data gathered in the CULAS project shall serve as thebasis for examining the validity of these findings.

Method

As mentioned above, the findings reported here stem from studies conducted in the scopeof the CULAS project. A total of 15 schools participated in this project financed by the"Bundesrninisterium fur Bildung und Wissenschaft" (Federal Ministry of Education andScience) and the "Ministeriurn fur Bildung und Kultur des Landes Rheinland-Pfalz" (Ministryof Education and the Arts of Rhineland-Palatinate). All types of schools with classes fromgrades 5 to 9 (in some cases, grades 5 to 10) were represented in the study. The primary objec­tive of the pilot project CULAS is "to establish and promote initiatives for computer-assistedlearning in secondary schools" (Ministerium fur Bildung und Kultur, 1990, orig. in German).The pilot project was evaluated by the "Zentrum fur empirische padagogische Forschung derUniversitat Koblenz-Landau'' (Centre of Educational Research of the University of Koblenz­Landau). Three reports with further information on the results of this evaluation are available(Jager, Arbinger, Lissmann, Bannert, Konrad, Deutsch, & Leibbrand, 1992; Jager, Arbinger,Bannert, & Lissmann, 1992, 1993). Gender-specific analyses of pupils' computer literacy havebeen reported elsewhere (Arbinger & Bannert, 1993).

Research Issues

Existing studies indicate gender-specific computer exposure, with most findings pointingtoward a male bias in computer use. Therefore, it is not surprising that significant gender­related differences in knowledge of computers, so-called computer literacy, appear throughoutstudies of secondary school pupils (e.g., Fetler, 1985), college students (e.g., Lockheed,Nielsen, & Stone, 1985) as well as postgraduates (e.g., Kay, 1989). Within the scope of thepilot study described here, it was possible to analyze gender-specific differences in the use ofand attitudes toward computers by means of a large sample of pupils. The questions addressedin this investigation deal with the following issues:

272 \1. BANNERT & P.R. ARB INGER

Differences between girls and boys in their exposure to computers: Are the girls in theCULAS study rather reserved in respect to technology? For instance, do they have less experi­ence with and use computers less frequently than their male counterparts?

In order to answer these questions, pupils' statements concerning their opportunities touse computers were analyzed. Each pupil was questioned in respect to possession of comput­ers, experience with computers, time spent working with computers and types of computer use.

Differences between girls and boys in computer-related motives: In addition to situationalfactors, do gender-specific differences in psychological variables also exist which could helpexplain a "female wariness of modern technology"?

To answer this question, pupils' responses regarding computer-related interests as well asemotional responses and confidence while working with the computer were analyzed.

Sample

The study was carried out during the main phase of the pilot study CULAS during Apriland May 1992 in Rhineland-Palatinate schools with a total of 1035 pupils in grades 5 to 10.The distribution of the sample in reference to grade and sex is shown in Table 1. The entirestudent population of 15 schools (all school types were represented), who at the same timewere participating in the CULAS project, took part in the study. The researchers had no intlu­ence on the different numbers of cases in each grade.

Table I

Study Sample

Grade Boys Girls Total5 2" 15 40J

6 192 124 3167 98 65 1638 169 137 3069 81 49 130

10 38 42 80Total 603 432 1035

The characteristics of the schools in the sample (e.g., readiness to take part in the experi­ment, computer equipment, teaching staff competency etc.) are typical for schools inRhineland-Palatinate. For a more detailed description of the sample, consult the reports men­tioned above.

Instrument

All pupils involved in the CULAS study answered a questionnaire on use of and attitudestoward computers during class. Subjects required an average of one hour to complete the ques­tionnaire. The instrument consisted of a number of subscales, some of which are not relevantto the issue under discussion, so they will not be presented in the scope of this paper. The sub­scales of interest here shall be described in the following section. A detailed description of theentire questionnaire is presented in the report by Konrad (1993).

Results

GEND ER AND COMPUTERS 273

In this section findings relevant to the two main questions under investigation shall bepresented . Data giving insight into how and to which extent computers are used are reportedfirst, followed by a description of psychologica l aspects. Finally, all assessed variables areanalysed to determine to which extent they contribute to an explanat ion of gender-related dif­ferences . All statistical analyses were conducted with the programme package STATlSTI­CATM for Windows (Version 4.5).

Exposure to and use ofcomputers

In the CULAS study pupils were questioned about their opportunities to use computers aswell as which purposes they typically use the computer for, among other things. These datawere subsequently analyzed in detail to determine to which extent the girls and boys studied inthe CULAS project differ in this respect.

Computer Ownership. Figure I depicts the percentage of pupils posses sing their owncomputer for all grade levels included in the sample.

9080

70

60C 50oj)r,,)... 40oj)Q.

30

20

10

05 6 7 8 9 10

grade

Figure 1. Computer Ownership ("Do you possess a computer yourself?" "yes, I do")

Figure I shows that boys, irrespective of grade level, own a computer more often thangirls . Since no significant correlation between the variables grade and computer ownershipwas found Cr2=9.07; dr5; Ns), data for all grade levels were combined. One can see thatapproximately three quarters of all boys questioned (75.5%) possess their own computer,whereas this applies to less than half of the girls (44.4%). This difference is statistically signif­icant Cr2=I03 .29; drl; p<.OI). This result corresponds with findings of previous studies ofgender-related differences (e.g., Fauser & Schreiber, 1989; Frey, 1989; Lehmann, 1989).However, as compared to the findings of these earlier studies, both girls and boys possess acomputer more frequently today than a few years ago.

Experience with computers. Another important question is how long pupils have beenusing computers, in other words, how much experience have they gathered with them. Figure 2shows that, on an average, boys have gathered more experience with computers (Zu=-9.44,p<.OO I) . Over 54% state that they have been occupying themselves with computers for more

274 M. BANNERT & P.R. ARBINGER

than two years, whereas the majority of the girls reports less than two years experience, and44% of them state even less than one year. Thus, in addition to possession of a computer, theboys in this study have a further "advantage" over girls due to their greater computer experi­ence.

45

40

35

1: 30

CD 25~CD 20C. 15

10

5o

• boys

o girls

less than 1 2

year(s)

3 more than 3

No/e. On account of low frequencies in some cells, an analysis for each grade was not conducted.

Figure 2. Duration of experience with computers - "1 have been using computers for ...year(s)"

Time spent using the computer. Another indicator for "experience with computers" istime spent using the computer each day. The amount of time the computer is used on a dailybasis is presented in Figure 3. Here too, gender-related differences become evident (Zu=-8.89,p<.OO I). Whereas girls use the computer a little less than one hour a day, boys invest an hourand a half each day. More than 20% of the male subjects states that they generally spend morethan two hours daily on their PC, which applies to only 7% of the girls. It is interesting to notethat these reports of how long the computer is used daily are similar to findings of previousstudies (e.g., Lehmann, 1989), although the number of young people with their own computerhas increased considerably in the meantime.

30

25-20CCDe 15CDC. 10

6

00 up to 112 up to 1

hours

upto2 more than 2

No/e. On account of low frequencies in some cells, an analysis for each grade was not conducted.

Figure 3. Daily time spent using the computer - "How long do you use the computer daily?"

GENDER AND COMPUTERS 275

Types a/use. What are the pupils actually doing with their computer? For which purposesdo they mainly tum them on? Is the type of computer use gender-specific and if so, can thisdifference be explained by the more practical orientation women and girls are assumed tohave? Pupils were asked to state if and how often they make use of the following typical com­puter applications : word processing, painting and graphics, desktop publishing, database man­agement, other application programmes, computer games, and programming languages . Onthe basis of these responses , subjects were assigned to different user categories. The category"freaks " contains all pupils who make frequent use of computers for all kinds of applications .In contrast , the group of "non-users" is composed of those subjects who do not use computersat all. Between these two extremes, there are two other categories: "workers", using the PC forserious purposes only, and "players", using computers exclusively for games. Figure 4 pre­sents the percentages ofpupils assigned to these four categories.

70

60

50-e 40CD~CD 30Q.

20

10

0

non-users workers players

• boys

o girls

freaksNote. On account oflow frequencies in some cells. an analysis for each grade was not conducted .

Figure 4. Types of users

Figure 4 illustrates that girls and boys are distributed unequally across the four user cate­gories (xl= 56.35 ; dj=3; p<.OI). This difference is mainly due to the different frequencies inthe first category, the group of the so-called "non-users", which is composed ofapproximatel y40% of all girls compared to only 20% of the boys. Only a small number of those questioneduses the computer solely for serious work, and here too an unequal distribution of the sexeswith twice as many boys than girls is striking. The male-female ratio in the category of com­puter freaks presents a similar picture. Beyond these gender-related differences attention mustbe called to the fact that the majority of all pupils makes use of computers primarily for enter ­tainment. Thus, these results do not confirm the above-mentioned assumption that girls have avery pragmatic orientation toward computers.

Computer-related motives

From the range of possible computer-related motives, interest s, emotional feelings aswell as expectations of success or failure were selected as variables to be assessed in thisstudy. The studies cited above indicate that these three variables represent key factors influ­encing the use or avoidance of computers.

Interests. The leisure-time interests of the pupils were measured by means of 17 items inthe questionnaire. A factor analysis (with principal factors as method of extraction and R2 asestimation of communalities) yielded two factors with eigenvalues >1.0 accounting for 28% ofthe total variance. Following rotation ("varimax normalized") both factors could be interpreted

276 M. BANNERT & P.R. ARBINGER

on the basis of the factor loadings (criterion .2.".40) as "interest in computers" and "otherleisure interests". In order to determine whether these two factors also represent subscales inaccordance with classical test theory, reliability analyses were conducted. For the factor"interest in computers" (9 items) internal consistency (Cronbach's ex) was .81 and averageitem-total-correlation (median) was .5I. The respective values for "other leisure interests" (5items) were .62 and .36. Thus, the properties of the scale can be described as good for "inter­est in computers", and as satisfactory for "other leisure interests", if one takes the small num­ber of items as well as the greater degree of item heterogeneity into consideration. In any case,the subscales are adequate for the comparision of groups, which is of interest here.

Figure 5 presents the subscale scores (mean item scores) for boys and girls. It portrays aclear picture: boys have higher interest scores than girls for all computer-related activities. Onthe other hand, girls' interests in activities not related to computers are greater than boys'. Thesame pattern of results can be observed for almost each item score in both scales of whicheach item wording is listed in Table A in the appendix.

6• boys

5 o girls

4

s3G)

E2

1

0

interest in other leisurecomputers interests

Note. On account of low frequencies in some cells, an analysis for each grade was not conducted.

Figure 5. Interest in computers and other leisure interests - O=no interest; 6=very high interest

Figure 5 suggests three things. First, it provides further evidence for gender differences ininterests (boys ~omputer, girls ""other leisure interests), which has already been described.Second, despite this fact, it is noteworthy that non-computer interests are stronger than com­puter interests for both genders. And finally, all mean scores lie either close to or above thetheoretical mean (3) of the answer scale ranging from 0 to 6.

Since conclusions concerning the true magnitude of an effect cannot be drawn on thebasis of statistical significance alone, additional measures of practical significance were calcu­lated for both interest scales. An estimation of the correlation ratio (see Diehl & Arbinger,1990, p. 649) resulted in Eta2=.05 for "interest in computers" as well as for "other leisureinterests", indicating that for each scale a mere 5% of the variance in the interest variables isattributable to the variable "sex".

The assumption that computer-related interests become more gender-specific as childrengrow older was stated above. Figure 6 shows the mean scores for girls and boys for the "inter­est in computers" scale separately for each grade. A two-way analysis of variance with thefactors sex (S) and grade (G) yields both significant main effects (FsCI,1008)=35.80, p<.OI;FG(5,1008)=8.55, p<.OI) and a significant interaction effect (Fsxd5,1 008)=3.40, p<.O I). Thisindicates that interests in computers have a different age pattern for boys and girls. For boys,interest in computers declines only slightly from grade 5 to 10, whereas for girls an almost lin­ear decline from grade 6 to 9 can be observed. Of course, one must consider the fact that these"changes" are based on the results of a cross-sectional analysis.

GENDER AND COMPUTERS 277

4

3

O~__--t----+----+---l~-+-------i

5 e 7 8 9 10

grade

Figure 6. Interest in computers and grade level - O=no interest; 6=very high interest

Emotional state during computer use. Feelings while working or playing with the com­puter were measured with a "polarity profile" consisting of six pairs of adjectives. A compari ­son of the average ratings made by boys and girls yielded the results illustrated in Figure 7.

nervous

uneasy

insecure

sad

bored I

constrained

Note. t-test for independent groups with separate estimation of variances shows significant differences between boys andgirls for each item (p .01).

Figure 7. "Polarity profile" of emotional state "How do you usually feel when you use thecomputer?" - O=negativepole; 6=positive pole

Figure 7 makes evident that all assessed aspects of emotional state during computer useare rated more positively by boys than girls. However, it is important to note that girls' meanscores are all on the positive side of the rating scale. Moreover, the calculation ofpractical sig­nificance for the total scores, i.e., the mean values of the summarized items of emotional state(maximum value=36), shows that here too the variable "gender" accounts for only a fractionof the total variance (Eta2=.04).

Expectations ofcontrol. The questionnaire also included 27 items for measuring pupils'expectations of control. Factor analysis (with principal factors as method of extraction and R2as estimation of communalities) yielded two factors with eigenvalues>1.0 accounting for26.7% of the total variance. Following rotation ("varimax normalized") the two factors wereinterpreted on the basis of the factor loadings (criterion ~.40) as "expectation of failure andlow control" and "confidence in success and high degree of control". In order to examine ifthese two factors are also represented as subscales in the sense of classical test theory, reliabil­ity analyses were conducted in this case as well. For the factor "expectation of failure" (15items), the internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach's ~) was .84 and the mean item-totalcorrelation (median) was .48. The respective values for "confidence in success" (8 items) were.77 and .46. The properties of both scales can therefore be described as good. In the appendixTable B presents the item wordings for all items of both scales.

278 M. BANNERT & P.R. ARBINGER

A comparison of boys and girls on the level of the subscales is shown in Figure 8. For allitems tapping perceived control of the computer as well as confidence in success, boysachieve significantly higher mean scores. Exactly the opposite is true for the subscale "expec­tation of failure": girls' mean scores are higher than those of boys. The estimation of practicalsignificance in this case results in Eta2=.07 for "confidence of success" and Eta2=.O I for"expectation of failure".

6

6

4CIII 3G)

E2

0

success failureNote. On account of low frequencies in some cells, an analysis for each grade was not conducted.

Figure 8. Expectations of control - O=very low; 6=very high

Discussion

The results of this research work generally confirm the findings of other studies cited inthe first section of this paper. As compared to boys, girls are indeed "disadvantaged" in refer­ence to their exposure to computers. Girls own computers less frequently, they have gatheredless experience with computers, spend less time working with it, and use it less often thanboys. Furthermore, girls are apparently distinctly different from boys in a number of comput­er-re�ated motives. They are less interested in computer-related activities, their feelings whileworking with computers are not so positive than those of boys, and they approach computerswith lower expectations of control and success.

Nevertheless, measures of practical significance which have been calculated for all vari­ables of computer-related motive, show that existing gender differences, although they may bestatistically significant, are only of small practical significance. Two possible conclusions canbe drawn from this finding. On the one hand, one can assume that differences in the variance ofcomputer-related motives may be caused by variables other than "sex"; on the other hand, it isalso possible that other factors exist, in which gender differences are expressed more strongly.

Furthermore one should not ignore the fact that all measured variables are based uponpupils' self-ratings. Since previous research has established that boys often overestimate theircomputer-related capabilities (see e.g., Schiersmann, 1987), the interpretation of gender-spe­cific exposure to and use of computers becomes more difficult. Therefore, the authors advo­cate the use of methods examining the gender-specific use of computers in a more objectiveway, for instance by means of systematic observations during computer use (e.g., videorecordings in Jager, Arbinger, Bannert, & Lissmann, 1994).

Furthermore, as far as the thesis of gender-specific socialization in technology is con­cemed, longitudinal studies are more appropriate for uncovering socialization processes andestablishing biographical "turning points", which can contribute to an "avoidance" of or "gen­eral enthusiasm for" computers.

As for the implications for school instruction, we agree with the recommendations madeby the above-mentioned research groups from German-speaking countries, who generallyadvocate a co-educational approach in computer instruction, especially in lower grades.However, it is necessary to develop a form of computer didactics and instructional models

GEND ER AND COMPUTERS 279

which are more appropriate to the needs and interests of girls, and to actually apply them inpractice . To which extent such measures can cause girls to increase their interest in computersand to become more enthusiastic in reference to computer applications is a question open tofurther research .

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Appendix

Table A

Le is ure interests - "How much do you enjoy thefo llowing activities in your sp a re tim e ? "

Interest in co mputers (scale)

Working at th e hardwarePro gramm ingCreating computer graphicsLea rning math with education al softwareLearn ing vocabulary with educational softwareEditing te xtsPro ducing music wi th the computerPlaying computer ga mesTrying out new things on the computer

O ther leis ure interests (sca le)

Rea ding youth magazinesGoi ng to the discoGoing to the pict uresLis tening to musicWatching television

No te. Item scores listed scperately for girls and boys are available from authors.

GENDER AND COMPUTERS

Table BExpectations ofcontrol ("I completely disagree - completely agree with this statement ")

Confidence in success (scale)

I believe I can win against the computer.I can handle the,computer by myself, nobody has to help me.If I really concentrate, I can master the computer.When I enter a command, the computer does what it's supposed to do.When I try to do something specific on the computer, it works out fine.If! want to edit a text on the computer, it works right away.If I really apply myself, I can write my own programme.The computer does exactly what I want it to do.

Expectation of failure (scale)

281

If the computer doesn't carry out my commands, then it's bad luck for me.When I try to do something specific on the computer, it often does just what it wants to do.Working with the computer is unpredictable and chaotic -I'd rather keep my hands off.When I'm programming I realize that the computer does just what it wants to do.The computer has to be easy to use, otherwise I can't get it to work.It's not such a good idea to do something specific on the computer because there's no saying how it will end.Computer work takes longer than I actually expect.In order to do well in learning how to programme, I have to catch a good day.No matter how hard I try to win a game, most of the time I have bad luck and lose.It's a matter of luck if the computer carries out my commands the way it's supposed to.Word-processing with the computer is not all that easy, since many unexpected things can happen.Although I know quite a bit about computers, the computer rarely does what I want it to do.Although I car select the level of difficulty of a computer game, the computer decides who the winner willbe.The computer is so complicated that I can hardly handle it.It depends upon the computer ifmy commands are carried out the way I want them to.

Note. Itemscores listedseparatelyfor girls and boysare available fromauthors.

De nombreux travaux empiriques sur I'utilisation des ordinateursconcluent a des differences liees au sexe : les sujets feminins fontpreuve de plus de sentiments negatifs aI'egard de la technologie infor­matique. Dans Ie cadre de I'evaluation du projet "CULAS" (ComputerAssisted Learning in Secondary School in Rhineland-Palatinate), ons 'est interesse specialement aux differences de reponses liees au sexedans une population de plus de mille eleves de 11 a16 ans. Les resul­tats concernent les aspects suivants : frequence et duree actuelles delutilisation d'un ordinateur, anciennete de I'experience, interets al'e­gard de 1'informatique, attitudes envers les ordinateurs, implicationsemotionnelles et locus de controle. Dans l'ensemble les resultats con­firment I'hypothese de differences garcons-filles dans I'utilisation desordinateurs. Cependant, les resultats indiquent aussi que cettehypothese ne peut pas etre tenue pour vrai, en general. La questiondevrait etre reprise avec des methodes plus sophistiquees.

Key words: Attitudes toward computers, Computer-assisted learning, Computer interests,Computer use, Gender-related differences, Locus of control.

Received: September1994

Revision received: June 1995

282 M. BANNERT & P.R. ARBINGER

Maria Bannert. Centre of Educational Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Friedrich-Ebert-Strasse12,76829 Landau/Pfalz, Germany.

Current theme ofresearch:

Computer-Assisted Learning, Human-Computer Interaction, Computer User Training.

Most relevant publications in the field ofPsychology ofEducation:

Arbinger, R., & Bannert, M. (1993). Computerwissen von Schulem der Sekundarstufe I. Empirische Padagogik. 7, 103­-124.

Jager, R.S., Arbinger, R., Bannert, M., Lissrnann, U., Konrad, K., & Deutsch, M. (Eds.) (1991). ComputerunterstiitztesLemen. Landau/Pfalz. Empirische Padagogik.

Jager, R.S., Arbinger, R., Bannert, M., &: Lissmann, U. (1993). Ergebnisse der wissenschaftlichen Begleitung. In A.Rissberger (Ed.), Computerunterstiitztes Lemen an allgemeinbildenden Schulen TeilII (pp. 193-251). Mainz: v.Hase & Koehler Verlag.

Jager, R.S., Arbinger, R., Bannert, M., & Lissrnann, U. (1993). Kann Software padagogisch verantwortet in derGrundschule eingesetzt werden? Einige Ergebnisse des Projekts CLIP. Zeitschriftfiir Bildungswesen, 2,29-43.

Paul Roland Arbinger, Centre ofEducational Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Friedrich-Ebert­Strasse 12,76829 Landau/Pfalz, Germany.

Current theme ofresearch:

Computer-Assisted Learning, Everyday Memory, Problem Solving.

Most relevant publications in the field ofPsychology ofEducation:

Arbinger, R (1994). Entwicklung des Denkens (Psycho logic, Bd. 3). Landau: Empirische Padagogik.

Arbinger, R., & Jager, R.S. (1994). Expertenspecial: Lernen.Iernen. In U. Fieger (Ed.), Alles, was Sie schon immer iiber

WeiterBiidung wissen wollten (pp. 34-43). Gutersloh: VVA (Gabler Public).

Arbinger, R., & Jager, R.S. (1995). Lemen, lernen. Einfiihrung und Materialien (Berichte des Zentrums Nr. 4). Landau:Empirische Padagogik,

Hetzer, H., Todt, E., Seiffge-Krenke, I., & Arbinger, R. (Eds.) (1995). Angewandte Entwicklungspsychologie desKindes- und Jugendalters (3 Aufl.). Heidelberg, Wiesbaden: Quelle & Meyer (UTB 935).