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Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 1
SYA 3010 Sociological Theory:
Introduction to Theory DevelopmentandIntroduction to Sociological Paradigms
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 2
Theory and Paradigm
As has been mentioned, this theory course and many of the lectures
and reading will seem very abstract and difficult to follow as
compared to other courses. However, by reading and
reviewing several times and making notations in your own words may be helpful to you.
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 3
ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet
Define common sense. Give two examples
Define scientific inquiry.Define paradigm.
Give an example.Define assumption (as it relates to
paradigm).Define theory.
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 4
ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet
Divide into groups of 2-3Share definitions and
examples
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 5
Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense
Common SenseThe definition of common sense is:
1: the unreflective opinions of ordinary men 2: sound and prudent but often unsophisticated judgement (Mish 1991:266)
Common sense is a valuable tool for our everyday lives -- we would not want to totally demean its value
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 6
Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense
Scientific InquiryThe definition for scientific inquiry is:
A deliberate, focused, systematic, and logical means of explaining an observable event in one’s world (Bolender 1993:11)
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 7
Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense
The scientific method provides a more thorough, thoughtful explanation of events than most common sense answers could give. The scientific method may conclude that it has not found a good answer to the purpose of the event, however that is generally still a more thorough answer than most common sense answers provide (Bolender 1993:11-12).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 8
Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense
Most people are constantly in the process of making informal observations about their world. Attempts are made to describe, explain, predict, and control daily events (Bunker, Pearlson, and Schulz 1975).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 9
Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense
Perception Screening DevicesCommon Sense
The layperson uses common sense to deal with everyday observations (Selltiz, Wrightsman, and Cook 1976). Laypeople use subjective ideas (opinions) to determine if an observation is reliable (Bunker, Pearlson, and Schulz 1975).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 10
Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense
Scientific Inquiry Evidence (objective facts) is used in
scientific inquiry to indicate if an idea is supportable (Bunker, Pearlson, and Schulz 1975).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 11
Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense
Real World ExamplesFreshman Seminar (Bolender
1994)Reducing Crime in Major
Cities (Moffit 1996)
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 12
Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense
The sociologist as The sociologist as a destroyer of a destroyer of
myths.myths.
Norbert Elias ([1970] 1978:50)
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 13
Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense
Scientific inquiry--Scientific inquiry--
How will this help How will this help me in real life?me in real life?
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 14
Theory and Paradigm
ParadigmThe definition of a paradigm is:
Paradigms. . . are taken-for-granted ideas and assumptions not debated by members of a scientific discipline (Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 15
Theory and Paradigm
When paradigms change, the When paradigms change, the world itself changes with them. world itself changes with them.
Led by a new paradigm, Led by a new paradigm, scientists adapt new scientists adapt new
instruments and look in new instruments and look in new places.places.
Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1970:110?)
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 16
Theory and Paradigm
Does one’s paradigm make Does one’s paradigm make any difference in the real any difference in the real world? world? You bet it doesYou bet it does!!
“Why Doctors Are Not Curing Ulcers”
Brian O’Reilly (1997:100-112)
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 17
Theory and Paradigm
AssumptionThe definition of assumption is:
. . . a preconception or “given.” . . . it refers to something that is taken for granted (Perdue 1986:5-6).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 18
Theory and Paradigm
For example: Plato’s Six Basic Assumptions of Society (he was a sociologist before the discipline officially existed)
• Man is an organism.• Organisms tend toward survival.• Man survives in groups.• Man is a social animal.• Man lives in an ordered society.• The order of society is knowable.
(Rose 1967 and Carroll 1972 in Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:4-5)
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 19
Theory and Paradigm
TheoryA definition of theory is:
. . . A theory is a logical deductive-inductive system of concepts, definitions, and propositions which states a relationship between two or more selected aspects of phenomena and from which testable hypotheses can be derived (Ward 1974:39).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 20
Theory and Paradigm
Theories in sociology are intended to be descriptive, explanatory, and predictive of phenomena of interest to the discipline and to its individual practitioners (Ward 1974:39).
A theory is a set of concepts plus the interrelationships that are assumed to exist among those concepts. A theory also includes consequences that we assume logically to follow from the relationships proposed in the theory. These consequences are called hypotheses (Selltiz, Wrightsman, and Cook 1976).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 21
Theory and Paradigm
PropositionA definition of proposition:
. . . are “statements about the nature of reality” which describe connections between phenomena or events. “Man is an organism and must eat to survive” is a propositional statement which can easily be put to the test. At a higher level sociologists may say, “Changes in the economic structure will result in changes in the nonmaterial aspects of society.” This statement can also be put to the test (Phillips 1971:52 in Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:23).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 22
Theory and Paradigm
ConceptTheories also contain concepts,
which are created by giving names to events, phenomena, and processes. Concepts are merely the symbols scientists use as a form of shorthand (Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:23).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 23
Theory and Paradigm
“Each concept communicates to the specialist a vast amount of experience, abstracted and clarified for those who understand the term (Goode and Hatt 1952:44 in Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:23).Example: Status is a concept which refers to
an individual’s location in society-high, low, or middle range (Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:23).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 24
Theory and Paradigm
DefinitionNominal Definition
Is a substitute for some concrete objectSports car
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 25
Theory and Paradigm
Real Definition Is anchored in concrete or observable
phenomena and has empirical or testable implicationsThe President of the United States
(Bierstedt in Denisoff, Callahan, andLevine 1974:23-24)
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 26
Theory and Paradigm
Operational Definition Measurement theory concerns the linkage
between concepts and indicators in a study. Operational definitions are always based on measurement theories that assign empirical meaning to concepts. . . The operational definition stipulates which specific indicators (or observations) are to be assigned which specific meanings (Selltiz, Wrightsman, and Cook 1976:40).
Example: IQ is an operational definition of intelligence
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 27
Theory and Paradigm
HypothesisThe definition of hypothesis is:
is a statement outlining the relationship between two or more factors of events, such as X causes Y. A hypothesis is reasoned or deducted from a theory and seeks to make a general statement specific (Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974: 24).
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 28
Theory and Paradigm
Emile Durkheim’s Study of SuicideTheory: Society is a closed system with
each member interrelated to all the other members within the society. There is a phenomenon of social integration.
Proposition: Society is an organism with interrelated parts, therefore, the stronger the social cohesion, the stronger the society.
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 29
Theory and Paradigm
Concepts: Social cohesion Solidarity
Operational Definition: Suicide is an objective measurement of social cohesion
Hypothesis: The annual suicide rate for Catholics will be lower than Protestants The hypothesis is a deduction of the theory
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 30
Theory and Paradigm
LogicDeductive reasoning
Use of logic and authorityInductive reasoning
Use of empirical observation
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 31
Theory and Paradigm
Deductive Reasoning
From the General
To the Particular
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 32
Theory and Paradigm
Inductive Reasoning
To the General
From the Particular
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 33
Theory and Paradigm
Common Sense versus Common Sense versus Scientific InquiryScientific Inquiry
500 plus years ago--Why 500 plus years ago--Why did the uneducated man did the uneducated man think the earth was flat think the earth was flat
(or hump-back)?(or hump-back)?
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 34
Theory and Paradigm
What impact did What impact did this “paradigm” this “paradigm”
have on have on mankind?mankind?
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 35
ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet
Go to page 7 of the worksheetThe theme: The earth is flat (or
hump-back)Make an attempt to complete each
component as if you accepted this paradigm
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 36
ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet
Go to page 8 of the worksheetParadigm
The earth is flat (or at least hump-back).Assumptions
The world ends at the “four corners” of the earth.
The “known” surface land mass has been explored.
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 37
ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet
The edges of all the “known” surface land mass is bordered by water.
Theories The is flat (or at least hump-back). The earth has “edges.”
Propositions Man cannot travel beyond the edge of
the earth without falling off.
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 38
ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet
All of the surface land mass has been explored or at least mapped.
Concepts Four corners of the earth Edge of the world
Definitions Real Definition
Boundaries of the earth
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 39
ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet
Operational definitionThe earth has only X number of nautical
miles between the western coast of Europe and the western boundary of the earth.
Hypothesis If a ship sails indefinitely in one
direction (west, east, south, or north), it will fall off the edge of the earth.
Wednesday, April 19, 2023
© 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender 40
Theory and Paradigm
The development of sociological theories has been slow. Attempting to develop scientific theories about
society is very complex. The variables are endless.
Does that make it any less of a worthy Does that make it any less of a worthy goal?goal?
The answer is no. It just makes the task that much more challenging.