Fördergemeinschaft Gutes Licht

Good Lighting for Museums,Galleries and Exhibitions 18

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FREE-STANDING EXHIBITS

REVOLVING EXHIBITION

ENTRANCE AREA

EXHIBITS ON WALLS

EXHIBITS IN SHOWCASES

Contents

Cover photograph: Lighting creates visualexperiences in any exhibition. Modulatingand accentuating the visual landscape, itenhances the impact of a presentation. Lighting is vital for spatial impression andenjoyment of art.

Visual experiences 1

The action of light 2

Exhibits in the limelight 6

Showcase lighting 8

Revolving exhibitions 10

Foyers, corridors, staircases 12

Audiovisual media 14

Lecture room 15

Library 16

Study room 17

Cafeteria, museum shop 18

Workplace lighting:office, workshop, storage facilities 19

Outdoor exhibits 20

Night scenes 21

Daylight 22

Lighting management 24

Vision, recognition, perception 26

Light protection 30

Maintenance 33

Lamps 34

Luminaires 38

Standards and literature 42

Acknowledgements 43

Imprint 44

Information from Fördergemeinschaft Gutes Licht 45

OUTDOOR EXHIBITS

MUSEUM SHOP

CAFETERIA

OFFICE

WORKSHOP

STORAGE ROOMS

• ART• SCIENCE• TECHNOLOGY• HISTORY• CULTURAL HISTORY• HISTORICAL

FIGURES

LECTURE ROOM

STUDY ROOM

LIBRARY

Around 100 million people ayear visit Germany’s museumsto view, experience, admireand enjoy their exhibits. Thereare more than 6,000 such in-stitutions in total, with a widevariety of collections, a broadspectrum of specialisationsand presentation concepts thatrange from hands-on displaysfor an interactive experience toquiet retreats for silent contem-plation. What they all have incommon, however, is that theyseek to inspire the visitor.

Whether the focus is art or sci-ence, technology or history, thepresentation needs to be ap-pealing, interesting and varied.And that is where lightingplays an important role: it cre-ates visual experiences in anyexhibition, it helps modulateand accentuate the visuallandscape, it enhances the im-pact of the items on display.The visual ambience must notcause fatigue. On the contrary,it should stimulate – but notconfuse. In large buildings, dif-ferentiated room design is alsoa requirement.

Light spacesLighting is vital for spatial im-pression and enjoyment of art.Different light colours andbeam spreads, different de-signs and arrangements of luminaires and lamps createdifferent lighting situations –light spaces – designed tomeet the relevant needs of theexhibition.

Special attention needs to bepaid to conservation require-ments. Light protection playsan important role in any exhi-bition room.

There is more to a museumthan just what it displays; it isalso a place of research,where collections are stored,preserved and managed. Onlyin the right lighting can muse-um staff work effectively. Light-ing also draws attention to trip-ping hazards and reduces therisk of accidents. So althoughthe lighting designer has agreat deal of freedom in exhi-bition rooms, functional lightingmust always be provided.

Visual experiences

1

Fig. 1: The graphic above showsa virtual museum: most of thespace is occupied by the exhibi-tion area (blue), followed by thegeneral public areas (red) andthe rooms which serve as workpremises (orange). The outdoorarea (green) is surrounded bythe building.

The design and configura-tion of exhibition roomlighting depends on manyplanning parameters. Fore-most among these is thearchitecture of the buildingwith which the lighting isrequired to harmonise. Oth-er factors are room propor-tions, interior design, colourscheme, available daylightand, last but not least, thenature of the exhibition. Theway the ambience isshaped by light and shad-ow is a matter of funda-mental importance.

Room lightingLighting for exhibitionrooms in museums ismade up of diffuse and di-rectional light. The relativeamounts and resulting mixof the two types of light de-termines the harshness ofthe shadows cast by pic-ture frames and the three-dimensional impact ofsculptures and spatial ob-jects. The diffuse and di-rectional light mix also de-fines the overall impressionmade by the room.

A closely related matterhere is the distinction be-tween room and exhibitlighting. The diffuse lightingis almost all generated bythe room lighting, whichdetermines the distributionof brightness and sets light-ing accents in the horizon-tal plane.

Room lighting alone israrely enough to meet allan exhibition’s needs. Conversely, the directionallighting used to illuminate

exhibits does not providebright enough room lighting except in a few –mostly small and bright –interiors.

Exhibit lightingExhibit lighting uses hard-edged directional light toaccentuate individual itemson display. As a generalrule, it needs to be supple-mented by softer roomlighting. Exhibit lightingbased on spots alone isadvisable only where a par-ticularly dramatic effect isrequired.

Otherwise, a stimulatingspatial experience is ob-tained with a mix of diffuse(room) and directional (ex-hibit) lighting.

Diffuse lightingDiffuse lighting illuminatesroom zones or objectsfrom a surface that radiateslight in all directions. At thesite of illumination, i.e. inthe room zone or at theobject illuminated, the di-

rection from which the lightcomes cannot be clearlydetermined: the light flow-ing into the room and overthe objects is not direction-al. Where it comes fromvery many directions, i.e.where the radiant surfaceis large, the lighting pro-duces little or no shadow-ing.

Directional lightingDirectional lighting is gen-erated mostly by punctuallight sources – i.e. lampsthat are small in relation tothe lighting distance – orspots of similar design. Thelight falls directly onto theobject illuminated, strikingit, or parts of it, at an angledefined by the geometry ofthe lighting arrangement.Where the surface of theobject is uneven, clearlydefined shadows occur.These enhance the visualimpact of three-dimension-al surfaces but can also bea source of visual interfer-ence if they are too domi-nant or too large.

The action of light

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Light protectionDaylight and artificial light contain rays whichmay fade, dry out, discolour or deform exhibits. Conservationmeasures can protectagainst this but only ifthey are properly appliedand observed. For moreabout light protection, see page 30.

Route lighting In some exhibition rooms,visitors are free to movearound in any direction. Inmany others, however, be-cause of the nature of the ex-hibition or for organisationalreasons, they need to be ‘di-rected’. Luminaires whichhighlight routes without inter-fering with the display areason either side are a practicalsolution for this task. Alsopractical – and stylish as well– is (additional) floor-levelorientation lighting, e.g. withLED lighting strip.

Photo 1: Ambience and the waywe experience a room areshaped by light and shadowsand the way they are mixed.

Photo 2: Diffuse lighting ispredominantly used for generalroom lighting.

Photo 3: Illuminating objects –exhibits are set off to dramaticeffect by directional lighting

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Diffuse/directional lightingIn many applications, lightcannot be clearly definedas wholly diffuse or whollydirectional. This is the casewhere the surface radiatingthe light is neither large norpunctual – e.g. a spot witha diffuser disc. Dependingon the diameter of the discand on the lighting dis-tance, shadows are nar-rower or wider, harsher orsofter.

Diffuse/directional lightingalso occurs where a sur-face is illuminated or back-lit to produce diffuse light-ing and part of the light ismade to radiate in a partic-

ular direction and is thuspartially directional. The di-rection from which the lightcomes can be seen on theobjects illuminated. Howev-er, the shadowing that oc-curs on exhibits is lessclearly defined than if thelight were entirely direction-al. The modelling is ren-dered more subtle by thebrightening effect of the dif-fuse lighting component.

Diffuse/directional lightingcan also be produced, forexample, by linear lamps inappropriately designed lu-minaires. Here, shadowingdepends on the position ofthe luminaire in relation tothe picture: wallwashers

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Fig. 2: Directional lighting for thewall, diffuse lighting for the room

Fig. 3: Supplementary directionallighting for objects in the room

Fig. 4: Indirect and directcomponents produce diffuse anddirectional lighting respectively

Fig. 5: Solely directional light

with tubular fluorescentlamps mounted horizontallyor parallel to the upperedge of the wall producehard-edged shadows be-neath horizontal pictureframes, whereas the shad-ows cast by the vertical partof the frame are barely dis-cernible.

Avoiding cast shadowsDirectional light producesform shadows. Where italso results in cast shad-ows on neighbouring ob-jects, the hard contours andobscure origin of suchshadows are disturbing.Cast shadows are avoidedby ensuring an appropriatemix of diffuse and direction-

al light, correct positioningof the light source produc-ing the directional light orappropriate positioning ofthe illuminated objects inrelation to one another.

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The most important lightingsystems used in exhibitionrooms are:

� luminous ceilings withopal glass enclosure (dif-fuse light) or satinised andtextured glass (diffuse/directional),� indirect luminaires (dif-fuse),� cove luminaires (diffuse),� wallwashers (directionalor diffuse/directional),� spot lamps.

Luminous ceilingsThe idea of luminous ceil-ings stems from a desire toimitate daylight. Luminousceilings deliver light which isparticularly suitable forpainting galleries – predom-inantly diffuse with an opalenclosure, partly directionalwith enclosures of sa-tinised/textured glass. Theheat that is generated in anyluminous ceiling needs tobe dissipated or extracted.

The light sources of choiceare tubular fluorescentlamps arranged accordingto the structural grid of theluminous ceiling. For gooduniformity, they should bespaced no further apartthan the distance to theceiling enclosure. The sizeof the luminous ceiling, its subdivision and the tran-sitions between ceiling andwalls need to suit the pro-portions of the room andthe nature of the objectsdisplayed.

Luminous ceilings imitatingnatural daylight need to deliver a high level of lumi-nance: 500 to 1,000 cd/m2,ranging up to 2,000 cd/m2

for very high-ceilingedrooms. Luminous ceilingsare especially suitable forinteriors with 6 metre ceil-ings or higher. Where roomheights are lower, their lightcan dazzle because theyoccupy a large part of thefield of vision. Where thelighting is dimmed for con-servation reasons or to re-duce glare, the luminousceiling loses its daylight

The action of light

4

Photo 5: Indirect lighting has an impact similar to that of aluminous ceiling.

Photo 4: Luminous ceilings areparticularly suitable for paintinggalleries. The cove lighting provides additional brightness.

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quality and looks grey andoppressive. All luminousceilings – including day-lighting installations – needto be designed by a spe-cialist.

Indirect luminairesAn impact similar to that ofa luminous ceiling isachieved with indirect lightbounced off the ceiling andupper wall surfaces into theroom. This diffuse, uniformlight is predominantly usedin rooms where no daylightenters. It is produced bysuspended luminaires radi-ating light upwards.

In exhibition rooms, for ex-ample, luminaires for sus-pended power track sys-tems are an option: theyare inserted in the trackfrom above while spots fordirectional lighting are ac-commodated in the lowerchannel.

Cove luminaires The diffuse light of lumi-naires installed in the curv-ing transition between walland ceiling – the cove orcoving – is another indirectlighting solution. The coveluminaires most frequentlyused in modern museum

buildings are models withhousings which themselvesform the coving.

The main direction of lightwith cove lighting is closerto the horizontal than with aluminous ceiling and corre-sponds roughly to that ofperimeter luminairesmounted in continuousrows. The light is largelyshadow-free. Linear lamps– generally tubular fluores-cent lamps – are the mostwidely used light source.

Excessive luminance at theceiling and on the upperpart of walls causes glareand interferes with spatialexperience. This can occurin coves where no stepsare taken to provide opticalcontrol – for example be-cause the existing cove of-fers no space for prisms orreflectors. Where simplenon-overlapping battensare installed, disturbinglight-dark transitions arealso visible around the lam-pholders.

WallwashersWallwashers are used as in-dividual luminaires or incontinuous rows. Installedflush with the ceiling (or with

kick reflector protrudingfrom the ceiling) or mount-ed close to the ceiling, theyshould illuminate the wallsas uniformly as possible.This task is performed byreflectors with asymmetricaloptics. It is important to en-sure good shielding in thedirection of the observer. El-ements on the luminaire formounting accessories –such as filters or anti-glareflaps – are useful.

Favoured light sources forwallwashers include linearlamps: fluorescent lamps,compact fluorescent lampsin elongated designs, linearhigh-voltage halogenlamps. The diffuse/direc-tional lighting delivered bythe continuous rowarrangements that are pos-sible with these lightsources produces relativelydeep shadows, especiallyalong the horizontal edgesof picture frames.

The directional light deliv-ered by individual lumi-naires with non-linearlamps, on the other hand,gives rise to additionalshadows along the horizon-tal edges of a pictureframe.

Spot lampsReflectors in reflector lamps(used in luminaires with noreflector) or spots directmost of the light emitted bypunctual light sources in adefined beam direction.Spots and downlights withspot characteristics can befully or partially integratedinto a ceiling (or wall) asrecessed ceiling spots. Sur-face-mounted ceiling spotsand downlights as well asspots for power track havevisible housings. Elementson the luminaire for mount-ing accessories – such asfilters or anti-glare flaps –are useful.

Punctual light sources in-clude high-voltage halogenlamps and low-voltagehalogen lamps with andwithout reflector, incandes-cent lamps with or withoutchrome cap as well as met-al halide lamps.

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Photo 6: Wallwashers distributetheir light asymmetrically.

Photo 7: The directional light ofspot lamps raises thebrightness for exhibits – herewith an appropriate beam anglefor paintings.

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Exhibits in the limelight

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Medium-scale, large andvery large exhibits and thelight that falls on them areseen to full effect only froma distance. This must beborne in mind when the ex-hibits are positioned.

Viewing without interferenceTo ensure that all exhibits areshown to their best advan-tage, neither the room northe exhibit lighting should in-terfere with the visual task:

� There should be noevocative shadows or pat-terns of light on walls or ceil-ing. Such visual interferencedefinitely needs to be ruledout for exhibition walls. � Reflections and undesir-able shadows on picturesand objects should beavoided. With direct lighting,the way to guard againstthis is to position luminairesso that the distance fromthe exhibit is around a thirdof the height of the wall. � No cast shadows shouldfall on neighbouring ex-hibits. � A greater distance be-tween wallwashers and wallmakes for better uniformitybut presents a risk of directglare. The compromise be-tween uniform illuminationand visual comfort: the an-gle between luminaire andwall down to the lower limitof the presentation areashould be between 25 and30 degrees (see Fig. 6 + 7)

Reflectance in the roomThe colour, pattern and re-flectance of ceiling, wallsand floor affect the visualimpact of the exhibits andthe atmosphere of the room.How bright or dark wallsand ceiling can be kept –i.e. how high their re-flectance should be – de-pends crucially on the de-sign intention. It is not pos-sible to make a general rec-ommendation.

What kind of light haswhat impact?An “exhibit in the limelight”is (almost) always an exhibit

in directional light. Whathappens when changes aremade in direction of lightand beam angle? What doobjects look like with andwithout bright surroundings?What difference can lumi-naire accessories make?Answers are found in thephotographs on page 7,where a portrait and a non-figurative painting are pre-sented as examples of two-dimensional pictures and afragment of an ancientsculpture and a red vase forthree-dimensional objects.

Basically speaking, the im-pact of any change onthese relatively small ex-hibits is the same for large-scale pictures and objects.The only difference is thatthey need more light: high-er power lamps or greaternumbers of spots need tobe used for illuminatinglarge objects. A very largeobject, such as a car or aplane, can also be illumi-nated from several points.This makes for striking vi-sual impact from variousviewing angles.

Text panelsPrinted information aboutan exhibit is useful only if itis legible – which is alwaysthe case with adequatelylarge black type on a whitebackground. Where differ-ent lettering is required, itshould be tested for legibili-ty in advance. And alwaysremember: legibility is im-paired by reflections.

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Fig. 6 + 7: Calculation of the optimal positioning of a luminaire for pictures on a wall – room height,observation zone, size of picture and optimal viewing angle (fig. on left) are the parameters definingthe optimal position of a wall-lighting luminaire. The upper edge of the picture determines the spotlightopening angle (B: 30°, C: 60°) with a constant angle of inclination of 30°. Angles less than 30° canresult in reflections at the upper edge of the picture (critical observation zone). The mathematicalformula for calculating the distance “x” between spotlight and wall for illuminating a picture with theheight “y” is: x = y tan 30° (fig. on right).

Photo 8: Higher power lamps ormultiple spots are used for illu-minating large-scale objects.

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Spot with 15° beam angle andambient luminescence

Spot with 15° beam angle anddiffuse ambient luminescence

Contour spot with no ambientluminescence

Diffuse ambient luminescence

Spot with 15° beam angle andsoft focus lens

Spot with 45° beam angle andoval lens

Wallwasher with asymmetricallight distribution fitted with R7shalogen lamps (230 V)

Spot with 15° beam angle, lighting from front, top, middle

Spot with 15° beam angle, light-ing from front, top, left

Spot with 15° beam angle, light-ing from front, bottom, left

Side lighting from right

Lighting from front Lighting from back Lighting from right Lighting from above

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Wallwasher with symmetricallight distribution fitted with R7shalogen lamps (230 V)

Showcases are miniatureexhibition rooms and theexhibits they contain needto be illuminated accord-ingly – with diffuse or direc-tional light. In some cases,illuminating and accentuat-ing light may also be mixedin glass display cabinets.

The right light for the taskThe type of lighting re-quired depends essentiallyon the characteristics of theexhibits – on three-dimen-sional form, structure, sur-face gloss and transparen-cy or colour.

Most metal objects – goldor silver receptacles, for example – acquire a fasci-nating beauty when theygleam. And that gleam

occurs when they are illu-minated by punctual lightsources. Under diffuselighting, the receptacles appear matt and lifeless.

For transparent or translu-cent objects such as glassexhibits, the key to height-ening visual impact liesmore in modelling than ingleam. The structure of surfaces – cut, etched orpainted – also plays an im-portant role here. Depend-ing on the exhibit, the correct solution may be dif-fuse or directional lighting(through-lighting) or acombination of the two.With directional lighting, visual impact is determinedby the angle of light inci-dence. Diffuse lighting is

appropriate for coloured ortransparent materials suchas glass windows.

Integrated lighting Small, shallow display cabi-nets (glass-topped desks)and high or box-shapedshowcases mostly have anintegrated lighting system.This has advantages:� Fewer or no reflectionsoccur on the cabinet glass. � It is easier to avoid directglare for the observer dueto bright unshielded lightsources.� It is easier to engineerspecial lighting effects for adramatic presentation.

In small display cabinets,exhibits are normally illumi-nated from the side. In highshowcases, lighting fromthe cabinet roof is an op-tion. Alternatively, objectscan be bathed in light frombelow from the base of thecabinet.

In addition to the lightingintegrated in the showcase,separate ambient lighting isgenerally essential. De-pending on the atmosphererequired and the illumi-nance permitted for conser-vation, the room lightingshould be just below the

level of the showcase light-ing or even lower. Orienta-tion lighting which relies entirely on stray light fromshowcases and not on adedicated orientation light-ing system should not betoo low.

Light protectionLight protection (see page30) is also an importantconsideration for showcaselighting – not least becauselamps in showcases are often closer to exhibits thanin exhibition rooms. It mustalso be borne in mind thatthe enclosed space of ashowcase has its own microclimate.

For the lighting, there arealternatives to the lampsused in the past: LEDs, forexample, which deliver abeam that contains no IV orIR radiation, and fibre-opticlighting systems, which

Showcase lighting

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Photo 25: Under the top-downshowcase lighting, the suits ofarmour gleam in fascinatingdetail

Photo 26: LEDs for light protec-tion – luminous diodes emitneither ultraviolet light nor heat.

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Fig. 8 + 9Directionallighting (left)accentuatesexhibits,planar lighting(right) makesfor uniformillumination.

have a very low UV/IR content. Incidentally, be-cause of their size, both ofthese solutions are alsosuitable for illuminating verysmall display cabinets.

For fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescent lampsand high-voltage and low-voltage halogen lamps, thesame safeguards are re-quired in showcases as inlarge exhibition rooms.

External lighting Room and object lightingoutside showcases is gen-erally provided by ceilinglights. This type of lightingis particularly suitable forall-glass cabinets and shallow glass-topped deskshowcases for viewing fromabove. Daylight and object-oriented room lighting generally need to be sup-plemented by accentuatingexhibit lighting. Where luminaires are arranged tosuit showcases, there is little risk of reflected glare.

Limiting reflectionsLimiting reflected glare isan important considerationwhatever kind of lighting isinstalled for showcaseswith horizontal and verticalglass surfaces. Effective

bright internal lighting thuspresent a lower risk.

Reflections can also becaused by windows (daylight). Appropriate positioning of showcasesor daylight screening – e.g. with vertical blinds –prevents this kind of re-flected glare.

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protection against reflectedglare is provided by non-reflecting glass.

Reflections on horizontalglass surfaces occur lessfrequently if the glass is tilt-ed towards the observer.How visible they are de-pends on the degree ofcontrast with the surround-ings, i.e. the darkness ofthe showcase. Light-coloured showcases with

Photo 27: The manuscripts inthe showcase walls areuniformly illuminated from topto bottom.

Photo 28: Reflection-free external lighting illuminates andhighlights the books in the cabinets.

Photo 29: Where luminaires are arranged to suit showcases,ceiling lighting is largely reflection-free.

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Exhibits which are not onpermanent display or whichgo on tour are presented inrooms for revolving exhibi-tions. Each new show is anadded attraction and drawsnew visitors to see the per-manent exhibition.

To cater for a regularchange-over of exhibits,lighting systems need to beadaptable. So very flexiblelighting is required. Itshould be noted, however,that absolute flexibility – enabling the lighting to beas finely tuned for everytemporary presentation asfor a permanent exhibition– is an unattainable goal.

Flexible lightingThe general – diffuse –lighting takes little accountof the positioning of ex-hibits. The flexibility of thesystem depends on the directional lighting. Particu-larly suitable solutions hereare furnished by powertrack systems, in which

swivellable, rotatable spotscan be snap-mounted atany point. Part of the powertrack installed should bemounted along the walls topermit gallery-style walllighting. In the rest of theroom, rectangular or squarearrangements of powertrack make for greater flexi-bility than an arrangementin just one direction.

An alternative to powertrack are stationary gimbal-mounted spots. These canalso be set at any angleand servomotors can beused for re-angling and focusing. Gimbal spotlightsare not quite as flexible asspots on power track butthey permit a ceiling thatmakes a much more tranquil design statementthan one with power track.

Realigning luminairesThe luminaires of a flexiblelighting system need to berealigned for each new revolving exhibition – if

necessary by experimentingand repositioning exhibits.This invariable calls for theuse of ladders and steps.For inaccessible locations,remote control spots arethe right answer.

Taking account of daylightWhere revolving exhibitionsare staged in daylit rooms,daylight incidence and theposition of showcases inrelation to windows (seepage 9) must also be takeninto account. To maximizethe scope for catering toexhibition requirements, itis best to ensure that daylitrooms can be fully dark-ened. More informationabout daylight is found onpages 22/23. Facilities fordarkening rooms can alsobe useful for light protec-tion; for information aboutthe light protection require-ments of exhibits – whichnaturally also need to bemet in revolving exhibitions– see pages 30–33.

Mobile spotsWhere mobile partitions areused for presentations, mobile spots fastened tothe partitions by clamps orscrew mountings are an alternative to spotlights onpower track. So that powercables to spots do not present a tripping hazard,rooms for revolving exhibi-tions should be providedwith power points in thefloor.

Revolving exhibitions

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Photo 30: The light of thegimbal-mounted spots is focus-able.

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Photo 31: Power track isintegrated in the ceiling gridconstruction to accommodatethe spotlights for the exhibitlighting.

Photo 34: The spotlights needto be repositioned for everynew revolving exhibition.

Photo 32: Power track integrated in the ceiling makes it possiblefor spots to be positioned inflexible arrangements.

Photo 33: High illuminancewhere required – eachluminaire features four gimbal-mounted spots.

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The entrance area is thecalling card of the estab-lishment. It shapes visitors’first impressions, its designcan overcome fear ofcrossing the threshold. Aharmonious lighting atmos-phere sets the scene for afriendly reception. Foyersalso serve a functional pur-pose: they lead into the in-terior of the building.

Harmonious lightingTo meet these require-ments, the lighting needsto incorporate a mixture of direct and indirect light –delivered by a combinationof lighting systems de-sign ed to cater for everylighting task: the uniformgeneral lighting providessecurity and facilitates ori-entation, accentuating light

on ceiling and walls makesthe visual impact less severe. Direct or direct/in-direct luminaires with efficient fluorescent orcompact fluorescent lampsare the most widely usedlight sources for the gener-al lighting; wall luminairesfor indirect lighting formpart of the accent lighting.

In the entrance zone, peo-ple step out of bright day-light into a darker buildingor out of night-time dark-ness into a brightly lit interi-or. To enable their eyes toadjust to the change inbrightness level, adaptationzones are recommended.During the day, the immedi-ate entrance area needs tobe particularly brightly lit; at night, the illuminance inside the building shoulddecrease towards the exit.

The calling card role of afoyer makes it an interest-ing place for special archi-tectural features – featureswhich lighting and lightingcharacteristics should underline. For high ceilings,for example, high-intensityspots with high-pressuredischarge lamps are re -commended. As pendantluminaires with direct/indi-rect light distribution, theyemphasize the height of the room. Moulded plasterceilings, columns or galleries can be very effec-tively stressed by accentu-ating light.

Guiding lightCorridors, staircases andlifts connect the entrancearea with the deeper recesses of the building. If they are significantlydarker than the foyer, theycan be off-putting. To avoidthis tunnel effect, the illumi-nance realised should

either be the same or re-duced very gradually instages. DIN EN 12464-1stipulates a minimum of100 lux illuminance for circulating areas such ascorridors.

A route guidance systemprovides an effective addi-tional orientation aid for visitors. To ensure reliableguidance, it should includebright information panels orback-lit signs with a clearmessage.

Safe lightThe risk of tripping onsteps and stairs is reducedby good lighting. The illu-minance should be at least150 lux (DIN EN 12464-1).As it is generally more dangerous to fall downstairs than to trip on theway up, it is particularly important that the lightingshould ensure that treadsare clearly discernible fromabove. In addition, lightfalling from the upper land-ing makes for short soft-edged shadows. Thetreads can thus be clearlydistinguished; each one isreadily identifiable.

Floor-level orientation lighting provides added security. Wall lights at theside of the stairs castingdirect light onto treads area solution here. LED tech-nology offers a new alter-native, e.g. with luminousdiodes set into risers. LEDsare also used for illuminat-ing banisters.

Foyers, corridors, staircases

Photo 35: Distributor role –foyer and corridors provide botha physical and optical link withthe deeper recesses of thebuilding.

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Photos 36 and 37: The entrancearea shapes first impressions.Harmonious lighting makes fora friendly reception.

Photos 39 and 40:Corridor lighting provides guidance for visitors and makestheir route safe. Minimumilluminance: 100 lux.

Photo 38: Light in banisters –LEDs make it possible.

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An exhibition may includevideo installations or pre-sentations on large screensor monitors of varioussizes. It may also includeaudio exhibits, i.e. record-ings of voices, sounds ormusic.

Reflected glare is annoyingThe lighting needs to caterfor the use of audiovisualmedia. Because reflectedglare on screens is veryannoying, highly directionallighting should not be in-stalled in the vicinity ofmonitors. High luminancefrom neighbouring exhibi-tion areas has the samedazzling effect; stray lightfrom such sources shouldalso be limited.

For audiovisual presenta-tions, lighting should nor-mally not be too bright –neither for visual perceptionnor for the perception ofsounds on which visitorsneed to concentrate. Wherepresentations are interac-tive, however, it is importantthat controls such as but-tons and their labels should

be easy to identify. The illu-minance of the additionallighting provided for thepurpose and its radiance inthe direction of the screen(reflected glare) and theoperator (direct glare) mustnevertheless be limited sothat they do not interferewith visitors’ perception ofthe presentation.

Computer roomWhere computers andmonitor screens are not in-tegrated in the exhibitionbut installed in a separatecomputer workstation room,it is advisable to light thatroom as if it were an office(see page 19). If the timevisitors spend in the roomis kept short – for exampleby putting a limit on themaximum length of stay –the lighting concept of theexhibition can also beadopted here even if itmeans a lower lighting level. Having said that, therisk of direct and reflectedglare must always be ruledout.

Audiovisual media

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Photo 42: In a separate computer room, the rules ofoffice lighting apply.

Photo 43: Feeling, hearing, seeing – all the senses areinvolved in experiencing theexhibition.

Photo 41: Audiovisual mediacan form part of an exhibition.Catering for them calls for lighting incorporating no highlydirectional light, delivering illuminance tailored topresentations and providingadequate light for the use ofcontrols.

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Virtually every type of eventtakes place in a lectureroom; certain guided toursalso start and end here. Theroom should therefore befurnished and equipped asa multifunctional facility –with lighting installations de-signed to create the lightingconditions needed for allthe relevant occasions, thusenhancing concentration,raising receptivity and facili-tating communication.

Lighting tailored for theoccasionHow flexible the lightingneeds to be depends onthe different lighting situa-tions presented by events.The first requirement is thatluminaires should begrouped on separateswitching circuits becausethe individual lighting situa-tions – e.g. “reception”, “lecture” or “presentation” –call for different system set-tings. One luminaire groupmay be left switched off, for example, while a sec-ond is activated and a thirdis dimmed.

The task of lighting control isperformed via a simple con-trol unit or – in larger rooms– by a lighting managementsystem. With lighting man-agement, programmed light-ing scenes can be adaptedto indi vidual conditions with-out altering the program-ming. Cross-fade times canbe set as required on ascale from one second toseveral minutes. Most light-ing management systemsalso offer the option of incor-porating window darkeningand sunshade settings intoprograms.

One lighting control systemrecommended for lecturerooms is the DALI® system(Digital Addressable Light-ing Interface) with its stan-dardised digital interface. Its key advantages are thatit has few components, requires little wiring and iseasy to operate. Information is available atwww.dali-ag.org.

What is always useful – insome cases also for lectur-ers – is the opportunity tocontrol the lighting from aremote device.

Accent lighting essentialApart from having a func-tional role, lighting is alsoan element of interior de-sign. Accent lighting, for ex-ample, is essential in aprestigious lecture room.Numerous punctual light

sources, indirect lightingcomponents emphasizingthe architecture of the roomand planar or directional il-lumination of pictures andwall areas produce anagreeable effect. For thelighting situation “reception”, general and accent lighting should beclosely coordinated andprogrammed to be activat-ed together.

Lecture room

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Photo 45: Lecture room lightingis multifunctional lightingdesigned to create tailoredlighting conditions for differentsituations.

Photo 44: “Film presentation”and “lecture” are the twolighting situations mostfrequently found.

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Library lighting has severalfunctions: it helps us getour bearings, helps us findthe literature we require, facilitates reading and cre-ates a peaceful to subtlystimulating atmosphere.The basis for planning isDIN EN 12464-1. As a general rule, the more demanding the visual task,the higher the lighting re-quirement. The illuminancerequired for circulating areas, for example, is 100lux, for shelving systems200 lux. Reading areas,however, call for 500 lux.

Fast orientationThe general lighting – withadditional route markingand identification of exits –needs to permit fast orien-tation and provide guid-ance around the rows ofshelves. Direct/indirectlighting produces anagreeably bright ceilingand prevents the so-called“cave effect” that can easilyoccur in parts of a library.Where direct lighting com-ponents are kept small, annoying reflections (reflected glare) on glossypaper are also reduced.

Suspended luminaires fortubular fluorescent lampsare the most widely usedhere, along with luminairesfor metal halide lamps inhigh-ceilinged rooms.

Vertical lighting componentsBookshelves and bookcas-es should be well illuminat-ed over their entire area.Vertical components needto reach to the lowest shelfto enable titles on bookspines to be read withease from a reasonabledistance. Wallwashers withasymmetrical beams areparticularly suitable for thislighting task. Lamps with agood colour rendering index (Ra � 80) ensurethat books can be easilyidentified by the colour anddesign of the spine, whichare often used as searchcriteria.

Reading desks requirebrighter lighting. Wheredesk luminaires are used tosupplement the generallighting, visitors can raisethe lighting level to suittheir personal requirements.

Library

Photos 47 and 48: Wallwashers with asymmetricalbeams illuminate shelves – from the ceiling (47) or as integrated shelf luminaires (48).

Photo 46: Helping visitors gettheir bearings, facilitating reading, creating a peaceful tosubtly stimulating atmosphere –these are the tasks addressedby library lighting.

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Some museums havestudy rooms, which offermore peace and quiet thanreading desks in a library.Here, students and otherswith special interests canconsult not only books butalso exhibition and archivedocuments.

Exacting visual tasksEven if a study room is notequipped with computers,the lighting should cater formonitors because nearlyanyone researching a sub-ject today has a laptop athand. Working at a com-puter, reading and writingare demanding visualtasks, for which DIN EN 12464-1 sets out a minimum of 500 lux illuminance. Be-cause glare impairs visualperformance and causesvisual discomfort, careneeds to be taken – as inan office or at any otherVDU workplace – to ensurethat neither direct nor reflected glare occurs.

Solutions suitable for thedirect lighting include pen-dant luminaires – mountedsingly or in continuousrows – with high-grade reflectors and louvers anddownlights with similar optical control elements.Alternatively, direct/indirectlight can be provided bypendant luminaires orstand-alone luminairesspecifically designed for office use.

Adjustable lighting level A particularly high degreeof comfort is offered bylighting systems in whichstand-alone luminaires canbe dimmed or supplemen-tary desk-top reading lightsswitched on to tailor thetask lighting level to indi-vidual requirements. Withfluorescent lamps or com-pact fluorescent lamps operated by (dimmable)electronic ballasts (EBs),study room lighting canalso be particularly eco-nomical.

Study room

Photo 49: Daylight or artificiallight enters the study room asindirect light from the lightwells. Downlights along thesides of the room provide supplementary lighting.

Photo 50: The luminaires for fluorescent lamps are mountedon power track to radiate lightupwards or downwards. They provide indirect and directlighting.

Photo 51: These desks are usedmainly by students. 500 lux illuminance is provided forreading and writing tasks.

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Cafeterias and museumshops are attractive places,especially at the end of amuseum visit. The culinaryofferings are welcome andmany people buy the merchandise on sale assouvenirs or gifts.

Cafeteria lightingFor cafeterias, differentiatedlighting with various room-structuring systems is rec-ommended: e.g. pendantluminaires for tables, wallluminaires and downlightsfor a moderately higherlighting level, downlightsand spots for accent light-ing. Depending on the sizeand design of the cafeteria,a single lighting systemmay be enough.

The range of design op-tions for catering establish-ment lighting is almostendless. Limits are reachedonly where visual perfor-mance and visual comfortare significantly impaired,which means that glaremust always be avoided.Harsh shadows are alsobad because they interferewith facial recognition.

In terms of brightness, ser-vice areas in a cafeteriacan keep a low profile –with one exception: thefood counter and any otherareas where food and drinkare displayed or on saleneed to be more brightly litthan the rest of the room.DIN EN 12464-1 stipulates200 - 300 lux illuminancehere. This helps guests get their bearings and facil-itates the visual task ofchoosing food.

Sales lightingCapturing the attention oftoday’s visually spoilt consumer calls for cleverlydesigned sales presenta-tions. The spectrum of customised solutions is aswide as the range of modern lamps, luminairesand spots. For a museumshop, the design challengeis to achieve optimal har-mony between the struc-ture and furnishings of theroom and lighting systemsdesigned to suit the mer-chandise on sale.

A distinction needs to bemade between generallighting – “viewing light” –and accent lighting – “display light” – for shelves,walls or special offer pre-sentations on the salesfloor. The rule of thumb forthe right mix is: the moreupmarket the range, themore stylish the lightingand the greater the impor-tance attached to differ -entiated accent lighting.

The overall impressionmade by graduated bright-ness levels determineshow stimulating customersfind the sales(room) atmosphere. However, cau-tion is required: excessivedifferences in brightnessplace too much strain onthe eyes of shoppers andstaff. Detailed information is provided in FGL booklet6 (see page 45) onsalesroom and shop win-dow lighting. The relevantstandard is DIN EN123464-1.

Cafeteria, museum shop

Photo 53: The scene isdominated by the rows of smallpunctual light sources.

Photo 54: Accentuating lightwith graduated brightnesslevels creates a stimulatingsales(room) atmosphere.

Photo 52: The general lightingcasts a discreet diffuse light.

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Workplace lighting is need-ed for rooms which are not open to the public andwhere the lighting caterssolely for the visual tasksperformed by the peoplewho work there. Theserooms are essentially offices, e.g. administrationareas, workshops and storage facilities such aswarehouses, depots andarchives.

Office lightingThe first requirement for vi-sual performance and visualcomfort is an adequate levelof lighting. For compliancewith DIN EN 12464-1, illumi-nance in the task area mustbe no lower than 300 lux.The standard makes a distinction between room-related, task area and worksurface lighting (more infor-mation in FGL booklet 4,see page 45).

The most popular officelighting solution is basedon pendant luminaires orstandard-alone luminairesfor direct/indirect lighting,which most people findagreeable. The alternative– direct general lightingwith recessed or surface-mounted ceiling luminairesor pendant luminaires withspecular louvers – is ap-preciated especially for itsuniformity.

One of the most importantquality criteria, particularlyfor VDU workplaces in anoffice, is direct and reflect-ed glare limitation by appropriate positioning ofluminaires, desks andmonitors. Where accentlighting is provided by wallluminaires or showcase orpicture lights, care must betaken to ensure that dis-turbing reflected glare isavoided.

Workshop lightingFor compliance with DINEN 12464-1, what appliesto offices – see above –basically applies also toworkshops. Regardless ofthe type of work performed,

the illuminance in museumworkshops, including training workshops, shouldbe 500 lux. The finer andmore critical the visualtask, the more light isneeded. For this, supple-mentary workplace lumi-naires can be used to raisethe illuminance at theworkpiece. A suitable solu-tion for the general lightingis task lighting with lumi-naires for fluorescentlamps arranged parallel to windows, preferably withlight falling on the work-bench from the side.

Generally speaking, it isadvisable in workshops toinstall luminaires with ahigher degree of protec-tion. A luminaire protectedto IP 43, for example, isprotected against theingress of solid particles � 1 mm and againstspraywater, while an IP 54luminaire is dustproof andprotected against splash-water.

Storage room lightingThe kind of work done instore rooms, depots orarchives requires less lightthan craft activities. Never-theless, relatively high illuminance is important forhandling small items instorage and for all work involving reading tasks (labelling items for storage,completing forms). If thereading and searching taskis focused on shelves – i.e.a vertical plane – as muchas 300 lux vertical illumi-nance may be required.

Higher illuminance than the100 lux stipulated in DINEN 12464-1 facilitates reliable visual perception,heightens concentration,helps to avoid mistakesand guards against acci-dents. Luminaires for fluo-rescent lamps are the mostsuitable option for rooms ofnormal height; luminaires with high-pressure discharge lamps are the solution recommended for interiorswith higher ceilings.

Workplace lighting

Photo 55: In offices, light mustcause neither direct glare norreflected glare on screens.

Photo 56: The finer and morecritical the visual task, the morelight is required.

Photos 57 and 58: Storagefacilities require a minimum of100 lux to be standard-compliant; higher illuminancelevels are better.

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Whether sculptures or in-stallations, some works ofart are intended to be exhibited outdoors whileothers may become candi-dates for outdoor displaybecause of their size. Forthe majority of such ob-jects, an inner courtyard orsmall patch of garden isnormally enough.

Interplay of light andshadowOutdoor illumination atdusk or at night basicallyhas the same effect as illu-mination with directionallight in an exhibition room(see pages 2, 6). But it alsogives exhibits an appear-

ance they do not have indaylight: the artificial light-ing creates new structures,reinventing the object in agame of light and shadow.

The best way to determinethe perfect location for amobile spotlight or flood isto conduct trials – with light from below, from be-low and from the side, from the side, from above,from above and from theside, or even bounced offanother surface. Every solution has a charm of itsown. For lighting from below, recessed groundfloods are the alternative to

spots. Highly focusedbeams are by far the firstfavourite; with illuminationfrom below and some other configurations, thebeam spread can begreater.

Avoid glareIf the idea is to illuminatethe whole object, lightsneed to be set at a greaterdistance than for highlight-ing details. When position-ing spots and floods, it isimportant to make sure that observers will not bedazzled, at least in theprincipal viewing direction.

To achieve the same light-ing impact with differentobjects, the general rule is:the darker the object andbrighter the surroundings,the more light is needed.Ultimately, however, even illuminance is a matter oftaste and design intention.

Outdoor exhibits

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Photo 60: Light from below –the stationary recessed groundfloods are installed in groups.

Photo 61: Facade painting –floodlighting creates a splash ofcolour at night.

Open air museumOpen air museums area showcase for historicalbuildings and complex-es, either in their originalstate or reconstructed.They close when it isdark, so artificial lightingis generally installedonly inside the buildings– if possible withoutspoiling the impressionof a time before the ad-vent of electricity. Wherean open air museumstays open after dark,path lighting is also required.

Photo 59: The interplay of lightand shadow casts sculptures ina dramatic light

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Buildings bathed in lightimpact at night because oftheir architecture. Where facade lighting makes thisvisible, decorative night images are created. Illumi-nated advertising signsand frontal floodlightingalso help shape a museumbuilding’s night-time appearance.

Facade lightingLight can make any build-ing an eye-catcher. Combined with fascinatingarchitecture, well-plannedfacade lighting imbues abuilding with a uniquequality – and enhances thearea around it at the sametime.

Illuminating the entirebuilding has a long-rangeimpact; harnessing light to emphasize only architec-tural details heightens itspresence for passers-by.Where the principal view-ing direction and the direc-tion of illumination are notidentical, light-dark con-trasts create a three-dimen-sional effect: an angle ofaround 60 degrees to theviewing direction is right forplain or fairly plain facades;for more detailed or ornatefacades, the angle can besmaller.

Ensuring floodlights are notinstalled too close to thebuilding avoids excessivelydeep shadows. Beamsshould not cross or shad-ows will be too light.

Floods with a long-rangeimpact should be posi-tioned high and mountedas inconspicuously as possible. High-pressuresodium vapour lamps un-derline the character ofwarm colours and materi-als; for cooler-looking surfaces, metal halidelamps are a suitable solu-tion. Illumination is alsopossible with wall lumi-naires integrated in the facade and recessedground floods positioneddirectly in front of it.

The illuminance required isdetermined by the colourand thus reflectance of theilluminated building (build-ing luminance) and by theambient brightness: thedarker the building andbrighter the surroundings,the more light is needed.Precise planning avoidslight emission into the sur-rounding area.

Alternatives to classical illumination are presentedby fibre-optic lighting sys-tems and LEDs, with whichfacades or parts of facadescan be bathed in dynamicchanging coloured light.Another possibility is facade design based onactivated (and controlled)interior lighting.

Other forms of illuminationFacade lighting is normallya discrete design element.However, illuminated sig-nage – e.g. the name of themuseum in luminous letters– needs to be planned to suit it. To achieve the de-sired effect, any additionalsignal lighting, such asfloodlighting for flags orbanners, needs to be coor-dinated with the facadelighting.

In other outdoor areas, at-tractive scenes are alsocreated by illuminatingtrees or other vegetation.The rules to be followedhere are the same as foroutdoor feature lighting(see page 20). If the facadeis also illuminated, lightsshould only be trained onplants well away from thebuilding.

Night scenes

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Photos 62 and 63: Light turnsfacades into eye-catchers,enhances the building andgives it a unique quality.

Photo 64: The LED semicircleon the facade of the BuhlscheMühle event centre in Ettlingensymbolises the millwheels thatturned here in the past.

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Interior lighting with daylightis an architectural chal-lenge that absolutely mustbe addressed and resolvedat the early design stage ofa new building. Conditionsfor harnessing daylight can rarely be created laterand system modification isdifficult. Daylight planning is a matter for experiencedprofessionals.

Daylight museum Public museums built in thefirst half of the 19th centuryhad to rely on daylight.From early times, architectsincorporated skylights toharness it: in 1789, the sidewindows of the SalonCarée at the Louvre in Pariswere bricked up to enableall the wall to be used forexhibits.

For a long time, despite the availability of artificial lighting, every new museum was built as a daylit facility.But that changed in the1950s and ’60s when itwas realised how muchdamage daylight can do,especially to paint and other organic materials. Forsome time after that, allnew museums were builtwith rooms without win-dows.

Today, our knowledge oflighting engineering cou-pled with modern controland regulation technologymakes it possible for daylight to be precisely di-rected and dosed. So onceagain daylight plays a major role in museum con-struction and design.

SkylightsSkylights are classic day-lighting elements for picturegalleries. They provide uni-form, diffuse lighting. Be-cause the light is admittedover a large area, the shad-ows produced are soft. The incident daylight thatpasses through a skylightreaches nearly every part ofthe room, including free-standing display cabinets,sculptures and partitions.

Because no windows arepresent, more wall space isavailable for paintings.There is also no problemwith reflections on exhibi-tion walls due to incidentdaylight from the side.

With large skylights, unwel-come interference may occur and needs to betackled by positioning theskylights appropriately andproviding for precise opti-cal control. There is a risk,for example, of light being

unevenly distributed overthe walls. In rooms withdark furnishings, in particu-lar, the vertical illuminanceat eye level is often too low. The contrast betweenwall and ceiling brightnesscan cause glare. And evenwith light incidence fromabove, reflections can

sometimes occur on pic-tures on the wall.

Direct sunlight must alwaysbe “locked out”. But lightprotection is not alone inpresenting high require-ments: what all modernskylight solutions have incommon is that they areexpensive to design andconstruct for daylight direc-tion, control and filtering.The use of skylights to har-ness daylight is confined tothe upper storeys of a

building or calls for single-storey design. Skylights areno substitute for the visualcontact with the outsideworld provided by windows.

WindowsOutsized windows are notnecessarily a suitable alter-native to skylights and not

actually the right tool formaking maximum use ofdaylight. On the otherhand, there are many waystoday to direct daylight and“lock out” direct sunlighteven in rooms with lateralwindows. Having said that,these non-transparent systems do not fulfil the requirement met by day-light museum windows in making diurnal and sea-sonal change – as well asthe vicissitudes of theweather – a visual experi-ence.

Windows reduce theamount of wall space forexhibits. Undirected andunfiltered incident daylightcan give rise to reflectionson exhibition walls.

Daylight and artificial lightIf daylight and artificial lightare mixed, their raysshould be fully blended be-fore they fall on an exhibit.This also means that thespatial distribution of thetwo types of light needs tobe coordinated. The rea-

Daylight

Daylight has considerable damage potential Both daylight and artificial light contain rays which maycause exhibits to fade, dry out or become discolouredor deformed if exposed to the light for long periods. But daylight is certainly the more dangerous. This isconfirmed in the art history publication “Über das Lichtin der Malerei” (Wolfgang Schöne, Berlin 1993), which,when considering light sources, focuses almost exclu-sively on daylight. Few pages are devoted to artificiallighting. Information on light protection is found in this bookleton pages 30 ff.

Photo 65: The camera looksbehind the luminous ceiling ofan exhibition room wheredaylight and artificial light aremixed as required.

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Daylight incidence from abovethrough a luminous ceiling (prin-ciple in cross-section of room)

With light from above, more fallson horizontal surfaces in the middle of the room than onsurfaces at the edge and always(angle) more than …

… on vertical surfaces in thesame place, on walls more thanon free-standing partitions.

Daylight incidence from the sidethrough a window (principle incross-section of room)

With light from the side, the furtherit has to travel from the windowwall, the lower the illuminance onboth horizontal surfaces …

… and vertical ones, although ver-tical surfaces are better illuminatedbecause of the more favour ableangle of incidence.

Photos 66 + 67: The luminous ceiling of the 800 m² “Salle desEtats” of the Louvre in Paris has an area of 300 square metres. Itdirects the incident daylight that passes through a glass roof intothe exhibition room. Supplementary artificial lighting is activatedwhen the monitoring system reports there is no longer enough daylight. 360 luminaires, each fitted with two 80 W fluorescentlamps, are installed, some with wide-angle and some with narrow-angle reflectors. Illuminance is 250 lux on the floor of the museum,100 lux at the walls. Photo 67 shows the inside of the ceilingconstruction.

sons: the lamps used forartificial lighting radiatelight of particular colours,while the spectral composi-tion of daylight changes allthe time. In addition, thetwo have different angles ofincidence and differentbeam angles. This givesrise to conflict; the appear-ance of exhibits is distortedif the two light forms arenot fully blended. The onlyalternative to blending is“segregation”. This meanskeeping the daylit zoneand the zone illuminatedby artificial light far enoughapart to ensure that the

two types of light do not interfere with one another –unless the twilight is delib-erately used to create aparticular atmosphere inthe room.

Photo 68: The daylight enteringthrough the skylights falls main-ly on the exhibits on the upperfloor; the corridor needssupplementary lighting.

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At its most sophisticated,lighting managementmeans automation of light-ing systems. Lighting man-agement encompasses allsystems which go beyondmere “on/off” control – sys-tems which control andregulate lighting by re-sponding to variance fromsetpoint values.

Degrees of automationLighting management sys-tem components, whichcan be used alone or incombination with others fordifferent degrees of au-tomation, include:

� retrievable pre-pro-grammed lighting scenes� motion detectors primedto activate lighting in response to movement(presence-dependent lighting control)� daylight-dependent lighting level regulation bydimming and/or � partial deactivation in re-

sponse to signals from– light sensors in the

room or – exterior light sensors.

The control and regulationcomponents of a lightingmanagement system areintegrated in luminairesand operator interfaces.They may be programmedto govern individual lumi-naires, individual rooms orgroups of rooms or theycan be wired into the build-ing management system(BMS).

Lighting management sys-tems can be realised withthe standardised digital in-terface DALI (Digital Ad-dressable Lighting Inter-face). This also permits in-tegration in building man-agement systems such asBUS systems. Information:www.dali-ag.org.

Lighting management inmuseumsThere are numerous waysin which lighting manage-ment can be used in a museum:

� Lighting managementsystems can activate anddeactivate or dim the artificial lighting in responseto changes in availabledaylight.� They can be used to provide daylight-dependentcontrol for sun-screens andanti-glare shielding on skylights or windows.� Lighting managementsystems facilitate lightingproductions: stage lightingor dynamic effects can easily be programmed.� Lighting managementcan be used to set differentilluminance levels in differ-ent zones: individual lumi-naires are simply dimmed.This is useful for casting anexhibition in a dramaticlight or as a light protectionmeasure for individual exhibits. � Lighting management facilitates simple multifunc-tional use of individual interiors. � Lighting management enables installed lumi-naires to be assigned todedicated exhibition lumi-naires without de-installingthe existing luminaires and without the need forre-wiring. � A lighting managementsystem can monitor lumi-naires and report theirfunctional status or failure.� Lighting managementsystems can log the oper-ating status of the lightinginstallation and thus recordthe radiant exposure of theexhibits for the light pass(see page 32).� Emergency lighting caneasily be integrated into alighting management sys-tem.� A lighting installation controlled by a lightingmanagement system con-sumes less energy than anon-managed installation.

Lighting management

Photo 73: Digitally controlleddaylight ceiling – the steplesslyvariable artificial lighting isadded as required.

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Photos 71 and 72: The lighting in this exhibition and event hall permits a variety of room uses. The lighting situations shown here –controlled by a lighting management system – are “bright daylight-white lighting” (71), which is normally used during the day ,and “less bright warm-white lighting” (72), intended mainly forevenings.

Photos 69 and 70: A lightingmanagement system enablesthe separately switchedluminaires and luminaire groupsto be easily controlled. The 3Dpresentation in photo 69 showsthe lighting situation “fully activated”, photo 70 shows the“spot lighting” situation.

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Over 80 percent of all theinformation we receive ispicked up by our eyes.Anyone who studies theconditions needed for see-ing well, i.e. anyone whoknows the basic visual requirements, understandsmore easily how lightmakes visual performancepossible and what can interfere with that perform -ance. More detailed infor-mation about the basics oflighting is contained inbooklet 1 “Lighting with arti-ficial light” (see page 45).

IlluminanceIlluminance (symbol: E)has a major bearing on thespeed, reliability and easewith which we perceiveand perform a visual task.Measured in lux (lx), it indi-cates the amount of lumi-nous flux from a lightsource that falls on a givensurface: where an area of 1 square metre is uniformlyilluminated by 1 lumen of luminous flux, the illumi-nance is 1 lux. Example:the flame of an ordinarycandle generates approx 1 lux at a distance of 1 metre.

Illuminance is measured onhorizontal and vertical sur-faces. Uniform distributionof brightness facilitates thevisual task.

In exhibition rooms, the level of illuminance is often

determined first and fore-most by the sensitivity ofthe exhibits. For endan-gered artworks, for exam-ple, the illuminance shouldbe as low as possible (lightprotection, see page 30).

The second criterion is de-sign intention. And in thirdplace – exceptionally – isthe question of how muchlight is needed to enablethe visual task to be per-formed. Applying all threecriteria produces a consen-sus on the illuminance levelrequired, although it needsto be realised that the levelmust not be too low.

The average illuminancenormally provided in exhi-bition rooms ranges from150 to 250 lux, dependingon whether the lightingcaters for wall-mounted ex-hibits or exhibits throughoutthe room, with higher verti-cal components or morehorizontal ones. Sometimesit needs to be darker forconservation reasons;brighter lighting is oftenonly required to offset day-light incidence.

Where lots of diffuse andnot much directional light-ing is used, the exhibitionroom is illuminated moreuniformly. Light directed exclusively onto exhibits results in a largely unevenpattern of illuminance in the room.

Luminance distributionLuminance (symbol: L) isthe brightness of a lumi-nous or illuminated surfaceas perceived by the humaneye and is measured incandelas per unit area(cd/m ). Luminance distrib-ution in the visual field hasa crucial bearing on visualperformance because itdefines the state of adapta-tion of the eye. The higherthe luminance, the betterthe visual acuity, contrastsensitivity and performanceof ocular functions.

For visual tasks at a desk,concentration is promotedby brighter areas in thecentre of the visual field. In the context of an exhibi-tion, this means that ex-hibits should always have a higher luminance thantheir surroundings. Oneway to achieve this is withgraduated brightness levels.

Visual comfort is impairedwhere luminance is too lowor differences in luminanceare too slight (disagreeablelighting atmosphere),where differences in lumi-nance are too marked(eyes become fatigued be-cause of the constant needto re-adapt) and wherepoints of luminance are toohigh (glare).

Seeing, identifying, perceiving

Photo 74: The diffuse light provided by the luminousceiling is combined here withdirectional spotlighting.

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AdaptationAdaptation to differ-ences in brightness isperformed in the hu-man eye by receptorson the retina andchanges in the size ofthe pupil. Adaptationfrom dark to light takesonly seconds; fulladaptation to darknesstakes minutes.

The state of adaptationaffects visual perfor-mance at any moment:the more light is avail-able, the faster efficientvisual performance canbe restored. Visual im-pairment occurs wherethe eye cannot adaptto differences in bright-ness fast enough.

LampNo lamp, no light: theterm ,lamp’ refers to anengineered artificiallight source such as anincandescent lamp, flu-orescent lamp, etc..

LuminaireThe term “luminaire”refers to the entireelectric light fitting, in-cluding all the compo-nents needed to mountand operate the lamp.Luminaires protectlamps, distribute theirlight and prevent themcausing glare.

Photo 75: The room is relativelydark, the higher illuminance at the artworks makes the visualtask possible. Low illuminanceis sometimes necessary in this context to protect exhibitsfrom light.

Photo 76: The diffuse light from a luminous ceiling worksonly if it is bright. Theilluminance here is close to 250 lux.

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Direct glare, reflected glareDirect glare is caused byluminaires, general-diffuselamps or other excessivelyluminous surfaces – includ-ing windows. Reflectedglare is caused by reflec-tions on shiny surfaces.

Glare can interfere with visual performance to suchan extent that reliable per-ception and identificationbecome impossible. Physi-ological glare is a measur-able loss of visual functionssuch as visual acuity. Psychological glare causesdiscomfort and loss of con-centration. Glare cannot be eliminated altogetherbut it can be significantlyreduced. There are recog-nised methods for assess-ing both types of glare.

In exhibition rooms, reflect-ed glare can be used to alimited extent as a designtool – for example whereshiny exhibits with brilliantlyreflective surfaces arebathed in dramatic direc-tional light to maximisetheir impact.

Direction of light andmodellingShapes and surfaces in theroom need to be clearly(visual performance) andcomfortably (visual com-fort) identifiable. This callsfor balanced, soft-edgedshadowing. Shadow forma-tion depends on the direc-tion of light, which is itselfdetermined by the distribu-tion and arrangement of lu-minaires in the room. Useof light and shadow in ex-

Seeing, identifying, perceiving

hibition rooms is describedin this booklet on pages 2 ff.

Visual performance and visual comfort are also affected by the light colour

Photos 77–79: Museum lightinghas to meet special standards.At 150 to 250 lux, it does notneed to be very bright – butevery effort should be made toensure it does not cause glarebecause both direct and reflect-ed glare interfere unacceptablywith the visual task.

and colour rendering prop-erties of the lamps used.These two qualities are explained on page 35.

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NLuminous intensityLuminous intensity(symbol: I) is theamount of luminousflux a reflector lamp orluminaire radiates. It ismeasured in candelas(cd). Plotting the lumi-nous intensity values atthe different emissionangles on a graph pro-duces an intensity dis-tribution curve (IDC).

ReflectanceReflectance indicatesthe percentage of lumi-nous flux reflected by asurface. The reflect -ance of light-colouredsurfaces is high, that ofdark surfaces low. Thismeans that the darkerthe room furnishings,the more light is need-ed to create the samebrightness.

Visual taskVisual tasks are de-fined by light/dark andcolour contrasts as wellas by the size of de-tails. The more difficultthe visual task, thehigher the lighting levelneeds to be to permitthe visual performancerequired.

Visual performanceVisual performance isdetermined by the vi-sual acuity of the eyeand its sensitivity to dif-ferences in brightnessand darkness as wellas by speed of percep-tion.

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Fading, yellowing, darken-ing, discolouring, twisting,bending, splintering, tear-ing, swelling, shrivelling,shrinking, dissolving – itsounds like a dire list ofconsequences. In actualfact, exhibits displayed indaylight or under artificiallighting are not normallyexposed to more than oneof these hazards.

Optical radiationEven so, the hazard poten-tial should not be underes-timated. It exists becausesome materials cannot tolerate optical radiation,which includes short-waveultraviolet (UV) radiation(100–380 nm = nanome-tres ), light in the visiblerange (wavelengths of 380–780 nm) and long-wave infrared (IR) radiation(780 nm to 1 millimetre). It triggers photochemical orthermodynamic (physical)processes. Daylight, with its high UV content and thethermal radiation of thesun, is always critical.

Lighting technologists andother scientists have stud-ied these phenomena. Aswell as empirical evidenceand tips on light protectionfor conservation, that re-search has furnished a setof formulas that make theharmful effects calculablebut no more comprehensi-ble for the non-engineer.So formulas, mathematicalrelationships and computa-tions will not be looked athere.

The important thing toknow is that the damage isdone not by the radiationthat strikes the object butby the rays it absorbs. UVradiation and short-wavelight are generally moreharmful than long-wavelight and IR radiation.Which means radiation inthe visible spectrum – i.e.light – can do damage.

Photochemical reactionsOrganic materials in partic-ular are susceptible to photochemical change. Inorganic material is muchless often affected. In museums, the greatest fearis of changes in colour, i.e. fading, yellowing ordarkening of paper, fabrics,wood or the colour pig-ments, binders or varnish-es used in watercolour andoil painting.

Photochemical change is aslow process. But lightdamage is cumulative andirreversible: no materialever forgets radiation or thelength and intensity of ex-posure to it.

The most important para-meters contributing to pho-tochemical processes are:

� Irradianceof the object. Irradiance isindicated by the symbol Eeand is measured in W/m� Irradiation timeis the length of time an ob-ject is exposed to irradia-tion. Irradiation (He) is theproduct of irradiance andthe length of exposure to it.The higher the irradianceand longer the exposure,the greater the potentialrisk.

� Spectral radiation distri-bution of the light source(daylight or lamps)Light of a particular wave-length has a particularspectral colour. White lightis made up of a large num-ber of spectral colours ofdifferent intensity. Thisspectral radiation distribu-tion is characteristic of eachlamp type as well as day-light. Incandescent lamps,for example, produce alight dominated by the redsof the long-wave spectralregion; daylight, on the oth-er hand, is dominated bythe short-wave blues.� Relative spectral sensitivityindicates the dependenceof an object’s light sensitivi-ty on the wavelengths ofthe reference radiation.� Effective threshold irradiationis the measure of the ab-solute sensitivity of an ob-ject. Change starts to occurin light-sensitive materialson first exposure to radia-tion - at first invisibly, thenwith visible signs. Thethreshold at which visibledamage starts to be doneis the yardstick used for as-sessing light sensitivity.

The threshold irradiationtime (i.e. the time till thethreshold is reached) isshown for individual materi-als under daylight or thelight of different lamps.

Effective irradiationis ascertained mathemati-cally from the values foroptical radiation (spectraldistribution), irradiation andrelative sensitivity of theobject.

The following character -istics and conditions alsoplay a role in photochemi-cal processes: � spectral absorption char-acteristics of the materialand its specific dispositionfor secondary reactions,� ambient and object temperature,� moisture content of theobject and its surroundings,� pollutants or dust deposited on the object,� characteristics of thecolouring agents and pig-ments used.

Damage potentialThe damaging irradianceand the illuminance at theexhibit stand in a fixed ratio to one another. Thatratio indicates the damagepotential. It is the crucialquantity used to describethe damage that can bedone in a lighting situationwhere particular lightsources and filters aretrained on particular ex-hibits and materials.

Light protection

80 81

31

Pre-exposure to lightStudies show that pre-exposure to light can alsoplay a role in the selectionof lighting for an exhibit.Even small doses of an effective irradiation damageobjects which have neverbeen exhibited or pre-exposed to light, whereas ittakes much higher dosesto cause the same damageto older, pre-exposed material that has alreadyundergone change.

Many molecular degrada-tion processes graduallyslow down and finally evencome to a halt. In thesecases, it is possible to takeaccount of the pre-expo-sure time and reduce thelight protection measuresaccordingly. Pre-exposureto light is best established ifall irradiation times (andtypes) are documented. Toestablish pre-exposure bycomparison measurements,parts of the object must be unexposed.

Measures guardingagainst photochemicalchangeWhere photochemicalprocesses need to be pre-vented from occurring inthe first place, or at leastslowed down, light protec-tion means reducing the ef-fective irradiation. In partic-ular, exposure to highlydamaging radiation in the

short-wave region – espe-cially UV radiation – needsto be reduced or ruled outaltogether.

There are a number of effective ways to do this: � Choosing a suitable lightsource: very sensitive mate-rials should be illuminatedwith light that has lessdamage potential.� Filtering out harmful radiation: if other lamps areto be used or radiation excluded altogether, short-wave radiation can beblocked by filters.

Halogen lamps for line andlow voltage are availablewith integrated UV blockersbut this is not enough tomeet conservation require-ments. The only tools ofchoice here are special filters. � Limiting exposure: indarkness, the risk of photo-chemical change is reduc -ed to zero.

Filtering to 420 nmGlass filters, absorption filters, dichroitic filters, plas-tic lenses or foils – therange is wide, appropriatefilters are available forevery application. They canbe used to cut off short-wave radiation up to 380 nm. Where filters alsoeliminate light in the short-wave region the cut-offwavelength is 420 nm. If

82

other wavelengths are filtered out, the spectraltransmittance shifts so farthat the colour renderingindex sharply deteriorates.An alternative to light exitfilters is showcase glass orpicture glass that filters outUV light. Using it in additionto other light protectionmeasures, however, doesnot make for better conser-vation conditions.

Limited irradiation time Where possible, exhibitsand exhibition roomsshould only be illuminatedfor a short time. Outsideopening hours, darkness isbest. For cleaning opera-tions or for setting-up, dismantling and repairwork, separate, non-dam-aging lighting is recom-mended; presentationlighting, at least, should not be switched on for suchoperations and the generallighting should bedimmed.

In many cases, presencesensors are a useful toolfor limiting irradiation dur-ing opening hours. Timelydimming makes for visuallyagreeable dark/light transi-tions. Care should be takento ensure a long-enoughdelay before programmeddeactivation.

DaylightLight protection alsomeans limiting daylight illuminance. For sensitiveexhibits, UV radiation andshort-wave light also needto be filtered out. Assess-ment of the conservation-relevant characteristics ofdaylight is normally basedon the average sky condi-tion with a colour tempera-ture of 6,500 K and its specific spectral radiationdistribution. Referencingthis standard light type(D65) also makes it possi-ble to establish degrees of damage potential.

Thermodynamic processesThermodynamic processesare almost entirely confinedto organic materials: wood,textile fibres, parchmentand leather are commonexamples. The thermalload on the exhibit occursas a result of light and IRradiation being absorbedand mostly gives rise todrying processes. Thesereduce tensile strength,elasticity and volume – inducing mechanicalstresses which cause firstthe surface, then often theentire object to becomedeformed.

The physical changes in-duced by heat radiation aremore serious when photo-chemical processes occur

Photos 80 and 81: The twosamples were taken from thesame bolt of fabric. The piece inphoto 80 was stored out of thelight and thus screened fromultraviolet rays. The piece inphoto 81 was exposed duringthe day to sunlight and thusalso UV radiation.

Photo 82: Testing colourfastness. An experimental set-up by lighting technologists atBerlin’s Technical University: theirradiated samples 1 and 3 aretextiles, the rest watercolours.

Light protection in 1905To protect exhibits from the impact of light, a zoo-logical museum took the “radical step of openingits exhibition rooms on two days a week for 2hours. During that time the interiors are flooded withlight; at all other times, however, curtains admittingno light whatsoever are drawn across the windows,producing the total blackness found in a photographer’s dark room.”

An ethnological exhibition went even further: “…particularly light-sensitive objects like the extremelyprecious coats of feathers […] are protected bykeeping them in containers furnished with curtainswhich visitors can draw back to view the exhibits inside.”

at the same time. These areaccelerated by the heatand interact with thermody-namic processes. Physicalchange is also acceleratedby fluctuations in tempera-ture and humidity – e.g.due to the activation anddeactivation of lamps.

Unlike the molecularchange that takes place inphotochemical processes,which can come to a halt,the thermal load on an object during irradiation isalways harmful.

The thermodynamic impactof radiation is determinedby the thermal load on theobject and the spectral irradiance, the radiation absorbed playing a partic-ularly key role. For the thermal load on an exhibi-tion room, the key deter -minant is the product of theluminous efficacy of thelamps and the coefficientof utilisation of the lightinginstallation.

Protective measuresagainst thermodynamicprocessesThe protective measurestaken against heat loadingcorrespond to thoseagainst photochemicalprocesses. The most effec-tive are:

� Choosing appropriatelight sources: for heat-sensitive materials, the onlysuitable lamps are ones

32

Light protection

Light passThe only way to buildup an accurate pictureof the exposure historyof an object is torecord exposures in alight pass. Data thatneeds to be noted includes details of pe-riods on display aswell as the type of lightsource used, the illuminance and the irradiation time.

The relative spectral sensitivity of the materials shown here is based on the impact on oil paintings (reference value: 100 percent). So watercolours, at 485 percent, are nearly fivetimes more at risk than an oil painting. The illuminance on the object is 200 lux – a compromise between the brightnessneeded for the visual task and the conditions required for conservation; the illuminance on very sensitive objects shouldnot exceed 50 lux.

The relative damage potential of daylight and the lamps listedhere is based on the impact of unfiltered light from low-voltagehalogen lamps (reference value: 100 percent). An objectexposed to the light of a metal halide lamp with a 380 nm edgefilter for 1,000 hours at 200 lux illuminance, for example,sustains nearly twice as much damage (180 %) as a similarobject exposed to an unfiltered low-voltage halogen lamp.

Conversely, this means: for the same degree of damage, theobject can be illuminated by the unfiltered light of a low-voltagehalogen lamp for nearly twice as long or nearly twice asintensely as by the filtered light of a metal halide lamp.

that emit light with a low IR content. Where low-voltage halogen lamps areused, cool-beam reflectorlamps are the right choice.No IR radiation is con-tained in the beams of fibre-optic lighting systemsor LEDs. � Using IR filters to cut offharmful radiation� Limiting exposure� Dissipating the heat.Even with lamps that pro-duce a luminous flux with alow heat content, lumi-naires and their immediatesurroundings can heat up.This is possible in a dis-play cabinet, for example.To ensure this secondaryIR radiation does no damage, it needs to bedissipated. If necessary,fans can be installed to increase air circulation. � The IR radiation of day-light is just as damaging asthat of lamps. So directsunlight always needs to be“locked out”.

Relative spectral sensitivity

Group Material samples in %

sensitive oil paints on canvas 100

very textile samples 300

sensitive watercolour paints on hand-made paper 485

Relative damage potential of light sources

edge filterLight source without

filter edge at � (nm)window glass

380 400 420 simple doublein %

Daylight 235 155 130 110 205 190

General serv- 85 75 70 65 80 75ice tungsten filament lamp

LV halogen 100 80 75 70 90 90lamp

High 220 175 145 110 210 210pressure metal halide lamp

Fluorescent 100 85 80 70 95 90lamp,neutral white

Fluorescent 90 75 70 60 85 85lamp,warm white

LED, 80 80 80 75 80 80cold white

As lamps, luminaires androom surfaces age and be-come soiled, illuminancedecreases. So every light-ing installation requiresregular maintenance. Thevalues set out in Europeanlighting standards such asDIN EN 12464-1 – e.g. forilluminance – are main-tained values, i.e. valuesbelow which the relevantlighting quantity must notfall at any time.

Installed values should be higherTo ensure the requiredlighting level over an ap-propriate period of timeand to enable the lightingsystem to be operatedlonger without additionalmaintenance work, in-stalled values need to behigher. How much higher isdetermined by applying amaintenance factor.

Maintenance factors de-pend on operating condi-tions as well as on the typeof lamps, electrical gearand luminaires used. Theyneed to be defined andrecorded by designers(and operators) and formthe basis of maintenanceschedules. Installed valuesare calculated as follows:installed value = main-tained value / maintenancefactor.

More maintenance for exhibition rooms The standards do not stipu-late a particular mainte-nance factor for exhibitionrooms. This needs to beestablished individually andused as the basis for themaintenance schedule. Onthe whole, maintenance inexhibition rooms is a some-what more complex taskthan elsewhere because itinvolves more than just regular cleaning:

� Maintenance is compli-cated by the number of different types of luminaireused, the different lamps fitted, the possibilities for

angling and adjusting lightsources and the extent towhich accessories (filters,lenses, etc.) are used. � User-friendly luminaires,easy to mount and with acontrolled surface tempera-ture, minimise the addition-al maintenance required.� After cleaning or whenexhibits are replaced, lumi-naires need to be re-set at the correct angles.� Wherever possible, lumi-naires should not be obstructed, not even by structures on the floor, be-cause inaccessibility makesmaintenance operations agreat deal more difficult� When a luminaire needsto be replaced, the fittingused to replace it should, ifpossible, be from the sameluminaire family. � When individual lampsfail, they need to be re-placed immediately. Here,care should be taken to ensure that the new lampshave the same light colouras the other lamps in therelevant luminaire group.From time to time, it maymake sense to replacewhole groups of lamps together. � Electrical gear that ex-tends lamp life reducesmaintenance requirements.So where fluorescent andcompact fluorescent lampsare fitted, electronic ballasts(EBs) should be used.

Maintenance

33

Cost-effective lightingLighting accounts for a relatively small amount of totalenergy consumption. Nevertheless, every economy helps.Energy-efficient lighting for the cost-conscious means � long-life lamps with high luminous efficacy

(lumens/Watt rating),� efficient electrical gear such as electronic ballasts (EBs)for fluorescent lamps,� efficient luminaires with good optical characteristics and� luminous intensity distribution curves tailored for theapplication.

The kind of light should also be right for the task. It wouldbe wrong, for example, not to use directional light justbecause most of the lamps suitable for it have a lower luminous efficacy rating than fluorescent lamps. Informa-tion on how and where economies can be made is contained in FGL booklet 12 “Lighting quality with elec-tronics” (see page 45).

Photo 83: All lightinginstallations require regularmaintenance because, as timegoes by, ageing and soilingcause illuminance to decline.

Emergency lightingFor most rooms in museums, mains-independentemergency lighting is required by law to enable visi-tors and staff to vacate the building safely in the eventof a power failure. To permit this, security lighting isneeded for escape routes and escape route signs.

Rules governing the installation, operation and main-tenance of emergency lighting are set out in DIN EN 1838 and DIN 4844 (lighting requirements) and in DIN VDE 0108 (electrical requirements). Detailed information on the subject is contained in FGL book-let 10 “Notbeleuchtung, Sicherheitsbeleuchtung” (currently available in German only, see page 45).

83

34

Lamps

1, 2

3, 4, 56

7

11 12

13

1315

17

1616

14

14

6 6

18 18 14 24 24 5 16 18 18 60 70 556)

58 58 35 80 54 70 38 805) 55 120 150 1656)

1.350 870 1.100 1.650 1.300 250 1.050 1.200 750 4.000 6.500 3.650

5.200 4.600 3.300 6.150 3.550 5.200 2.800 6.000 3.650 9.000 12.000 12.000

751) 612) 79 (933)) 69 (843)) 58 (673)) 50 61 67 42 67 756) 666)

891) 792) 93 (1043)) 88 (993)) 76 (793)) 82 78 87 66 75 796) 736)

ww,nw, dw ww,nw, dw ww,nw, dw ww,nw, dw ww,nw, dw ww,nw, dw ww,nw, dw ww,nw, dw ww,nw, dw ww, nw ww, nw ww, nw

85 � 90 85 85 � 90 80–85 80–85 80–85 90 80–85 80–85 80–85

G23, G24 2G10

G13 G13 G5 G5 G5 2G7 GR8 2G11 2G11 2G8-1 special special

GX24 GR10q

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Tubular fluorescent lamps

“de

luxe”

Ø 2

6 mm

three

-ban

d lam

p, Ø 16

mm,

high

lumino

us e

fficac

y4)

three

-ban

d lam

p, Ø 16

mm,

high

lumino

us flu

x4)

“de

luxe”

Ø 16

mm

1-, 2

- or 3

-tube

lamp

4-tub

e lam

p an

d sq

uare

desig

n

3- o

r 4-tu

be la

mp4)

Lamp typeFeatures

Power rating fromclasses (Watt) toLuminous flux (Lumen) fromluminous intensity (Candela) toLuminous efficacy from(Lumen/Watt) toLight colourColour rendering index Ra(in some cases as range)

Base

three

-ban

d Ø 2

6 mm

ring-

shap

ed

Compact fluorescent lamps Inductionlamps

elong

ated

desig

n“d

e lux

e” e

longa

ted

desig

n

ww = warm whitecolour temperature below 3,300 K

nw = neutral whitecolour temperature 3,300 to 5,300 K

dw = daylight white colour temperature over 5,300 K

35

7 10

10

18 18

19 1923

23, 2425

20

2121 21 2221

8, 9

The table below shows the most important lamptypes and their technical specifications, which areexpressed in ranges. More precise values for individual lamps and other specifications, suchas lamp life, can be found in manufacturers’ catalogues.

Power rating class indicates how much power isconsumed by the lamp in Watts (W). The opera-tion of discharge lamps (lamps 1 – 5) requiresballasts, which consume additional electricity. Thispower loss in ballasts is not taken into account inthe table (exceptions: lamps 11 and 12).

Luminous flux in lumens (lm) is the rate atwhich light is emitted by a lamp in all directions.For reflector lamps, luminous intensity (seepage 29) in candela (cd) is shown instead of luminous flux. The efficiency with which a lamp(without reflector) generates light from electricityis indicated by its luminous efficacy in lumens/Watt. The higher the lm/W ratio, the more light a lamp produces from the energy it consumes.

Lamps have different light colours, depending on their colour temperature (in kelvins K): warmwhite (ww), neutral white (nw) or daylight white(dw). The colour rendering properties of a lampare defined by the general colour rendering index Ra. The highest value possible is 100. Thelower a lamp’s Ra value, the poorer its colour rendering properties.

The base provides the mechanical connectionwith the luminaire and supplies power to thelamp. Basically, there are two kinds of lampbase: screw bases, e.g. all E bases, and plug-inbases.

20 70 35 25 40 20 25 60 5 10 10 20 35

250 250 100 230 100 75 75 2.000 100 50 50 50 100

1.600 5.100 1.300 260 850 160 260 840 60 250 300 450 1.400

25.000 25.000 5.000 4.350 8.500 3.000 1.100 44.000 2.200 1.400 13.000 16.000 48.000

80 73 39 10 _ _ 10 14 12 _ _ _ _

100 100 52 19 15 22 27

ww, nw ww, nw ww ww ww ww ww ww ww ww ww ww ww

80–85 75–95 80–85 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

G12, G22Fc2 E14 E14 GU10

G4G4 G4

GU6,5/G8,5RX7s

PG12-1E27 E27 GZ10

G9 R7s GY6,35GY6,35 GU5,3

GU5,3 G53

PGJ5 G8,5

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

bulb-

shap

edwith

bas

e at

one

end

(cera

mic tec

hnolo

gy)

with b

ase

at bo

th en

ds

(cera

mic tec

hnolo

gy)

with ja

cket

with b

ase

at bo

th en

ds

pin b

ase

with/w

ithou

t IR

coati

ng

with a

lu re

flecto

r with

alu

or co

ol-be

am

refle

ctor

withou

t jack

et

pin b

ase,

with re

flecto

r

with a

lu or

cool-

beam

refle

ctor

with a

lu or

cool-

beam

refle

ctor. I

R co

ating

Metal halide lamps Halogen lamps (230 V)

1) Where lamps are EB-operated, luminous efficacy increases to 81–100 lm/W.

2) Where lamps are EB-operated, luminous efficacy increases to 66–88 lm/W.

zu 1 + 2)

Power consumption decreases from 18 W to16 W, from 36 W to 32 Wand from 58 W to 50 W.

3) High value realisable only at 35° C ambienttemperature

4) EB operation only 5) 40 W, 55 W and 80 W

only with EB6) System (lamp + EB)

HP sodium

with a

lu re

flecto

r, Ø 11

1 mm,

with/w

ithou

t IR co

ating

Low-voltage halogen lamps (12 V)

plug-

in ba

se, h

ighly

colou

r-cor

rected

Tubular three-band fluo-rescent lamps with 26 mm(1) or 16 mm (3, 4) diame-ter have a very long ser-vice life and generally highluminous efficacy. Operat-ed by electronic ballasts(EBs), they are even moreenergy-efficient; 16 mm �lamps are designed for EBoperation only. Hot-startEBs increase the life ofthese lamps.

Three-band fluorescentlamps are available in alllight colours. Colour ren-dering is good (Ra index85): lamps with the suffix“de luxe” (2, 5) have verygood colour renderingproperties (Ra index � 90),special daylight white mod-els achieve an Ra index of98. However, the luminousefficacy of “de luxe” lampsis somewhat lower. Withappropriate EBs, fluo -rescent lamps can bedimmed.

Tubular fluorescent lampsrequire an elongated lumi-naire, compact fluores-cent lamps are also suit-able for smaller rectangularor round luminaires. Thesmaller designs (6) include4-tube lamps and squaremodels (7), elongatedlamps (8, 9) and the newlydeveloped lamps with highluminous flux (10).

Compact fluorescent lampshave the same positivecharacteristics as tubularthree-band fluorescentlamps: (very) long life, highluminous efficacy, colourrendering properties thatrange from good to verygood (“de luxe” models)and a full choice of lightcolours. Lamps for energy-efficient EB operation havea 4-pin base; nearly all can be operated by dim-mable EBs.

Because they have nocomponents subject to

wear, such as incandes-cent filaments or elec-trodes, induction lamps(11, 12) have an extremelylong service life (up to60,000 operating hours)and thus require less fre-quent replacement. Theyare therefore a particularlyattractive option for high-ceilinged rooms and ceilings which are not easi-ly accessible, such asthose above escalators.Light is generated in thesehigh-output fluorescentlamps by electromagneticinduction and gas dis-charge.

Metal halide lamps (13,14) are powerful, cost-efficient light sources com-bining a very compact de-sign for optimal opticalcontrol with high luminousefficacy, very good colourrendering and a long ser-vice life. Models with basesat one or both ends areavailable in warm white or

neutral white light colours.Nearly all metal halidelamps have UV absorbingbulbs.

High-pressure sodiumvapour lamps (15) emit aparticularly warm whitelight with no UV contentand have a very high lumi-nous efficacy rating. Theonly HP sodium lampssuitable for interior lightingare “highly colour-correct-ed” models with a colourrendering index of Ra80–85, which have a lowerluminous efficacy than other HP sodium lamps.

36

Lamps

84

1, 2

8, 9

3, 4, 56

6 6

7

7 10

10

11 12

13

1315

16 16

20

23

23, 24

21 21 21 2221

19 19

18 18

17 25

14

14

Photo 84: These are the mostimportant types of lamp formuseum, gallery and exhibitionlighting. Their technical specifi-cations are summarised in thetable on pages 34/35.

LEDs started out as statusand signal indicators inelectrical equipment andautomobiles. Then, with thedevelopment of newcoloured LEDs, they quick-ly found applications inspecial effect and displaylighting and also becamean established solution fororientation lighting. Now,used in desk and standardluminaires, white LEDs are addressing their first“viewing light” applications.

The brightness of LED lightcan be adjusted: varyingthe operating current causes the radiant lumi-nous flux to fluctuate in direct proportion to thechanges. This basicallyamounts to dimming and isused primarily for lightingeffects.

Further information is con-tained in FGL booklet 17“LED – Light from the LightEmitting Diode” (see page45).

37

85

Halogen lamps (16–25)are characterised by anagreeably fresh, warmwhite light with exceptionalbrilliance. They have lumi-nous efficacy ratings whichare substantially higherthan those of general ser-vice tungsten filamentlamps and a longer servicelife. Their luminous fluxalso remains constantthroughout – a fact due tothe halogen cycle. In this,tungsten atoms evaporatefrom the filament and com-bine with halogen atoms;the gaseous compoundthen returns to the hot fila-ment, re-depositing tung-sten atoms and releasinghalogens, after which thecycle starts again. There isthus no “lamp blackening”due to tungsten depositson the bulb, so the lumi-nous flux is not reduced.

Halogen lamps with basesat one or both ends areavailable in a wide rangeof shapes and power rat-ings. A basic distinction ismade between halogenlamps for 230 Volt line voltage (16–20) – alsoknown as high-voltagehalogen lamps – and low-voltage halogen lamps (21–25) – mostly design edfor 12 Volt operation butalso available for 6 or 24

Light-emitting diodes(LEDs), shown in photo85, have not been used forlighting for long. Very smalllight sources, they gener-ate light very efficiently. They also have an ex-tremely long life (up to50,000 operating hours). InLEDs (light-emittingdiodes), the production oflight takes place in a semi-conductor crystal which iselectrically excited to emitlight (electroluminescence).A housing protects thesemiconductor from envi-ronmental conditions. LEDsare available as individualdiodes and as LED mod-ules.

In contrast to conventionallight fittings, LEDs emitmonochromatic radiation.White light is produced byluminescence conversion,which involves directing thelight of a monochromeblue LED through a con-verter such as phosphor.

The light produced byLEDs contains no ultravio-let (UV) or infrared (IR) radiation. So LEDs can bea good choice where light-ing is needed for light- andheat-sensitive exhibits.

Volt systems – which re-quire conventional or elec-tronic transformers. 230Volt lamps are fully dimma-ble; dimming low-voltagelamps calls for specialdimmer/transformer combi-nations.

A special infrared bulbcoating can reduce the energy consumption of ahalogen lamp by as muchas 45 percent. Used in 230Volt lamps (20) with abase at both ends und inlow-voltage lamps (21, 24,25), the coating reflectsmuch of the radiant heatdissipated by the incandes-cent filament back onto the filament.

230 Volt and low-voltagelamps are available in designs with cool-beam reflector. These have afaceted reflector (cool-beam specular reflector)which reduces the radiantheat of the beam by twothirds; the retained radiantheat is conducted back-wards by the reflector.

Photo 85: In light-emittingdiodes (LEDs), the productionof light takes place in asemiconductor crystal which iselectrically excited to emit light (electroluminescence). Ahousing protects the semi -conductor from environmentalconditions. There are single LEDs and – as shown here – LED modules.The basic element of a moduleis a conductor plate, which carries the semiconductor crys-tals or single LEDs and all theother components, includingthose for controlling the LEDs.

38

Luminaires

Spots for power track (left) and swivel-mounted recessed downlightwith spotlighting characteristics (right); power track is also suitablefor recessed ceiling mounting.

Downlights with symmetrical beam spread (left) and asymmetricalbeam spread (right)

Recessed wallwashers with asymmetrical beam spread, the one on the right with a specular “kick reflector” for also directing lightonto the edge of the ceiling.

Luminous ceiling

Cove luminaire with a housing that forms the coving (left), and lightfrom a coving formed by architectural elements (right).

Lighting channels with clear (left) and opal (right) enclosure

Figs. 17 + 18

Figs. 21 + 22

Figs. 19 + 20

Figs. 23 + 24

Figs. 25 + 26

Figs. 27 + 28

The term “luminaire” refers to the entire electric light fit-ting, including all the components needed to mount andoperate the lamp. Luminaires protect lamps, distributetheir light and prevent them causing glare.

The stylized images on this double page, which are notto scale, show a selection of typical interior (Figs. 17–40)and exterior luminaires (Figs. 41–44). The next doublepage shows the basic range of spotlights and acces-sories available for them.

Selection criteriaLighting quality, cost-efficiency, dependability, ease of installation and user-friendliness are important aspectsof luminaire design. And with luminaires which aremade to high technical standards, functional features arematched by aesthetic ones, such as shape of housing,finish and colour.

Operational reliability and conformity to standards aredocumented for luminaires by the VDE symbol and theequivalent European mark of conformity ENEC. Both areawarded in Germany by the Offenbach Institute of theVerband der Elektrotechnik Elektronik Informationstech-nik (formerly Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker), theENEC symbol with the identification number 10.

Luminaire selection is also dependent on the choice oflamps. Furthermore, the decision is crucially influencedby the architecture of the room, its furnishings and thedesign concept.

39

Indirect luminaire with fluorescent lamps for power track, operatedby a power track phase in the ceiling guide

Gimbal-mounted spot as recessed downlight with spotlighting characteristics (left) and as power track spot (right); power track isalso suitable for recessed ceiling mounting.

Fibre-optic lighting system for display cabinets: the light guides are inside curved tubes. An optical connector at the end of thefibre/tube distributes the light.

Light for working: pendant luminaire for tubular fluorescent lampwith direct/indirect light distribution

Miniature LED luminaire, installed here in the ceiling of a displaycabinet for showcase lighting

Escape sign luminaire

Recessed floor floods (left) for illumination and accentuating light,and orientation luminaires for recessed wall mounting (right)

Projectors for illumination, with reflectors for spotlighting (left) andfloodlighting (right) beam spread

Figs. 31 + 32

Figs. 29 + 30

Figs. 33 + 34

Figs. 35 + 36

Figs. 37 + 38

Figs. 39 + 40

Figs. 41 + 42

Figs. 43 + 44

Spots and luminaires withspotlighting characteristicsare crucially important forexhibit lighting in museumsgalleries and exhibitions.The simplest spotlightmodels do not require areflector because there isone integrated in the lamp.In all others, a reflector inthe spotlight housing di-rects the main beam. Thelighting quality of a spot orluminaire with spotlightingcharacteristics dependscrucially on the minimisa-tion of stray light, whichcan cause annoying patch-es of brightness or evenglare at a distance.

Types of spotsFigures 45, 47, 49 and 51show the five main types ofspots and their beam char-acteristics, figures 46, 48,50 and 52 the correspond-ing intensity distributioncurves. The boundaries be-tween these genericgroups are fluid, however,because of overlaps due tothe reflectors and lampsused.

40

Luminaires

8° spot with filament shield, which prevents the filament being visible beyond the spotlight opening angle: symmetrical, extremelynarrow-angle spot up to max. 8° with very high luminous intensity;lamps: low-voltage halogen lamp Ø111 mm

12° to 24° spot with lamp shield, which prevents stray light and glare beyond the spotlight opening angle: symmetrical, narrow-anglespot with half the luminous intensity of the 8° spot; lamps: low-voltage halogen lamp Ø111 mm or other low-voltage lamps, incl.models with cool-beam reflector

24° to 38° accent spot: symmetrical spot with less clearly definedbeam than the narrower-angle spots, with increasingly soft contoursdue to the stray light content but the beam itself with a tendency to have a hard centre; lamps: various low-voltage halogen lamps

60° wide-angle spot: symmetrical, very wide-angle beam with verysoft contours and soft centre, almost floodlighting characteristics;lamps: various low-voltage halogen lamps

Flood with wide rectangularbeam: rectangular housing withscoop reflectors for linear lamps,very wide-angled beam foruniform vertical illuminance;lamps: tubular fluorescent lamps

Accessories for spotsNumerous accessories areavailable for spot lights. Attachments, lenses andfilters are often borrowedfrom the world of theatricallighting for use in not justexhibition rooms but alsoshop windows andsalesrooms. The acces-sories are positioned directly in front of the lightemission aperture of thespot with the help ofmounting devices.

AttachmentsThe most important attach-ments are for anti-glareshielding. These preventstray light and shield theface of the luminaire: anti-glare cylinders or barndoors. Honeycombscreens also guard againstglare. Other attachmentsinclude cross-baffles, framing attachments, goboholders and other projec-tion accessories. Attach-ment rings – e.g. with filters – for screw or plugattachment are also included in this group.

LensesThe most widely usedlenses are diffusers, floodlenses and sculpting lenses. They are used tochange beam characteris-tics. Stepped Fresnel lenses enable beamspread to be adjusted andfocusing aids are avail-able to facilitate alignmentwith the lamp.

FiltersThe most important filtersfor exhibitions are safelightfilters (“Light protection”,see page 30) such as UVbarrier filters, IR absorbersor combinations of the two.Colour filters are also avail-able; where filters are usedin exhibitions at all, theyare used for subtle colourchanges. Filter holders or filter cartridges enableseveral filters to be keptready for use.

Figs. 45 + 46

Figs. 47 + 48

Figs. 49 + 50

Figs. 51 + 52

Figs. 53 + 54

41

anti-glare cylinder

barn doors

honeycomb screen

cross-baffle

gobo holder

projection attachment

flood lens

sculpting lens

UV/IR filter

skin-tone filter

daylight conversion filter

filter cassette97

86 90 94

87 91 95

88 92 96

89 93

42

Standards and literature

DIN EN 12464-1 Light and lighting – Lighting of workplaces, Part 1: Indoor work places

DIN EN 1838 Lighting applications – Emergency lighting

DIN 4844 Graphical symbols - Safety colours and safetysigns - Parts 1-3

DIN VDE 0108-100 Emergency escape lighting systems

Handbuch der Lichtplanung, Rüdiger Ganslandt andHarald Hofmann, Lüdenscheid and Braunschweig/Wies-baden 1992 (download at www.erco.de)

Museumsbeleuchtung: Strahlung und ihr Schädigungs -potenzial – Konservatorische Maßnahmen, Grundlagenzur Berechnung, special publication by Fördergemein-schaft Gutes Licht (FGL), Frankfurt am Main 2006 (down-load at www.licht.de)

Control of damage to museum objects by optical radi-ation, CIE publication 157, Vienna 2004 (www.cie.co.at/cie)

Sammlungsgut in Sicherheit, Günter S. Hilbert (ed.),Berlin 2002 (3rd edition)

Zur Beleuchtung musealer Exponate, Günter S. Hilbert,Sirri Aydinli and Jürgen Krochmann, Fachzeitschrift fürKunsttechniken, Restaurierung und Museumsfragen“Restauro”, Munich 1991 (5), pages 313–321

Photos 98–100: There are more than 6,000 museums in Germany.Hosting exhibitions from the worlds of art, science, technology andhistory, they attract over 100 million visitors a year. They all present different exhibits and thus differ in the type of exhibitions they stage. What they all have in common, however, is adesire to enthral their audience. And that is where lighting plays an important role. Creating visual experiences and modulating andaccentuating the visual landscape, it makes a key contribution tothe success of any exhibition.

98

99

100

Acknowledgements forphotographs

PhotographsCover, 1–79, 83, 86 to 109 – all made available bymembers of Fördergemeinschaft Gutes Licht (FGL)

Additional information about photographs26 Chris Korner, Marbach 38 Jürgen Tauchert, Wuppertal 44 JARO Medien, Mönchengladbach80, 81 Andreas Kelm, Darmstadt82 Fachgebiet Lichttechnik an der TU Berlin 84, 85 Blitzwerk, Mühltal

IllustrationsFig. 1 Designergruppe Schloss+Hof, Ute Marquardt, WiesbadenFigs. 2–5, 8–15, 45–54 Kugelstadt MedienDesign,DarmstadtFigs. 6, 7 FGL membersFigs. 16–44 JARO Medien, Mönchengladbach

101 102 103

104 105 106

107 108 109

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Imprint

This booklet is No. 18 in theseries Information on Lighting Applications published by Fördergemein-schaft Gutes Licht (FGL) toprovide information on goodartificial lighting.

The postcards on this pagecan be detached and usedfor ordering the booklets. Alternatively, orders can beplaced by e-mail(fgl@zvei.org) or via the Internet (www.licht.de). An invoice will be sent withthe booklet(s) ordered. The pdf files of the bookletsavailable for download atwww.all-about-light.org arefree of charge.

Publisher: Fördergemeinschaft Gutes Licht (FGL) Stresemannallee 1960596 Frankfurt am MainGermanyphone: 0 69 6302-0fax: 0 69 63 02-317e-mail: fgl@zvei.org

Technical Deutsche Lichttechnischeconsultants: Gesellschaft (LiTG) e.V. and

Fördergemeinschaft Gutes Licht

Editing and rfw. redaktion für realisation: wirtschaftskommunikation

Darmstadt

Design: Kugelstadt MedienDesign Darmstadt

Lith film: Layout Service Darmstadt

Printed by: available only as pdf file, down-load at www.all-about-light.org

Acknowledgements: The booklets in this series contain references to current DINstandards and VDE stipulations. DIN standards:Beuth-Verlag GmbH10787 BerlinDIN-VDE standards:VDE-Verlag10625 Berlin

ISBN: 3-926 193-35-2

Reprints: With the permission of the publishers.03/07/00/18E

Printed on chlorine-free bleachedpaper.

18B

estellungB

itte liefern Sie ohne w

eitere Nebenkosten die bezeichneten H

efte (e= available in English, E

= available only as pdf-file, download at w

ww

.licht.de):

Heft-N

r./TitelS

tück

01 D

ie Beleuchtung m

it künstlichem Licht (7/04)

ER

9,–

02 Gutes Licht für S

chulen und Bildungsstätten (7/03)

ER

9,–

03 Gutes Licht für S

icherheit auf Straßen, W

egen, Plätzen (3/00)

ER

9,–

04 Gutes Licht für B

üros und Verwaltungsgebäude (1/03)

ER

9,–

05 Gutes Licht für H

andwerk und Industrie (4/99)

R9,–

06 Gutes Licht für Verkauf und P

räsentation (2/02)E

R9,–

07 Gutes Licht im

Gesundheitsw

esen (4/04)E

R9,–

08 Gutes Licht für S

port und Freizeit (9/01)E

R9,–

09 Repräsentative Lichtgestaltung (8/97)

R9,–

10 N

otbeleuchtung, Sicherheitsbeleuchtung (4/00)

R9,–

11 G

utes Licht für Hotellerie und G

astronomie (12/04)

ER

9,–

12 B

eleuchtungsqualität mit E

lektronik (5/03)E

R9,–

14 Ideen für G

utes Licht zum W

ohnen (9/99)R

9,–

16 S

tadtmarketing m

it Licht (4/02)E

R9,–

17 LE

D – Licht aus der Leuchtdiode (10/05)

R9,–

18 G

utes Licht für Museen, G

alerien und Ausstellungen (12/06)

R9,–

Lichtforumkostenlos

Hefte 13 und 15 sind vergriffen

Ort

Datum

Stem

pel/Unterschrift

Bitte den A

bsender auf der Rückseite der P

ostkarte nicht vergessen.

The listed booklets are available in English only as pdf files, download free of

charge at ww

w.all-about-lighting.org:

1Lighting w

ith Artificial Light (7/04)

2G

ood Lighting for Schools and Educational Establishm

ents (7/03)3

Good Lighting for S

afety on Roads, Paths and S

quares (3/00)4

Good Lighting for O

ffices and Office B

uildings (1/03)6

Good Lighting for S

ales and Presentation (2/02)7

Good Lighting for H

ealth Care Prem

ises (4/04)8

Good Lighting for S

ports and Leisure Facilities (9/01)11

Good Lighting for H

otels and Restaurants (2/05)

12Lighting Q

uality with Electronics (5/03)

16U

rban image lighting (4/02)–

17LE

D – Light from

the Light Emitting D

iode (05/06)18

Good Lighting for M

useums, G

alleries and Exhibitions (03/07)

Fördergemeinschaft Gutes Licht publications

Fördergemeinschaft GutesLicht (FGL) provides infor-mation on the advantagesof good lighting and offersextensive material on everyaspect of artificial lightingand its correct usage. FGLinformation is impartial andbased on current DIN stan-dards and VDE stipulations.

Information on lightingapplications The booklets 1 to 18 in thisseries of publications aredesigned to help anyonewho becomes involved with lighting – planners, decision-makers, investors– to acquire a basic knowl-edge of the subject. This facilitates cooperation withlighting and electrical specialists. The lighting information contained in allthese booklets is of a general nature.

LichtforumLichtforum is a specialistperiodical focusing on topical lighting issues andtrends. It is published at irregular intervals. Lichtforum is available onlyin German.

www.all-about-light.orgOn the Internet, FGL offerstips on correct lighting for a variety of domestic andcommercial “Lighting Applications”. In a PrivatePortal and a Pro Portal atwww.all-about-light.org, numerous examples of applications are presented.Explanations of technicalterms are also available atthe click of a mouse on the buttons “About Light”and “Lighting Technology”.Databases containing awealth of product data, a product/supplier matrixand the addresses of FGLmembers provide a directroute to manufacturers.“Publications” in an onlineshop and “Links” for furtherinformation round off thebroad spectrum of the FGLlight portal.

Gutes Licht für Sicherheit auf Straßen, Wegen, Plätzen3Die Beleuchtung

mit künstlichem Licht 1

Gutes Licht für Sport und Freizeit 8Gutes Licht für Verkauf

und Präsentation 6Gutes Licht für Handwerk und Industrie 5

Beleuchtungsqualitätmit Elektronik12

LED – Licht aus der Leuchtdiode 17 Gutes Licht für Museen,

Galerien, Ausstellungen 18

Gutes Licht für Hotellerie und Gastronomie11Notbeleuchtung

Sicherheitsbeleuchtung10Repräsentative Lichtgestaltung 9

Gutes Licht am Haus und im Garten 15 Stadtmarketing mit Licht16Ideen für Gutes Licht

zum Wohnen14Gutes Licht für kommunaleBauten und Anlagen13

Booklets 13 and 15 are out of print.

Gutes Licht für Schulen und Bildungsstätten 2

Gutes Licht imGesundheitswesen 7

Gutes Licht für Büros und Verwaltungsgebäude 4

Information on lighting applicationsBooklet 18

Good Lighting for Museums, Galleries and Exhibitions

Fördergemeinschaft Gutes Licht