Foundation of OD

Models and theories

Kurt LewinKurt Lewin

Change is a three-stage processStage 1- Unfreezing the old behavior/ situationStage 2- Moving to a new level of behaviorsStage 3- Refreezing the behavior at the new level

Edgar Schein modified this theory by specifying psychological mechanisms involved in each stage

Later Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson and Bruce Westley expanded this model into seven-stage model

Lewin’s theory of change

• Force Field Analysis: Driving Forces• Driving Forces are forces that push in a

direction that causes change to occur.• They cause a shift in the equilibrium

towards change.• Restraining forces are forces that counter

driving forces. They oppose change.• Restraining forces cause a shift in the

equilibrium which opposes change

Force Field Analysis: Equilibrium

• Equilibrium is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining forces and no change occurs

• Equilibrium can be raised or lowered by changes that occur between the driving and restraining forces

• Consists of three distinct and vital stages:

– “Unfreezing”

– “Moving to a new level or Changing”

– “Refreezing”

“Unfreezing”

Involves finding a method of making it possible for people to let go of an old pattern that was counterproductive in some way

“Moving to a new level”

Involves a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all three, that is in some way more liberating or more productive

“Refreezing”

Is establishing the change as a new habit, so that it now becomes the “standard operating procedure.” Without this stage of refreezing, it is easy to backslide into the old ways.

Models and theories Contd..

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 7

Phase 6

Phase 5

Phase 4

Phase 3

Developing a need for change.

Establishing the change relationship.

Diagnosing the client system’s problem.

Examining alternative routes, establishing goals and intentions of action.

Transforming intentions into actual change efforts.

Stabilizing change.

Achieving a terminal relationship.

Seven stage model representing the consulting process

Models and theories Contd..

Five critical leverage points (tracks) for organization change

1. The culture track

2. The management skills track

3. The team-building track

4. The strategy-structure track

5. The reward system track

AT&T, Eastman Kodak, Ford, General Electric, Xerox etc.

Track 1 : Enhances trust, communication, information sharingTrack 2 : Provide new ways of coping with complex problemsTrack 3 : Infuses new culture and updated management skillsTrack 4 : Develops revised strategy plan for organizationTrack 5 : Establishes performance based reward system

Ralph KilmannRalph Kilmann

Models and theories Contd..

Warner BurkeWarner Burke

The Burke-Litwin Model of Organizational Change

ChangeFirst order change (Transactional change)

Second order change (Transformational change)

OD interventions directed towards structure, management practices, and systems (policies & procedures) result in first order change.OD interventions directed towards mission and strategy, leadership, and organization culture result in second order change.

Organizational climate / culture

• Organizational climate is peoples perceptions, attitudes about work place nature of environment.

• Organizational culture is deep-seated assumptions, values, and beliefs often unconscious and difficult to change.

Leaders are Transformational / Transactional

• Transformational leaders are “leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interest for the good of the organization”.

• Transactional leaders are “leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements”.

• Transactional leaders = first order change• Transformational leaders = second order change

Models and theories Contd..

Transformational factors

Transactional factors

Models and theories Contd..

Jerry PorrasJerry Porras Peter RobertsonPeter Robertson

Porras & Robertson Model of Organizational Change

OD interventions alter features of the work setting causing changes in individuals’ behaviors, which in turn lead to individual and organizational improvements.

Work setting factors

Organizing arrangementsSocial factorsPhysical settingTechnology

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Models and theories Contd..

Organizing arrangementsGoals, strategies, structure, policies, procedures

Social FactorsCulture, management style, informal networks, individual attributes

Physical SettingsSpace configuration, physical ambiance

TechnologyMachinery, tools, IT, job design

WorkSetting

WorkSetting

MembersMembers

IndividualCognitions

On-the-jobBehavior

OrganizationalPerformance

IndividualDevelopment

Systems Theory• Organizations are open systems in active

exchange with their environment.• Systems denotes interdependency,

interconnectedness and interrelatedness among elements in a set that constitutes an identifiable whole or gestalt. David A. NadlerDavid A. Nadler

EnergyMaterial

ResourcesUsersTransforming

Mechanism OutputsInputs

External Feedback

Internal Feedback

Characteristics of open system

Q1-Why do organizations resist change?A1- to preserve the character of the system,

the steady state and dynamic homeostasis.

Q2- why does one plan fails and the other succeeds?

A2- Equifinality (the principal that there are multiple ways to come to the same conclusion).

Q4- Why do organizations become increasingly bureaucratic and complex?

A4- DifferentiationQ5- Why do business go bankrupt?A5- inability to create negative entropy.Q6- why do organizations fail to react to

challenges?A6- Lack of appropriate coding process.

The

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Mod

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Systems Theory Contd..

Eric TristEric Trist

Sociotechnical Systems Theory (STS)

All organizations comprised of two interdependent systems:

1. Social system2. Technical system

To achieve high productivity and employee satisfaction, organizations must optimize both systems.

Changes in one system affect the other system.

Open systems planning:1. Scanning the environment to determine

the expectations of external organizations and stakeholders.

2. Developing scenarios of possible futures, both realistic and ideal.

3. Developing action plans to ensure that a desirable future occurs.

Systems Theory Contd..

Participation & Empowerment

1. Participation in OD programs is not restricted to elites or top people; it is extended broadly throughout the organization.

2. Increased participation and empowerment have always been central goals and fundamental values of OD.

3. Participation enhances empowerment and empowerment in turn enhances performance.

4. Empowerment is the key to getting people to want to participate in change.

Belasco uses a simple four-step model to describe the empowerment process:

1. Preparation2. Create tomorrow3. Vision4. Change

Teams & TeamworkMany tasks are so complex that they cannot be performed by individuals; people must work together to accomplish them.

Putting those empowered individuals into teams creates extraordinary effects on performance.

Teams create synergy i.e. sum of efforts of team is far greater than sum of individual efforts.

A number of OD interventions are specifically designed to improve team performance. Examples – team building, quality circles etc.

Importance of teams1. Individual behaviour is rooted in the socio-cultural

norms and values, the effects on individual behaviour are immediate and lasting. If the team changes those norms and values, the effects on individual behaviour are immediate and lasting.

2. Many tasks are complex they cannot be performance by individuals.

3. Teams crate synergy, the sum of the efforts of teams members is far greater than the sum of the individual.

4. Teams satisfy people’s needs for social interaction, status, recognition and respect.

Characteristics of successful teamsCharacteristics of successful teams

• clear, elevating goal

• result driven structure

• competent members

• unified commitment

• collaborative climate

• standards of excellence

• external support and recognition

• principled leadership

Parallel Learning StructuresA parallel learning structure consists of a steering committee and a number of working groups* that study what changes are needed, make recommendations of improvements, and monitor the change efforts.

(* Idea groups, action groups, implementation groups etc.)

One or more top executive should be part of steering committee

Representatives from all parts of the organization

In large bureaucratic organizations :1. High forces of inertia2. Hierarchical communication pattern3. Standard ways of addressing problemsHere parallel learning structures are best way to initiate change

Inhibit : learning Innovation Change

• Chin and Benne describes three types of strategies for changing;

1. Empirical-rational strategies: based on the assumption that people are rational and will change when they come to realize that it is advantageous to them.

2. Normative-re-educative strategy: norms are the basis of behaviour in order to change behaviour old norms should be replaced with new ones.

3. Power-coercive strategies: change is compliance of less powerful towards those who are more powerful.

Normative-Reeducative Strategy of Change

Normative-Reeducative Strategy of Change

Norms form the basis for behavior, and change comes through reeducation in which old norms are discarded and replaced by new ones.

Changes in normative orientations involve changes in:• Attitudes• Values• Skills• Relationships

Norms can be best changed by focusing on the group, not the individual.

Applied Behavioral ScienceOD is an application of behavioral science

Pure/ Basic Science Applied ScienceGenerating knowledge Knowledge to Solve

practical problems

Practice Theory : Diagnosing the situation, then selecting and implementing treatments based on diagnosis, and finally evaluating the effects of the treatments.

What helps me solve this problem?

What helps me solve real problems?

Applied Behavioral Science

Practice Research Practice Theory

Behavioral Science Research Behavioral Science Theory

Pure

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App

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Researcher enters a problem situation, diagnoses it and make recommendations for remedial treatment (recommendations may not be put into effect by client group)People who are to take action are involved in the entire process from the beginning (involvement increases the likelihood of carrying out the actions once decided upon)Researcher keeps the systematic, extensive record of what he/ she did and what effects it had (may encounter situations too divergent from one another, which may not permit generalizations) It is controlled research on the relative effectiveness of various techniques (is difficult to do when client wants immediate answers)

Diagnostic

ParticipantParticipant

Empirical

ExperimentalExperimental

Action ResearchData Collection

Feedback of data to client system membersAction planning based on the data

Taking actionEvaluating results of actions

Types

DiagnosticParticipantEmpiricalExperimental

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