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3 Cereals
Key termsBread flour is a flour with a high gluten content and is best suited to bread making.
Bran is the seed coat of a grain and the main source of fibre.
Cereals are the edible seeds or grains of cultivated grasses.
Dextrinisation is the process that occurs when starch is exposed to dry heat; the starch is broken down to dextrin, resulting in a change in colour to golden brown.
Flour is the result of cereals that have been processed to a powdered or ground form.
Gelatinisation is the process that occurs when starch granules absorb liquid in the presence of heat and thicken the liquid, forming a gel.
Gluten is the main protein in wheat. It forms the structure of the open texture of bread.
Refined cereals refers to cereal products from which the bran layers and germ of the cereal have been removed, leaving only the endosperm.
Syneresis occurs on cooling and standing when many gels lose liquid and shrink.
Wholegrain is the cereal which has the bran, endosperm and germ intact.
Wholegrain flour is flour that contains 100 per cent of the wheat grain.
Yeast is a microscopic single-cell organism that reproduces by ‘budding’ in the presence of food, moisture and warmth.
Chapter 3 • Cereals 35
Origin and structureThe term ‘cereal’ describes any cultivated grass that produces an edible grain. This term is most commonly used in association with wheat, oats, barley, corn, rice and rye. In many countries a type of cereal grain is generally a dietary staple, which forms the basis of many meals and makes a significant contribution to the daily energy and nutrient intake of the population.
A cereal grain has three layers: the bran or husk layer, the endosperm and the germ or embryo.
StarchStarch is formed during photosynthesis in plants as the main food reserve for growth. These large molecules occur in plants as granules. The size and shape of these granules differ from one plant to another. Starch is used extensively in food products.
The carbohydrate present in plants such as wheat, rice, corn, rye, barley and oats is stored in the endosperm as starch. Starch is a polysaccharide and is made of many glucose units joined together in a chain.
GlutenGluten is the protein found in cereals. It is found in large amounts in wheat and to a lesser degree in rye, oats and barley. There is no gluten in rice.
Classification of cerealsWheatWheat is grown throughout the world and is one of the most popular cereals produced. Different types of wheat are grown, resulting in different end products. Soft wheat is lower in gluten and is most suited to biscuit and cake making, while hard wheat contains higher levels of gluten and is more suitable for bread and pasta. The wheat grain is usually ground into flour or processed into other products.
RiceRice is mainly grown in Asia, but rice is grown in other parts of the world including Australia. The rice grains can be used as brown rice, polished to produce white rice, or ground into flour to produce biscuits or noodles. Rice is gluten free and therefore suitable for people with coeliac disease.
Corn (maize)Corn is either grown as corn on the cob and used as a fresh vegetable or as field corn that is harvested and ground to produce flour. Corn is gluten free and is used for producing tortillas, polenta, corn oil, corn syrup, popcorn and breakfast cereal.
Endosperm—starchy food available for the germ to feed on during germination; makes up 85% of the grain and therefore forms the largest part of the grain.
Endosperm—source of starch imbedded in a protein matrix, Vitamin B complex and minerals; contains very little dietary fibre
Bran layer—source of dietary fibre,Vitamin B complex, minerals and a little protein
The bran or husk layer forms the tough,fibrous layer that protects the grain.
Germ or embryo—partof the reproductive system situated at the base of the grain.
Germ—source of Vitamin B complex,minerals and small quantities of protein, fats and carbohydrates
Properties of a cereal grain
Glucose Glucose Glucose Glucose Glucose
Starch—the structure of a polysaccharide chain
Maize starch Potato starch Wheat starch
Structure of different starches
36 Food Solutions Units 1 & 2
BarleyBarley is Australia’s second largest cereal crop. It is also grown in continental Europe and the United Kingdom. It contains a small amount of gluten and is used mainly in breakfast cereals, malt and beer, and as pearl barley to thicken soups and casseroles.
OatsOats form a small proportion of Australia’s cereal production. They contain some gluten and are used to produce products such as rolled oats for porridge and oat bran, and in muesli and oat cakes, and biscuits such as Anzac biscuits. The majority of oats produced in Australia are used mainly for stock feed.
RyeRye is grown in regions with cold climates such as Scandinavia and Russia. It contains some gluten and the flour is used for producing leavened breads, pumpernickel bread and crispbreads.
Storage of cerealsFoods such as rice, flour and pasta are often described as non-perishable or safe foods because they can be stored for a longer period of time than fresh food without deteriorating. The low moisture content of these foods makes it more difficult for bacteria to grow, but they can become infested with weevils, ants or rodents.
Rice, flour and pasta are usually stored in cool, dry conditions in a cupboard or pantry. These foods must be stored in airtight containers and should be clearly labelled with the name and purchase date.
Properties of cerealsThe physical and sensory properties of cereals are quite distinctive from other key foods. Cereal starches and flours are mostly pale, bland in flavour and odourless. They are insoluble in water, particularly wheat. Cereals as whole grains or flour are not usually eaten raw as they are very dry,
containing only 10 per cent water. To make cereals palatable and digestible, the grains are soaked or cooked in boiling water or mixed with other ingredients to improve their flavour.
Nutritional properties of cerealsCereals are an excellent source of complex carbohydrates. They contain starch and dietary fibre—both soluble and insoluble. Wholegrain cereals provide the body with small amounts of protein, B group vitamins, minerals and fat in the germ. The bran layer is made up of dietary fibre or cellulose. The largest part of the grain, the endosperm, is made up almost entirely of starch. When the cereal grain is processed, the bran and germ is removed, reducing the vitamin, mineral and fibre content. Grains, especially when the outer layers of the grain are left intact, generally have a low glycaemic index (GI); that is, they take longer to digest than foods with a high GI, and have a higher percentage of resistant starch which acts like fibre.
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Africa—injera millet breads, couscous with soups and stews
Japan—rice for sushi, wheat for noodlesMiddle East—wheat for flat breads, burghul for saladsSouth-East Asia—rice with curries, nasi goreng, black rice pudding; wheat for steamed buns and dumplings and noodles
Central America—maize for tortillas, tacosIndia, Pakistan—wheat made into breads such as chapatti, rice as an accompaniment to curries
Australia—wheat, rice, oats, corn for cereals, wheat for breads, pasta and pastry
How cereals are used around the world
Chapter 3 • Cereals 37
Properties of wheat flourTwo properties of wheat, its hardness and protein content, have a major impact on its different uses. Wheat with a hard grain and high protein content is best suited to the production of bread. Hardness is important in the milling process and high protein in the baking. The higher protein content gives bread flours the ability to form the elastic material, gluten, which is structurally important in flour-based products. These properties ensure that bread has a better volume, softer crumb and better keeping qualities. The quality and variety of flour varies according to the quality of the grain and the way it is milled.
Understanding the text 1 Define the key food cereals. Why are cereals
the staple food of many countries around the world?
2 What part of the cereal grain provides a valuable source of dietary fibre?
3 Why is the germ of the cereal grain valuable in the diet?
4 What is starch and why is it an important structural component of cereals?
5 Explain the difference between hard and soft wheat.
6 Name one country that uses the following cereals as a staple food and suggest a food product commonly eaten in each country:
• wheat
• maize or corn
• rice.
7 Where is rye grown and what food products is it mainly used for?
8 Explain why cereals are considered a non-perishable food. Outline the best method of storing cereals.
9 Make a list of the main properties of cereals.
10 Draw up a knowledge map to identify the nutrients present in a cereal grain.
WheatWheat has been cultivated for 6000 years and is second only to rice as the world’s most important cereal. In Australia the main use of wheat is for bread making, but in many other countries of the world it has many and varied uses in food products, such as to make pasta and noodles.
There are three main varieties of wheat: hard wheat, soft wheat and durum wheat.
• Hard wheat, which is processed into gluten-rich flour, is used mainly for bread making.
• Soft wheat is used for pastries, biscuits and cakes.
• Durum wheat is used for making pasta and semolina.
Wheat ready to harvest
Different types of wheat flour
38 Food Solutions Units 1 & 2
Types of wheat flourType of flour Physical, chemical and sensory properties Uses
White plain flour White plain flour is a general, all-purpose flour. This flour usually has a protein content between 10 and 11 per cent.
Suitable for the baking of most household products, as well as thickening, coating and binding
Self-raising flour Self-raising flour is made by mixing plain flour and a leavening agent. The leavening agent is a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and an acid ingredient, either cream of tartar, acid or a phosphate aerator. Once exposed to liquid and heat, the aerator releases carbon dioxide gas, which expands and pushes the dough upwards, ‘raising’ or leavening it.
Cakes, muffins, puddings, biscuits
Wholemeal flour Wholemeal flour is either stone ground in order to produce a finer flour, or roller milled. It can be either plain or self-raising. Products made with all wholemeal flour are often dense and darker in texture and therefore a mixture of wholemeal and white flours is often used.
Cakes, pastry, bread
Bread flour Bread flour has protein content between 11 and 12 per cent, (even reaching 15 per cent in some cases) and is especially suited to the production of breads, pasta and pizza. The fortification of Australian bread flours with thiamine has been mandatory since 1991, and with folate since 2009.
Bread, pasta, pizza dough
Cake flour Cake flour is milled from soft, low-protein wheat. It is ground to a very fine particle size and bleached to make it extra white. This soft flour has a high absorbency capacity for fat, sugar and liquid. It produces products, usually cakes, with a good volume, tender crumb and very fine texture.
Cake mixes and the production of commercially prepared cakes
Semolina This product is made from the coarsely milled inner endosperm of the wheat grain. It is granular in appearance and ranges from a clear yellow to a beige colour. Semolina milled from durum is bright yellow and is preferred in the production of extruded pasta products such as spaghetti.
Gnocchi, pasta, puddings, cakes and crumbing
Functional properties of wheat flourThe chemical properties of starch and protein present in flour provide a range of functional properties in food preparation.
• Volume—The starch present in flour provides volume to baked products such as breads, cakes and biscuits. Starch also provides structure to extruded snack foods such as Twisties.
• Thickening—The starch that is present in wheat flour will swell, thicken and form a gel when heated in a liquid. This is the process of gelatinisation and it is used for thickening gravies, sauces, pie fillings and soups. Starch from wheat flour is used in commercial food production, where it acts as a thickener, filler and stabiliser in products such as soups, custard powders, pie fillings, sausages, sauces and baby foods.
• Structure—The protein gluten that is present in wheat flour is important in enabling baked products such as bread to hold their structure once baked. When the gluten in wheat flour is mixed with water and stirred and kneaded, it provides a structure to hold the new shape of the yeast dough that is created during the rising process.
• Contribution to colour—Starch in wheat flour also contributes to the browning of bread when it is toasted, or when bread is baked. This process of dextrinisation occurs when dry heat is applied to starch.
• Moisture absorption—Flours have the ability to absorb liquids, which helps to bind ingredients together during cake and bread making. This property is also evident when foods that are to be crumbed are first coated in flour, allowing the egg and breadcrumbs to adhere more firmly to the food.
Chapter 3 • Cereals 39
Preparing and cooking with wheat flourWhen wheat flour containing starch is used in the preparation and cooking of cereal products, a number of changes take place to its physical and sensory properties.
• The starch in gluten is converted to dextrin, assisting in the colour formation of the bread when toasted.
• The process of gelatinisation can take place in the presence of moisture and heat, causing a mixture to thicken. However, syneresis will occur if the thickened mixture is allowed to stand and cool.
• The gluten in flour can be developed, helping a baked product to hold its shape.
DextrinisationDextrinisation is the browning of starch foods when dry heat is applied. This process occurs when bread is toasted.
Many sensory changes occur as a result of dextrinisation of starches.
• Colour—A golden brown colour is formed, for example when bread is toasted.
• Flavour—A change in flavour is produced during the dextrinisation of starches. A good example of this change is the difference in flavour between toasted and untoasted bread. Foods that are excessively heated will take on a burnt flavour.
• Aroma—A desirable or ‘cooked’ smell is produced, for example with freshly baked cakes.
• Texture—The texture and mouth-feel change when dextrinisation occurs. The food becomes crisp and is a direct contrast to the previous state. For example, soft fresh bread dough becomes crisp during baking due to the process of dextrinisation. This changed state requires consideration when storing products. The crispness is lost when the product is exposed to the moisture in the air and it becomes soggy.
GelatinisationGelatinisation is the process that causes starch granules to swell and thicken when heated in a liquid. When starch grains are heated in this way they form a ‘gel’. The cellulose wall of the starch granule is softened and ruptures, allowing it to absorb liquid and then swell and thicken again. Further heating and finally boiling the mixture, allows the grains to completely gelatinise.
Activity 3.1Comparing the dextrinisation process in a variety of breadsAim: To investigate dextrinisation.
Method
1 Select a range of bread varieties, such as rye bread, white bread and wholemeal bread.
2 Using a toaster, toast each bread product. Record the time taken for this process to occur.
3 Taste each product.
Results
Record your results in a table similar to the table below.
Analysis
1 Which bread took the shortest time to brown?
2 Which bread took the longest time to brown?
3 What properties of the bread varieties impact on the dextrinisation process?
4 Explain the impact of the process of dextrinisation on the various breads in relation to colour, flavour and texture.
Conclusion
On which bread did dextrinisation have the greatest impact? Why?
Bread product Time taken to brown Colour: light/golden/dark
Impact on flavour Texture
Rye
White
Wholemeal
40 Food Solutions Units 1 & 2
Boiling for a further 1 to 2 minutes removes the ‘starchy’ uncooked taste.
For the gelatinisation process to occur successfully when making a roux for a white or brown sauce, the flour must first be blended with a separating ingredient such as melted fat, cold water or other liquids. This blending stage is important as it separates the starch granules and suspends these solids in the liquid. When the mixture is heated, it must be stirred constantly, otherwise the granules will fall to the bottom and form lumps. The final consistency of the gel will depend on the proportion of liquid to starch.
The addition of acids such as lemon juice or vinegar may lower the ability of the starch to thicken in order to form a firm gel. Acids should be added
Activity 3.2Gelatinisation of powdered starchesAim: To compare the thickening strength, appearance and texture of a variety of starches.
Equipment
1 tablespoon of each of the following starches:
• arrowroot • plain flour
• cornflour • rice flour
4 small saucepans
4 wooden spoons
water
a stopwatch
4 pieces of black cardboard (16 cm × 16 cm), covered with plastic food wrap
Method
1 Carefully measure each of the starches and place in a separate saucepan.
2 Blend 1 tablespoon of water into each of the starches. Stir until smooth.
3 Add an extra one-third of a cup of water to each saucepan.
Heat
Starch granules swelland cell membrane
softens.
Starch granules burst,releasing starch.
Starch dispersal—mixture thickens.
Heat Heat
AgitationLiquid
The process of gelatinisation
4 Bring each saucepan of blended starch to the boil, stirring constantly with the wooden spoon. Measure the time it takes to reach boiling point.
5 Boil for 1 minute.
6 Allow each to cool for 2–3 minutes.
7 Turn each thickened starch out onto the plastic covered cardboard squares.
Results
Record the results in a table similar to the table below.
Analysis
1 Which starch has the greatest thickening power?
2 Which starch took the longest to boil?
3 Which starch was opaque in its thickened form?
4 Which starch was the clearest in its thickened form?
5 Which starch has the blandest taste?
6 Which starch would you use for a clear glaze for a fruit flan? Why?
7 Which starch would you use to thicken a beef stew? Why?
Conclusion
After gelatinisation, which starch formed the strongest gel?
Starch type Time taken to boil
Appearance after blending, before cooking
Appearance after boiling for 1 minute
Degree of thickening/consistency4 = thickest1 = least thick
Flavour
Arrowroot
Cornflour (made from maize)
Plain flour
Rice flour
Chapter 3 • Cereals 41
after the gel is formed, or an adjustment made to the liquid to starch ratio. Sugar has a tenderising effect on starch gels and large amounts of sugar tend to weaken the gel.
SyneresisOn standing and cooling, many gels lose liquid and shrink. This is known as ‘weeping’ or ‘syneresis’. Most of the liquid in a cooked gel formed from the thickening of starch is held in the spaces between the swollen starch granules. As the starch cools, the molecules pull closer together, tightening the ‘gel’ structure and squeezing out liquid. When the gel is cut or ages; that is, when stored overnight, some of the liquid will leak out.
Gluten developmentTwo proteins, glutenin and gliadin, are naturally present in wheat flour and when mixed together with water they form a substance called ‘gluten’. When viewed under a microscope, the proteins appear as a tangle of tiny cords. When mixed with water, the tiny coiled fibres of the proteins straighten and gluten develops to form a strong network of fibres and a gas-retaining structure that gives the dough stretch and elasticity. Kneading, stretching and folding a bread dough develops the gluten structure and improves its elasticity and ability to retain the gases produced by yeast. Without gluten, the carbon dioxide would escape and the bread would not rise. In baked products, such as cakes and bread, the heat of the oven sets the gluten and contributes to the firmness and shape of the final product.
Bread makingBread has been part of people’s diets for thousands of years. Flour from wheat, and to a lesser extent rye, can produce dough that gives well-risen loaves a fine, soft cellular structure.
Ingredients in bread makingThe basic ingredients for bread making are flour, salt, yeast and water. Hard or strong wheat, or other wheats with a high protein content, are the best for bread making because the dough stretches and expands a lot during fermentation.
YeastThe carbon dioxide, which causes bread to rise, is generated from yeast. Yeast is a single-cell microscopic fungus, and when provided with sugar, oxygen and warmth it begins to grow and reproduce. As it grows, it produces carbon dioxide, water and alcohol, a process called ‘fermentation’. Yeast may be purchased in a dried or fresh compressed form.
Left: Gluten in flour before hydrationRight: Three-dimensional network of hydrated gluten in dough
Varieties of bread
Nucleus
VacuolesGranular cytoplasm
Bud
Fermentation is utilised in bread making to produce CO2, which raises bread. The alcohol evaporates.
Nucleus dividesBudding of yeast
C6H12O6 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + energy+ yeasts
glucose carbon dioxide
alcohol
Fermentation of yeast cells
42 Food Solutions Units 1 & 2
Yeast
CO2
CO2
In flour, the gluten is coiled in a ‘spring-like’ form.
Water is added to the dry ingredients, that is flour, yeast and a little sugar.
1 2
The flour is combined with the yeast and water.Yeast begins to budin the warm, moistdough.
3 After hydration gluten forms a three-dimensional network of continuous overlapping mesh. This structure then traps the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast, allowing rising to take place.
4
The gluten in the flour gives elasticity by forming an elastic film around tiny air pockets.
5 Kneading enables the gluten to strengthen so that it can stretch. It allows more gas to be held in the dough.
6
Proving occurs after mixing and involves allowing the dough to rest in a warm, moist atmosphere to double its size. Enzymes present in the flour and the yeast convert carbohydratesfrom the flour to simple sugars. The yeast acts on the sugars, causing carbon dioxide to be formed and trapped in the dough.
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After the dough has been shaped, it is baked. Physical changes take place with baking. As the temperature of the dough rises, the yeast works faster and produces large quantities of gas. The size of the loaf continues to increase as the internal gases expand. The temperature of the dough soon reaches a point where the yeast is killed.
8
During baking the starch gelatinises and the gluten coagulates, forming a semi-rigid, three-dimensional structure. As the exterior of the loaf reaches a higher temperature, it dries out and a crust is formed. Dextrinisation of the starch causes the crust to become a golden-brown colour and to change flavour. The Maillard reaction occurs as a result of the reaction between the protein and sugar, and also contributes to the colour.
9
Processes in bread making
Chapter 3 • Cereals 43
RiceRice is one of the oldest cereal grains and is often referred to as ‘the grain of life’. It is an important staple food in the cuisines of the Middle East, West Africa, Italy, Spain, India and the Caribbean, as well as throughout Asia.
In Australia, rice is grown in New South Wales—north of the Murray River at Echuca and in the Murrumbidgee irrigation area. Rice can only be grown in these areas because of the close proximity of a good water supply.
Classification of riceRice is classified into four main groups:
• long grain
• medium grain
• short grain
• glutinous rice.
Understanding the text 11 List four countries in which wheat products are
part of the diet. Give an example of one food that is popular in each country.
12 Explain how self-raising flour differs from plain flour.
13 Outline the main differences between bread flour and cake flour.
14 Draw up a knowledge map to demonstrate the functional properties of wheat flour.
15 Explain the process of dextrinisation and give an example of one food that uses this functional property in its production.
16 With the aid of a flow chart, explain the stages in the gelatinisation of starches when making a cheese sauce.
17 Explain how you would recognise whether syneresis had occurred in the filling of a lemon meringue pie.
18 What is gluten and why is it important in bread making?
19 What is yeast and how does it contribute to the sensory properties of a freshly baked loaf of bread?
20 Identify the major production processes in bread making and explain what is happening with the main ingredients at each stage.
Varieties of rice
Rice variety Physical, sensory and chemical properties Uses
Long-grained varieties
Basmati • Fine quality• Grown in the Himalayas, yet to be grown in Australia• Cooks to a firm/dry texture• Becomes longer, but not wider as it cooks• Fragrant, delicately scented
Used to accompany Indian food: curries, pilafs, savoury rice
Doongara • Firm texture• Separates easily when cooked• Has a low glycaemic index
An all-purpose rice, used to accompany curries and stir-fry dishes
Jasmine or Thai fragrant rice
• Delicately fragrant and aromatic Used to accompany Asian foods
Varieties of rice
continued
44 Food Solutions Units 1 & 2
Rice variety Physical, sensory and chemical properties Uses
Medium-grained variety
Arborio • Larger, plumper grains with a chalky white centre• Starch grains are less densely packed, allowing the
grains to swell and absorb flavours during cooking• Grains cling together when cooked• Grains release starch when stirred during cooking,
creating a creamy consistency
Used for risotto, Spanish paellas, soups, Greek dolmades, stuffed zucchinis and puddings
Calrose • Australia’s most versatile rice• Medium white grains
Used to accompany a variety of savoury dishes and for desserts
Short-grained varieties
Koshihikari or Japanese rice
• Short, pearl, translucent grains• Produce plump, glossy and rounded grains
on cooking• Tender, sticky and moist when cooked• Cling together on cooking
Used for the preparation of sushi, nori rolls and rice balls
Glutinous or sticky rice
Varieties include black, white and red
• As with all rice in this category, regardless of its name, does not contain gluten
• Sticky texture• Sweet taste
Used in desserts
Nutritional properties of riceAll varieties of rice have a similar nutrient content.
Functional properties of riceRice has similar functional properties to other cereals. It is used more as a whole grain than as a flour.
• Volume—Whole grains of rice create the bulk of products such as fried rice, sushi, risotto,
pilaf and paella. Rice noodles are a major ingredient in many Asian style soups, such as pho and in Malaysian noodle dishes.
• Texture and colour—The soft, fluffy and slightly gluggy texture allows cooked rice to be moulded and used in Japanese sushi and inari. Black glutinous rice provides a wonderful contrasting colour when used as a dessert. Rice flour has a coarse texture and so is often used in biscuits, particularly shortbread, giving a crisp, granular texture to the biscuit.
Varieties of rice (continued)
–niacin, thiamin
–rich in complex carbohydrates –endosperm gives 80 per cent –white and brown cooked rice contains resistant starch
–brown rice is a source of insoluble fibre in the bran layer
–low in fat, cholesterol-free
–protein found in rice is incomplete as it does not contain all the essential amino acids, so it is important to combine rice with legumes in vegetarian foods
–suitable for people with coeliac disease
Nutrient content of a grain of rice
Sushi
Chapter 3 • Cereals 45
• Flavour—When plain rice is cooked it has a bland flavour and is often used as a contrast to hot and spicy dishes. In a risotto, the arborio rice absorbs the flavour of the cooking liquid.
Preparing and cooking rice
GelatinisationWhen rice is cooked, its physical and sensory properties change significantly. When rice is boiled in water it takes in liquid and swells. As a result of the absorption of liquid into the grain during cooking, the rice grains will increase three times in size and become soft and tender, but will still retain their shape. The softening and swelling of the rice grains is due to the process of gelatinisation, which can be clearly seen when making a risotto or paella.
Thinking skillsCereals are a key food. Using the information from this chapter, develop a knowledge map to analyse the attributes of two important cereals, wheat and rice.
Understanding the text 21 Why is rice often referred to as ‘the grain
of life’?
22 Outline the properties of Basmati rice that make it popular to use as an accompaniment to Indian curries.
23 What glycaemic rating does Doongara rice have?
24 If you were planning to make the following meals using rice, identify the variety you would purchase:
• risotto
• sushi
• rice to accompany a Thai curry.
25 Why is Koshihikara considered to be the best rice for Japanese cooking?
26 Explain why it is important to include cereals such as rice as part of a healthy diet.
27 Why does brown rice take longer to cook than white rice?
28 Why is a person with coeliac disease able to eat rice?
29 Draw up a knowledge map to identify the functional properties of rice in a risotto.
30 Explain the meaning of the term ‘gelatinisation’ and how this process takes place in the cooking of rice.
Wheat
Rice
Knowledge map of the attributes of wheat
Knowledge map of the attributes of rice
46 Food Solutions Units 1 & 2
Production 3.1Understanding gelatinisationTartlets are delicious to serve for morning or afternoon tea, or as an individual dessert. The custardfilling holds in a firm shape, enabling the tartlets to keep for several hours before they are served.
Fruit tartlets
Pastry1 sheet of frozen prepared
shortcrust pastry
loading, such as rice or lentils, for blind baking
Custard filling1 tablespoon cornflour
1 tablespoon custard powder
2 tablespoons caster sugar
1¼ cups milk
1 egg
1 teaspoon vanilla essence
Topping optionssmall quantity of fruits
in season, for example: strawberries, kiwi fruit,
banana, pineapple, orange or mandarin
segments, or canned fruit such as peaches,
pears and pineapple
Glaze2 teaspoons arrowroot
½ cup water
pink food colouring
1 teaspoon sugar
Method
Blind baking the pastry 1 Preheat the oven to 200 °C 2 Cut the pastry and place it in two small flan tins, approximately
8 centimetres in diameter. Place a sheet of baking paper into each pastry case. Fill with the loading.
3 Blind bake at 200 °C for approximately 10 minutes or until a pale golden colour. Remove the loading and return the flan tins to the oven for a further 5 minutes.
4 Allow the pastry to cool in the tin.
Making the custard filling 1 Combine the cornflour, custard powder and sugar in a bowl and blend
to a paste with ¼ cup of the milk. 2 Heat the remaining 1 cup of milk to just below boiling point. Pour onto
the blended flours, stirring continuously with a wooden spoon. 3 Return the mixture to the saucepan and stir constantly over a low
heat until the mixture boils and thickens. Remove the saucepan from the heat.
4 Beat in the egg. Add the vanilla and beat the mixture until it is glossy and smooth. The heat of the custard will cook the egg.
5 Spoon the cooled custard into the baked flan cases.
Adding the topping and glaze 1 Cut the fruits and arrange them creatively on top of the custard. 2 Mix the arrowroot with a small quantity of water and blend to a
smooth paste. 3 Place the sugar, water and a drop of pink food colouring in a small
saucepan and bring to the boil. 4 Pour the hot mixture onto the blended arrowroot, stirring constantly. 5 Return the mixture to the saucepan and bring to the boil, stirring
constantly until the mixture has thickened and is clear. 6 Carefully spoon or brush this mixture onto the top of the fruit flan,
taking care to completely cover the fruit.
Makes two 8-centimetre tartlets
Chapter 3 • Cereals 47
EVALUATION
1 What process causes the pastry to brown? 2 Read the labels on the packages of the cornflour and custard
powder to determine the source of the starch. What other ingredients are present in custard powder?
3 Why is it necessary to blend the flours before adding the hot milk? 4 Why is the hot milk added to the blended mixture and not the other
way around? 5 Explain what is likely to happen if the arrowroot is not blended
before the hot sugar syrup is added to it. 6 Why is it important to stir starch mixtures constantly when
gelatinisation is taking place? 7 Explain the physical and sensory properties of the finished glaze. 8 Why is arrowroot a better choice than cornflour for the glaze? 9 Identify the two stages in which gelatinisation has occurred in
this recipe. 10 Why are these tartlets best eaten within a day of preparation?
Production 3.2Making gnocchi using a wheat productIn this recipe semolina replaces the traditional potato as the main starch ingredient. The semolina produces a slightly firmer texture in the gnocchi and a delicious golden-brown crust during baking. Roma tomatoes have a low moisture content. Roasting the tomatoes before making the sauce concentrates the flavour and produces a much richer colour.
Semolina gnocchi with roasted tomato sauceThis dish can also be served as an alternative to mashed potato as an accompaniment to a meat dish.
Roasted tomato sauce3 ripe Roma tomatoes
1 tablespoon olive oil
a pinch of dried basil or oregano
1 clove garlic, finely chopped
salt and pepper
Semolina gnocchi1¹⁄₃ cups milk
¹⁄₃ cup semolina
salt
¹⁄₃ cup parmesan cheese
1 egg yolk
10 grams butter
Method
Roasting the tomatoes 1 Preheat the oven to 180 °C. 2 Cut the tomatoes in half lengthwise and place them on a baking dish in
a single layer, cut side up. 3 Drizzle the tomatoes with olive oil. Sprinkle with dried herbs, garlic and
salt and pepper. 4 Bake in a moderate oven (180 °C) for 30 minutes.
Making the gnocchi 1 Put the milk in a saucepan and bring almost to the boil. Lower the heat
and add the semolina in a slow trickle, stirring constantly with a wooden spoon.
2 Cook for 8–10 minutes over low heat, stirring until it is thick and creamy.
48 Food Solutions Units 1 & 2
3 Remove from the heat and add a pinch of salt and half the parmesan cheese.
4 Beat in the egg yolk and half the butter. 5 Moisten a tray with a little water and spread out the cooked semolina
about 1 centimetre thick, using a wet spatula. Refrigerate to cool. 6 Cut the cooled semolina into rounds with a 5-centimetre cutter dipped
in water to stop it from sticking. 7 Place the rounds of semolina in a greased ovenproof container
approximately 15 × 20 centimetres in size, in a single layer, overlapping slightly. Fill in the gaps with the off-cuts.
8 Remove the tomatoes from the oven and preheat the oven to 220 °C. 9 Dot the rounds of semolina with the remaining butter and sprinkle with
the remaining parmesan cheese. 10 Bake the gnocchi for 15 minutes or until it forms a crisp, golden crust. 11 Slip the skins off the tomatoes and purée with the garlic and season
with salt and pepper. Thin this mixture with a little hot water if necessary.
12 Serve with the baked gnocchi.
Serves 2
EVALUATION
1 Describe the physical properties of the uncooked semolina. How are these changed during the cooking process?
2 Why is it important to add the semolina in a small trickle when adding it to the hot milk?
3 Explain why is it necessary to stir the mixture constantly as the semolina is added?
4 What process relating to starches causes the semolina to thicken the milk?
5 How does the process of roasting change the sensory properties of the tomatoes?
6 Describe another way of shaping the gnocchi. 7 What other variations of the sauce could be served with the gnocchi? 8 Describe the sensory properties of a well-cooked baked gnocchi. 9 How would you store this dish if you wished to use it in two days time? 10 Discuss your performance in terms of:
• cooking the semolina• cutting the gnocchi• making the tomato sauce• serving and plating the semolina gnocchi with roasted
tomato sauce.
Chapter 3 • Cereals 49
Production 3.3Making flat breadFocaccia is an Italian, thick pizza-like bread that is flavoured with a variety of toppings such as herbs, spices, salt crystals and parmesan cheese. The cooked focaccia is served to accompany soup or as a snack, split and filled with ingredients such as ham, cheese, and tomato, and is sometimes toasted or cooked in a sandwich press.
Focaccia
2 cups bread flour
1 teaspoon salt
2 teaspoons dried quick-acting yeast
1 teaspoon oil
1 cup warm to hot water (not boiling)
1–2 teaspoons olive oil
Topping options1 tablespoon of mixed fresh
herbs, for example basil or parsley
2 tablespoons parmesan cheese
2 cloves crushed garlic
2 tablespoons chopped olives
a sprinkle of lemon pepper
Method 1 Preheat oven to 220 °C. 2 Lightly grease a baking tray. 3 Sift the flour, salt and yeast into a bowl. 4 Make a well in the centre of the dry ingredients and add oil and almost
all the water. Mix to a soft dough, adding the rest of the water if necessary.
5 Turn onto a floured surface and knead for 5 minutes. 6 Divide the dough in half and roll and shape each into an oval
2 centimetres thick. 7 Place on a baking tray and cover each oval loosely with a piece of
plastic food wrap and prove in a warm place until it doubles in size. 8 Make indents in the top every 3–4 centimetres by pushing down firmly
with fingertip. Brush each oval with olive oil and sprinkle with one of the selected toppings.
9 Bake for 15 minutes at 220 °C, then reduce oven to 200 °C for a further 5 minutes.
10 Place on a rack to cool.
Serves 2
EVALUATION
1 Why is it important to use bread flour when making this recipe? 2 Suggest reasons why the dry ingredients are sifted. 3 Explain the purpose of adding oil to this mixture. 4 Why is it important not to use boiling water to mix the dough? 5 What impact does kneading have on the dough? 6 Describe the ideal conditions for the growth of yeast. 7 Explain what happens when the risen dough is placed in the hot oven. 8 What processes are responsible for the browning of the cooked
focaccia? 9 Draw a simple flow chart to show the main steps in bread and focaccia
making. 10 Describe the sensory properties of your baked focaccia.
50 Food Solutions Units 1 & 2
Production 3.4Making a sweet yeast doughHot cross buns are traditionally linked with Easter celebrations. Traditionally, they were baked and eaten on Good Friday. The oats in this recipe add fibre to the buns and keep them moist. The sweet, spiced bun mix can be adapted to other sweet dough recipes such as those for scrolls or a sweet plait.
Hot cross buns40 grams butter, melted
approximately 300 millilitres warm water
¼ cup quick oats
2½ cups bread flour
1 tablespoon freeze-dried yeast
2 teaspoons bread improver
1 teaspoon salt
2 tablespoons sugar
½ teaspoon cinnamon
1 teaspoon mixed spice
2 tablespoons skim milk powder
½ cup sultanas
1 egg, beaten
½ teaspoon oil
Piping mixture3 tablespoons plain flour
2 tablespoons caster sugar
1½ tablespoons water
Bun glaze¼ cup sugar
¼ cup water
1 teaspoon gelatine
1 teaspoon mixed spice
Method
Making the dough 1 Melt the butter in 100 millilitres of the water in a small saucepan. Bring
to the boil. Take off the heat, add the quick oats and stir gently. 2 Sift all of the dry ingredients together in a large bowl. 3 Add the sultanas to the flour mixture. 4 Add the butter, quick oats and water mixture, egg, oil and enough
of the remaining warm water to mix to a soft dough. 5 Cover with plastic wrap and leave to cool in a warm place until
doubled in size. 6 Turn onto a floured board and knead lightly. 7 Divide the dough into 12 even pieces and knead and shape each into
a bun. Place on an oven tray. 8 Cover loosely with plastic wrap and prove in a warm place for
10 minutes or until doubled in size.
Making the piping mixture 1 Make the piping mixture by mixing
the flour and sugar together with the water until a smooth, thick paste. Pipe a cross on the top of each bun.
2 Bake in the preheated oven at 200 °C for 10 minutes. Reduce the temperature to 180 °C and continue cooking for a further 5–10 minutes or until golden brown.
Making the glaze 1 Make the bun glaze by combining
all of the ingredients in a small saucepan. Stir over the heat and bring to the boil.
2 Brush the glaze over the buns.
Makes 12 hot cross buns
Chapter 3 • Cereals 51
EVALUATION
1 What is bread flour and why is it used in this recipe? 2 Explain the purpose of mixing the quick oats in warm water before
adding it to the dry ingredients. 3 What is the purpose of the yeast in this recipe? 4 Explain the role of the milk, egg, melted butter and water in making
the dough. 5 Draw a flow chart to explain the changes that take place in the
dough when it is left to rest in step 5 of the recipe. 6 What is meant by the term ‘kneading’ and why is this an important
step in yeast baking? 7 Explain why the recipe recommends cooking the buns first at 200 °C
before reducing the temperature to 180 °C. 8 List three changes that take place to the buns when they are baked
in the oven? 9 What is the purpose of the sugar and gelatine in the bun glaze? 10 List two rules for using the oven safely.
Production 3.5Methods of cooking riceRice is usually cooked in one of four ways—depending on its final use in a recipe.
Rapid boil methodBring a large saucepan of water to boil. Add one-third of a cup of rice per person. Stir once or twice only. Boil the rice uncovered for 15 minutes. Drain the rice through a sieve and rinse under running water. Allow the rice to drain completely.
Absorption methodAllow one cup of rice to three-quarters of a cup of stock or water. Place the rice and stock or water into a saucepan which has a tight-fitting lid. Bring the rice to the boil. Reduce the heat to very low and allow the rice to simmer gently for 15 minutes. Remove from the heat and allow the rice to rest for 10 minutes.
MicrowaveRice can be cooked successfully in a microwave oven. Read the instructions on the packet of rice as cooking times vary for different varieties. Also remember to check the instructions in your microwave manual as power levels vary considerably between models.
Rice cookerUse equal quantities of rice to water. Rinse the rice and place in the rice cooker. Add the water and switch on the cooker. Allow the rice to rest for 10 minutes when the rice cooker has switched off and the cooking is complete. Some rice cookers have a warming element which will keep the rice warm for several hours.
52 Food Solutions Units 1 & 2
Production 3.6Risotto with Arborio riceThis recipe uses Arborio rice, a variety that cooks to a plump, tender state and is therefore perfect for making risotto. This rice has the ability to absorb up to four times its own volume, a valuable property in risotto making. Arborio rice absorbs large quantities of stock, providing a creamy consistency and delicious flavour.
Mediterranean risotto
¾ cup chicken stock
¾ cup water
2 teaspoons olive oil
½ onion, finely chopped
1 clove garlic, crushed
1 tablespoon pine nuts
½ cup Arborio rice
6 black pitted olives, sliced
2 tablespoons sun-dried tomatoes, chopped
½ cup cooked chicken diced in 2-centimetre cubes
¼ cup parmesan cheese
2 tablespoons cream
1 tablespoon basil, chopped
1 tablespoon shaved parmesan cheese to serve
Method 1 Heat the stock and water in a small saucepan. 2 Heat the olive oil in a medium-sized saucepan, add the onion and fry
until soft, but do not allow it to brown. Add the garlic and pine nuts. 3 Add the rice and stir to coat the grains with oil. 4 Stir in the hot stock, a one-third at a time. Stir constantly over very low
heat so the mixture is barely simmering until the stock is absorbed. This process cannot be rushed and will take approximately 20 minutes. Taste test the rice to ensure it is just al dente.
5 When all the stock has been absorbed, remove from the heat, and stand covered for 10 minutes.
6 Return to the heat and stir in the remaining ingredients. Stir over a low heat for about 4 minutes.
7 Serve and garnish with shaved parmesan cheese.
Serves 1
EVALUATION
1 Describe the difference in the physical and sensory properties between a cooked and an uncooked grain of rice.
2 What are the advantages of the high absorption rate of Arborio rice when making risotto?
3 Explain why the rice is not washed before using it for making risotto. 4 Why is the rice stirred to coat it with oil before the liquid is added? 5 Explain the importance of making sure the stock is hot before adding
it to the rice. 6 What effect does the constant stirring have on the texture of the
finished risotto? 7 Explain why the risotto is cooked over a low heat rather than a
high heat. 8 Explain what the term ‘al dente’ means in relation to cooking risotto. 9 What is the purpose of removing the risotto from the heat and
standing it covered for 10 minutes? 10 Evaluate the nutritional properties of the Mediterranean risotto by
plotting the ingredients on a diagram of the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating.
